Nile Basin Initiative
Nile Trans boundary Environmental Action Project
Nile Basin Regional Water
Quality
Monitoring Baseline Study
Report
for
Burundi, DRC, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania,
and Uganda
August
2005
Nile Basin Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Report - Final, 5/8/05
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..................................................................... i
1.0 OBJECTIVES....................................................................................... 1
2.0 METHODOLOGY.............................................................................. 1
3.0. REPORT FORMAT ........................................................................... 1
4.0 BURUNDI ............................................................................................. 2
4.1. Water Resources Description ....................................................................................2
4.2 Sources of Pollution ..................................................................................................2
4.3. Water Quality Institutions .........................................................................................3
4.4 Laboratories ................................................................................................................4
4.5 Water Quality Data....................................................................................................4
4.6 Recommendations .....................................................................................................5
5.0 THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (DRC) ................. 6
5.1 Water Resources Description .....................................................................................6
5.2. Sources of Pollution ..................................................................................................6
5.3 Water Quality Institutions .........................................................................................7
5.4. Laboratories ...............................................................................................................7
5.5 Water Quality Data.....................................................................................................7
5.6. Recommendations .....................................................................................................8
6.0 EGYPT .................................................................................................. 9
6.1. Water Resources Description ....................................................................................9
6.2. Sources of Pollution ..................................................................................................9
6.3. Water Institutions ....................................................................................................11
6.4. Laboratories .............................................................................................................12
6.5. Water Quality Data & Monitoring ..........................................................................14
6.6 Recommendations ....................................................................................................18
7.0 ETHIOPIA .......................................................................................... 19
7.1 Water Resources Description ...................................................................................19
7.2. Sources of Pollution ................................................................................................20
7.3. Institutional Water Quality Schemes.......................................................................20
7.4. Laboratories .............................................................................................................21
7.5. Water Quality Review & Data.................................................................................22
7.6. Water Quality Monitoring Programmes ..................................................................22
7.7.Recommendations ....................................................................................................22
8.0 KENYA ............................................................................................... 24
8.1. Water Resources Description ..................................................................................24
8.2. Sources of Pollution ................................................................................................24
8.3. Water Quality Institutions .......................................................................................26
8.4. Laboratory & Monitoring ........................................................................................28
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Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
8.5. Water Quality Data Review.....................................................................................28
8.6 Recommendations ....................................................................................................29
9.0 RWANDA ........................................................................................... 32
9.1. Water Resources Description ..................................................................................32
9.2. Sources of Pollution ................................................................................................33
9.3. Water Quality Institutes...........................................................................................33
9.4. Laboratories .............................................................................................................34
9.5. Water Quality Data and Review..............................................................................34
9.6 Recommendations ....................................................................................................35
10.0 SUDAN .............................................................................................. 36
10.1. Water Resources Description ................................................................................36
10.2. Sources of Pollution ..............................................................................................37
10.3. Water Quality Institutions .....................................................................................38
10.4. Laboratories ...........................................................................................................39
10.5. Water Quality Data................................................................................................40
10.6 Recommendations .................................................................................................40
11.0 TANZANIA....................................................................................... 42
11.1. Water Resources Description ................................................................................42
11.2. Sources of Pollution ..............................................................................................42
11.3. Institutional Framework ........................................................................................43
11.4. Laboratories ...........................................................................................................45
11.5. Water Quality Data................................................................................................45
11.6 Recommendations ................................................................................................45
12.0 UGANDA .......................................................................................... 47
12.1. Water Resources Description ................................................................................47
12.2. Sources of Pollution ..............................................................................................48
12.3. Legislation .............................................................................................................51
12.4. Laboratories ...........................................................................................................53
12.5. Water Quality Data................................................................................................53
12.6. Recommendations .................................................................................................54
13.0 OBSERVATIONS ............................................................................ 55
13.1 Point Water Pollution Control ................................................................................55
13.2 Non Point Water Pollution Control ........................................................................56
13.3 Siltation...................................................................................................................56
13.4 Pollution Threats ....................................................................................................57
13.4 Trans-Boundary Pollution Control .........................................................................57
13.5 Laboratories ............................................................................................................58
13.6 Water Quality Maps................................................................................................58
13.7 GIS & Computer Modelling ...................................................................................59
13.8 Water Quality Monitoring ......................................................................................59
13.8.1 Future Monitoring ...............................................................................................60
14.0 ACTION PLAN ................................................................................ 61
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Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
APPENDICES
Appendix 1………………………………………………………………………………
Parameters Recommended for the General Quality Assessment………………… 64
Parameters for Full Baseline Survey………………………………………………….. 65
Recommended Extra Parameters to be analysed in Future Baseline Studies with
Limits………………………………………………………………………………..66
Appendix 2……………………………………………………………………………….
Country Water Quality Data Summary Tables…………………………………… 69
Appendix 3………………………………………………………………………………
Recommended Major Laboratory Equipment…………………………………….. 93
Appendix 4..……………………………………………………………………………
Thematic Water Quality Maps & Profiles for Sudan……………………………95
Appendix 5………………………………………………………………………..........
Action Plan……………………………………………………………………….. 105
Appendix 6…………………….…………………………………………...…………..
Laboratory Table ……………………………………………………………….1077
Appendix 7 …………………………………………………..…………………………
Appreciation and Acknowledgements…………………………………..……..…113
TABLES
Table 6.1 Projection of wastewater treatment coverage, Egypt…..……..……….…..10
Table 6.2 Pesticides analysed in Upper Cairo Nile, Egypt…………………….……..17
Table 8.1 River gauging stations, Kenya……………………………………………..31
Table 12.1 Effluent characteristics for the common industries, Uganda……..…..…..50
FIGURES
Figure 1 Constructed wetland for waste water treatment near Lake Manzala
Egypt………………………………………………………………….…………..…..9
Figure 2 The Blue Nile as it leaves Lake Tana, Ethiopia………………………………19
Figure 3 River Nyabalongo at Kigali, Rwanda………………………...………………32
Figure 4 Blue Nile near Khartoum, Sudan………………………………………...…...36
Figure 5 Left; River Kaptokwoi with dirty water. Right; Clean water for Sipi River
Uganda….………………………………………………………………………..…..49
Figure 6 Large siltation island on the Blue Nile outside Khartoum, Sudan………...….57
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Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Baseline Study Report, bas been consolidated
by Atkins International Ltd, Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, CB3 ONA,
England; by summarizing the National Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study
reports from the nine Nile Basin Countries, carried out by National Consultants with the
support of national country level water experts.
Special thanks go to NTEAP Project Management Unit (PMU), Khartoum, all the Lead
Specialists, for their valuable comments and interest in the study. Mr. John Omwenga,
the Water Quality Lead Specialist and Mr. Gedion Asfaw the Regional Project Manager
in particular for their guidance and support during the consolidation of this report.
The full list of those who supported this study at the national level is appended as
Appendix 7.
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Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This baseline report summarises the nine individual National Water Quality Monitoring
Baseline Reports and includes the main water quality issues in the Nile Basin, including
recommendations for both regional and national action plans.
This report does not go into all the details recorded in the National Reports but
highlights significant points regarding the Nile monitoring. Most of the countries have
undertaken analyses of the Nile but the quality of the data is very mixed and it is
impossible to draw any detailed accurate overview. To derive an accurate picture,
recommendations on sampling and analysis are included in the report.
Most of the countries are riparian and use the Nile in similar ways causing similar
problems, which include: siltation, pollution from domestic and industrial waste water
together with agricultural products such as pesticides and fertilisers. National and
Transboundary recommendations have been proposed to address these issues and need
to be developed.
Similarly the laboratories are of a mixed standard with the laboratories in Egypt, and
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, who are within the Lake Victoria Environmental
Management Project, being significantly better than the others. Recommendations
include improving the equipment and training of the under-resourced laboratories and
by establishing regional laboratories from the best laboratories to assist the others.
The legislative regulations also differ between the countries, but all the governments
consider water quality a major issue and have passed numerous excellent regulations
and proclamations to control them. However despite these, the implementation of the
regulations is very limited and needs to be improved. Most countries suffer from underfunding but if more commitment was made by applying the Polluter Pays Principal,
then the pollution control could be eventually be self sustainable.
The water monitoring of the Nile by each country is again variable and there needs to be
a consistent simple approach for the transboundary monitoring, whilst each country will
need to expand for the national monitoring.
Thematic Water Quality Maps and Water Quality Profiles have been produced for
Sudan. It is recommended that these are used as a basis for similar maps for each
country and then amalgamate them into one definite map.
There was a workshop in July 2005 in Burundi to discuss the above issues, using this
report and the National Reports as platforms for discussion. Following the workshop,
this report was amended to include specific items, recommendations and an Action
Plan.
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
i
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this report are:
•
•
•
Consolidate the nine individual National Water Quality Monitoring Baseline
Reports into one Report – a “Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline
Report”.
Summarise the national monitoring activity, capacity, facilities and data
contained within the individual baseline reports.
Using the above, compile the following:
-
A report outlining the main water quality issues in the Nile Basin,
including recommendations for both regional and national action plans.
-
Nile water quality maps and Atlas.
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The means of completing the objectives included the following outputs:
•
•
•
•
•
Review the data from each country.
Establish a water quality baseline.
Establish the quality of the current data.
Make recommendations for each country to improve their water quality
monitoring.
Present an action plan to progress the recommendations.
3.0. REPORT FORMAT
Baseline Water Quality Status reports and Country Reports have been submitted from
each of the nine participating countries.
The salient points on water quality have been summarised in this report as a means of
comparing the conditions in the different countries. This has included the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Description of the location and properties of the water supply.
Review of the institutional framework of mentoring water quality.
Review of the water quality data and monitoring program.
Review of the Water Quality Laboratories.
Review of the sources of water pollution along the Nile basin.
This report is not a substitute for the original individual reports, as they provide much
more details in these areas and also additional information such as public awareness
campaigns and ground water quality.
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4.0 BURUNDI
4.1. Water Resources Description
Burundi, owing to its geographical position and relief, has two major basins, which
divide the country into almost two equal parts. These two major basins are the Nile
Basin, which is 13,800 square km, and the Congo Basin, which is 14,300 square km.
The waterways, the swamps and the lakes represent almost a tenth of the total area of
the country. The swamps occupy an area of 112,028 hectares. The annual rainfall in
Burundi ranges from 80mm to 200mm.
Lake Cohoba is in the extreme north of Burundi and is both the inlet and outlet of
Kanyaru, which flows into the Nile. Gacamirinda, Rwhinda and Narungazi Lakes are
also both inlets and outlets of the Knayaru, whilst Kanzigiri and Rweru lakes are inlets
and outlets of Kagera and Nyabarongo. The Nile basin receives the waters of Kanyaru
and Ruvubu, which come from an area relatively well drained. The most important river
is the Ruvubu, which is the main river that feeds into the River Nile. Its catchment area
is 10,2002 km and stretches 286 km. It flows from the peaks in Ngongo at a height of
2300m, through the centre of the country, where its major tributaries concentrate, and
heads towards the Northeast to join the Nyambarongo River and Kagera River. The
average contribution of Burundi to the Kagera, the main tributary of Lake Victoria, is
estimated to be 3.1 million cubic meters per annum. The main tributaries are the
Kinyankuru, Ndurumu, Nyakigazi, Nkokoma, Mubarazi, Ruvironza Nyababa and the
Kaynogazi streams.
As well as the rivers, the wetlands are also economically and ecologically important as
they enclose 112,028 hectares and support many agricultural activities.
4.2 Sources of Pollution
There is no routine sampling programme but according to the available data, the
watercourses are characterised by bacteriological pollution caused by animal waste,
high demographic density, lack of latrines and waste dumping.
Organic pollution has been recorded from waste effluent from coffee processing plants.
Mining causes pollution by heavy metals, toxic substances including arsenic such as the
mine of Kabarore, which pollutes Nwogere, a tributary of Kanyaru. As Burundi is an
agrarian country, the rivers suffer from pollutants such as chemical fertilizers such as:
nitrates, phosphates and pesticides.
Ninety percent of the small to medium-size industries, are in Bujumbura, but the
pollution has not been recently documented. However prior to 1993, when the INECN
laboratory took samples from the outlets of factories, the rivers of Burundi including
those in the Nile were unpolluted. In fact the oxygen concentration was found to be
relatively higher in comparison than other rivers in the Nile Basin. Since then the
situation has changed and the watercourses suffer from sewage pollution caused by
demographic changes, which has produced deforestation, exposing the land to erosion
and the rivers to siltation.
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4.3. Water Quality Institutions
The National Water Resources Management Policy was established in 2001, which
details the general principles for the utilisation of water including: agriculture, potable
water supplies, industry, energy and for the environment. The policy indicates how to
reconcile the different interests of water users.
The main focus of the National Policy on Water Resources Management includes:
•
•
•
•
•
Access for all to potable water
Access for rural areas to hydropower
To meet the basic needs of the population for such as agriculture and livestock
Sustained protection of water resources
Enhancement of co-ordination and capacity building in the water sector.
The National Water Resources Management Policy takes into account the fact that
Burundi shares its resources with the neighbouring countries and is a stakeholder in the
two international hydrographic basins.
This policy provides guidelines for co-operation with the other riparian countries for the
equitable sharing and management of trans-boundary waters.
The short-term strategies are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Full information on the water resources of the country.
Establishment of a national institution for the co-ordination of the water sector.
Assessment of potential water pollution risks and the enforcement of the
resource protection measures.
Water control measures in view of the increasing agricultural and livestock
outputs.
Raising awareness on all levels of government departments, in the commercial
sectors and the general public, on the importance of water.
Building human capacity in the field of water resources.
Enhancement of co-operation in the field of trans-boundary water sharing and
management.
The medium to long-term strategies are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Assess water demand.
Increase the potable water supplies.
Develop the water resources to widen the access to hydropower.
Promote planning by the industrial sector in the utilisation of water.
Secure, manage and monitor information on water.
Optimise management to reduce water-related disasters.
The Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Energy & Mines (REGIDESO), the
Ministry of Community Development (DGHER) and the Ministry of National
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Education (University of Burundi) are other stakeholders in water quality monitoring,
but unfortunately there is little co-ordination between them.
The Ministry of Land, Environment & Tourism (MLET) was established in 1989 and
has produced the Environmental Code. This states that the authority in-charge of
environment should be regularly informed by the public sector on the quality of the
environment, based on the physical, chemical and biological analysis. This should be
carried out by laboratories approved by the ministries in charge of public health, water
resources and the environment, in accordance with the established methods. As yet, the
provisions of the Environment Code have not been implemented. The MLET is
responsible for the planning, co-ordination, and implementation of environmental
programs and has three institutions, which are:
•
•
•
National Institute for the Protection of Environment and Conservation of
Nature (INECN),
Geographic Institute of Burundi (IGEBU), &
National Office for Tourism.
Unfortunately although Burundi has an excellent water policy and environmental code,
little has been actually achieved with regard to water quality, with no monitoring
programme in place.
4.4 Laboratories
There is no national central water quality laboratory but there are a number of
laboratories that undertake water analysis. These are:
•
•
•
•
•
FACAGRO carries out microbiological analysis on food products including
water. It has two qualified staff.
INECN used to carry out analyses, including heavy metals, on industrial waste
discharge water, but halted the analysis owing to a lack of resources. It has two
qualified staff.
The Municipal Technical Services has laboratories for water quality testing.
SAC conducts many types of analyses including water but has no permanent
staff.
REGIDESO is a public corporation for the production and distribution of
water and electricity that conducts physicochemical, chemical and
bacteriological analyses on water. It has 3 qualified staff.
Burundi is seriously under-resourced in modern water laboratories and would find it
difficult to undertake the full analysis of the Nile as part of the NBI baseline monitoring
programme.
4.5 Water Quality Data
The water quality data available is limited, but a set of data has been submitted from
projects and studies of the water bodies by the SAC and the FSA (Burundi University).
The FSA at Burundi University undertook a study of a number of lakes and rivers in
1989. The SAC conducted analyses on 398 different water sources in five provinces
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namely, Kayanza, Bururi, Ngozi, Karuzi and Muyinga in 2005. All these provinces,
apart from Bururi, fall within the Nile basin area.
4.6 Recommendations
4.6.1 National Recommendations
Unfortunately although Burundi has an excellent water policy and environmental code,
little has been actually achieved with regard to water quality, with no monitoring
programme in place.
There is no Central Water Quality Laboratory and there are no other well equipped
water laboratories. Burundi urgently requires these facilities at a National Level which
could then support the NBI. It is recommended that the baseline report be used as a
platform to obtain funding from other donors to obtain these vital resources.
4.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
As Burundi is so seriously under-resourced with modern water laboratories, it would
find it difficult to undertake the full analysis of the Nile as part of the NBI baseline
monitoring programme. As a first stage, a field kit could be donated to the appropriate
Laboratory, which would be prepared to undertake the basic analysis for the project and
one of the other Regional Laboratories could undertake the advanced analysis.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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5.0 THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (DRC)
5.1 Water Resources Description
The Democratic Republic of Congo possesses immense water resources, mainly from
the Congo Basin. The Nile basin in the Congolese territory represents less than 2 per
cent of the total area of the country. The dividing line between the Congo River and the
Nile River is equal in length to the crest line of the Blue Mountains. In spite of its small
size, the Nile basin area in the DRC exercises a marked influence on the livelihoods of
the populations of the area in terms of natural resources exploitation. The degradation of
the environment in this basin has adversely affected the regions downstream.
DRC shares the following water bodies with the neighbouring countries:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lake Albert with Uganda;
Lake Kivu with Rwanda;
Lake Tanganyika with Burundi in the North and Tanzania in the South;
Lakes Moero and Bangwelo with Zambia;
Congo River with the Congo-Brazzaville and
River Ubangi with The Central African Republic.
The watercourse of the Nile basin in the DRC flows from the west towards the east,
discharging into Lake Edward and the Semiliki River. The most important wetlands
being on the shores of Lake Edward, the Semiliki River and the Rutshuru and Lubilia
Rivers. Lake Albert and Lake Edward, situated in the east of DRC on the border with
Uganda are part of the Nile basin and the two lakes are linked to one another by the
Semiliki River, which, in turn, has several tributaries.
The Semliki River is shallow, and extends up to the extreme North across vast flatlands
where Lake Victoria with a slow current, spreads out to form a swampy delta. All these
lakes and their surroundings are rich in fish and wild flora and fauna.
Down-stream in the east is the Eastern Province and the Lturi District and Lake Albert,
which is the biggest water expanse. The main outlet of Lake Albert is Albert Nile,
which runs northwards into the Sudan through Nimule.
5.2. Sources of Pollution
Water pollution is attributed to a number of industries including: manufacturing
activities, chemical storage, petrochemical, metallurgical industries, hospitals, printing
press, paint factories, tanneries and agribusiness. The untreated effluents from these
industries are discharged directly into the watercourses. No further details were
submitted regarding these pollutants. Water pollution is also caused by the mining
activities. The areas in the Nile basin which suffer from this problem are Irumu, Mahagi
and Aru.
Owing to the war in DRC there are many refugees, which have relocated and given rise
to deforestation, depletion of natural reserves and water pollution. In the Nile basin
deforestation has occurred in Beni, Luthero, Rutshuru, Irumu, the Virunga National
Park and on the border with Uganda and Rwanda. Deforestation is often the precursor
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of soil erosion and siltation, which is a problem in the surroundings of Kasenyi
(southern bank of Lake Albert). Finally, owing to eutrophication, water-hyacinth
proliferation is serious in Lake Albert, though fortunately it is moderate in Lake
Edward.
5.3 Water Quality Institutions
The Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, Water & Forests (MENCWF) was
established in 1975 and is responsible for the management of water resources. There
are also at least five other ministries, which are stakeholders in water monitoring.
REGIDESO, the State Company is responsible for the supply and monitoring of
drinking water.
However, the present statutory controls for water monitoring are not well defined, as
there are no national standards or legislation detailing the water quality monitoring
procedures. To remedy this, the Inter-ministerial Committee for Environment, Nature
Conservation & Tourism which consists of the Secretary Generals of pertinent
ministries and senior civil servants from other public departments was established.
This committee was tasked with the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Study and prepare the broad policy outlines on environment, nature
conservation and tourism.
Review the amendments proposed in the international treaties and conventions
related to environment, nature conservation and tourism.
Study all industrial and commercial proposals that may impact on
environment, nature conservation and tourism.
Review the procedures for the protection of the environment, nature, water and
forests and tourism.
Advise on any issues raised by the government in the field of environment,
nature conservation and tourism.
Formulate proposals regarding the environment, nature, water and forest
conservation.
5.4. Laboratories
REGIDESO has the best laboratory with equipment and expertise for undertaking basic
analysis. There are no laboratories within MENCWF.
To improve the monitoring of water for the Nile Basin, it has been recommended that
mobile laboratories be established at Beni, Butembo and Goma.
5.5 Water Quality Data
Unfortunately no water quality data for DRC was available. Apparently data has been
produced by REGIDESO, SNHR, National Committee on Water and Sanitation Action
(CNAEA), Research Centres, University Laboratories, Research Institutions, NGO and
some private sector actors. This data needs to be retrieved and submitted.
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5.6. Recommendations
5.6.1 National Recommendations
A number of recommendations have been made to enhance the water management in
the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, Water & Forests. These include the
following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Establish a well-equipped water laboratory in the Nile basin with the
headquarters in Beni, Butembo or Goma. This laboratory should be equipped
with at least a spectrometer HACH DR/2400 capable of analysing nitrite,
nitrate, sulphate, silica, phosphate, manganese, iron, copper and chrome, and
with an equipment titrimetric analyses (bicarbonates and chorines) and
microbiological analyses.
Building and rehabilitation of schools (ex. Butembo Fishing School) and
hydrology and hygiene training institutes.
Enhancement of national capacities through training and research.
The establishment of a data bank to assemble the information on water
resources scattered in the various organizations.
Organization of specialized training on water resources management and
aquatic ecosystems.
Elaboration of national standards based on WHO guidelines.
Promotion of research in the field of water resources management.
Updating and enforcement of water resources regulations.
Regulating production, storage and treatment of waste by installing
purification stations.
Reactivation and enforcement of legal and regulatory instruments on the
protection of water resources.
These are essential for the National Water Quality Monitoring. The Baseline Country
Report should be used as a platform for proposals for funding from other donors for the
required resources.
5.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
As DRC has no adequate laboratory facilities, it is recommended that a mobile
laboratory kit be submitted to the appropriate laboratory, which is prepared to undertake
the basis analysis for the NBI study. A regional laboratory could carry out the rest of the
analysis.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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6.0 EGYPT
6.1. Water Resources Description
Egypt lies in the north-eastern corner of the Africa continent, with a total area of about 1
million Km2.and is located at the tail end of the River Nile. The Mediterranean lies to the
North, in the East it is bordered by Israel and the Red Sea, in the South by Sudan and in
the West by Libya.
The conventional water resources in Egypt are limited to the Nile River, ground water in
the Delta, Western deserts and Sinai, rainfall and flash floods. Each resource has its
limitations on use. These limitations relate to quantity, quality, location, time, and cost
of development.
To regulate the Nile flow to the Delta, Kanatir Barrages as well as the Aswan Dam
were constructed. The purpose was to increase the cultivated area and to maximize the
use of the available water. The system of continuous irrigation was achieved by 1890
throughout the Delta. The construction of the Aswan High Dam, which was completed
in 1970, represents further ambitious progress to create the largest artificial lake (Lake
Nasser) in the world.
Figure 6.1 Constructed wetland for waste treatment near Lake Manzala, Egypt
6.2. Sources of Pollution
Water Pollution is considered to be one of the most serious hazards affecting Egypt.
Pollution in the Nile River System (main stem Nile, drains and canals) has increased in
the past few decades because of increases in population, new irrigated agriculture
projects, industrial development and other activities along the Nile.
The pollution sources can be divided in to:
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•
•
•
•
Industrial wastewater pollution
Domestic wastewater pollution
Agricultural drainage water pollution
Pollution originating from dumping of solid waste.
Industrial pollution sources can be characterized as point sources of a wide variety of
pollutants, of which heavy metals and toxic organic compounds generate the most
concern. These pollutants originate primarily from heavy engineering, electroplating
and chemical industries. Of the latter category, industries like pesticide manufacturers,
petroleum refiners, and plastic and rubber manufacturers are of particular concern.
The first inventory was included the framework of the Water Master Plan in 1981.In the
inventory, 360 main industries were categorized and listed their production, water use,
wastewater discharge and the main hydrochemical characteristics of their discharge
(BOD, COD, TSS and TDS).
From the 360 industries, 36 discharge directly to the Nile and its branches, 41 to the
irrigation canals, 4 via wells directly into the groundwater, 9 to the sea (Mediterranean
Sea and Golf of Suez), 1 to Lake Mariut and the rest to the public sewer system and the
drains.
The total BOD loads are highest for the agro-industry (mainly sugar) and the chemical
industry, and the cement industry contributes more than any other to suspended material
and total dissolved solids. The biggest water consumer, the power generation industry,
hardly contaminates, as the water is mainly used for cooling purposes. No data is
currently available on toxic discharges, but it is suspected that chemical, iron and steel
industries do discharge these substances.
At present industrial use of water is estimated at 5.9 BCM/year out of which 550
MCM/year is discharged untreated into the River Nile. 125 major industrial plants are
located in the Nile valley, which represents about 18% of the existing industries and
discharge 15% of the heavy metal loads. 250 industrial plants are located in Greater
Cairo, which represents 35% of the total number and contribute about 40% of the total
metal discharges.
Sewage is a also a problem as it is anticipated that the increases in the capacity of
wastewater treatment plants will be insufficient to cope with the actual increase in
wastewater production resulting from the predicted population increases as shown in the
Table 6.1 below.
Table 6.1 Projection of wastewater treatment coverage, Egypt
Year
Population
People Served
People not Served
____________________________________________________
1997
60 Million
18 Million
42 Million
2017
83 Million
39 Million
44 Million
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The agricultural drainage of the southern part of Egypt returns directly to the Nile River
where it is mixed with the fresh Nile water and reused for different purposes
downstream. The total amount of such indirect reuse is estimated as 4.07 BCM/year in
1995/96. This drainage flow comes from three sources; tail end discharges & seepage
losses from canals; surface runoff from irrigated fields; and deep percolation from
irrigated fields. The first two sources of drainage water are of relatively accepted
quality. The deep percolation component is highly saline, especially in the northern part
of Delta, due to seawater intrusion and upward seepage of groundwater to drains.
The total amount of fertilizers used in Egypt amounts to some 6.5 million tons/year.
The excess use of fertilizers and the leaching of fertilizers in surface and ground waters
have been subjects of intensive studies.
The use of pesticides has increased as well, but not at the same rate as fertilizer. In early
1991, use of herbicides to control aquatic weeds in Egypt was stopped.
Salinity measurements made in the Delta show that closer to the Mediterranean Sea,
salinity in the drainage water increases, to reach concentrations approaching to 10,000
mg/l close to the coast. Although part of the salinity increase may be caused by
leaching of salts from the soil, it is believed that most of this increase is caused by
upward seepage of brackish groundwater.
Dumping of solid waste outside the specifically assigned areas is illegal in Egypt and,
although it is recognized as a source of pollution for surface and groundwater, no
specific information on this practice is available. It is considered to be mainly a source
of pollution for irrigation and drainage canals in the vicinity of towns and villages. No
further analysis of this source of pollution has been made.
Increasing water pollution from industrial and domestic sources, if allowed to grow
unchecked, is likely to reduce the amount of water available for various uses in the
future.
6.3. Water Institutions
The first comprehensive environmental legislation controlling disposal of wastewater in
the Nile and canals is Law 93, which was put into force in 1962. As the Egyptian
Government had become increasingly aware of the importance of environmental risk
management in the economic development, health and quality of life, a regulation (Law
4/1994) was passed to improve this previous legislation. In 1993, an Egyptian
Environmental Information System was set up as an integral part of the Egyptian
Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).
The legal basis of controlling water pollution already exists through Law 48 of 1982 on
the “Protection of the River Nile and Water Ways from Pollution". The law established
stringent effluent standards for various organic and inorganic pollutants. Lack of proper
funds for treatment of industrial wastes and for providing adequate municipal
wastewater treatment plants, has hindered, so far, the full enforcement of the law.
The protection of the water environment from pollution represents one of the important
priorities of Ministry of State for Environmental affairs (MSEA) and its executive
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institution the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). In this respect, Law 4/
1994 for the Environment, places an emphasis on the protection of the coastal waters
and the marine environment, complementing Law 48/1982 for the protection of the
River Nile. The lines of action in this regard encompass water quality monitoring
activities and initiatives, as well as pollution abatement and mitigation efforts.
To improve the control of pollution a ministerial committee was formed to intensify and
co-ordinate the efforts of other ministries and concerned departments. This committee
deals with water pollution and recommends remedial procedures, which includes
treatment of industrial wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage) projects, improving the
networks for monitoring and controlling water quality, canals and agricultural drains
through three Five Year plans. This project is in addition to the ministry’s monitoring
scheme of a network for water quality monitoring at 290 surface water locations.
The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) is the central institution for
water quality management and for formulating the national water policy for resolving
the problems of water scarcity and water quality deterioration. Under Law No. 12 of
1984, MWRI retains the overall responsibility for the management of all water
resources, including available surface water resources of the Nile system, irrigation
water, drainage water and groundwater.
The main legal instrument for water quality management is Law 48, which states that
the MWRI is responsible for the provision of suitable water to all users and the
authority to issue licenses for domestic and industrial discharges. The responsibility to
monitor compliance of these licenses through the analyses of discharges has been
delegated to Ministry of Health and Population (MOHP).
The Nile Research Institute (NRI) which has been responsible for maintaining a
national water quality monitoring network since 1976 including the River Nile and
Nasser Lake and contracts portions of the monitoring activity to other institutes but
reports to the MWRI. The NWRC and its affiliated institutes (DRI, NRI, GWRI)
operates modern, well equipped water quality laboratories, the water quality network
and operates a database where all MWRI water quality data is consolidated.
During 2000/2001, the MSEA announced that the Nile River would be free from
industrial pollution. This significant environmental improvement results from the
compliance with environmental laws and regulations of 34 large industrial
establishments, previously responsible for discharging a total of 100 millions m3 /year
of untreated industrial waste to the river. Their compliance was ensured due to
continuous inspection visits carried out by a committee with representatives from
EEAA, the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation and Surface Water Police
Department. However there is a four-phase programme to be completed in 2008 to
further improve the water quality monitoring.
6.4. Laboratories
The analysis of water is carried out by a number of laboratories including: the Central
Laboratory and the regional laboratories of MOH; the Environmental and Occupational
Health Centre, the Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Alexandria. Laboratory analysis for Lake Nasser and the Nile River from Aswan to ElMenia (except heavy metals) are carried out by NRI at its temporary laboratory in Esna.
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The main reference laboratory for MWRI is the Central Laboratory for Environmental
Quality Monitoring (CLEQM) and performs the analysis for the Nile River from ElMenia to the Mediterranean Sea. CLEQM also co-ordinates its activities with local,
regional, national and international agencies involved in water, soil, and plant analysis.
It analyses all the main parameters in water together with algae, heavy metals and
pesticides such as those outlined in Table 2.
CLEQM has five major analytical departments: ecotoxicology and environmental
indicators, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, microbiology and soil. Each
laboratory houses a number of up-to-date and fully automated analytical instruments
that are capable of handling large number of environmental parameters. It has a
comprehensive analytical quality assurance programme and an advance computerised
laboratory information system (LIMS).
The objectives of CLEQM are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
To cover all analytical needs of MWRI on physical, chemical and
microbiological properties of water, soil and plant tissues
To provide in a timely manner a high quality analytical services.
To generate and publish basic accurate data that can be used by a wide variety
of decision makers.
To house a data bank that is accessible to all organization concerned with
environmental quality.
To assist MWRI for the control and protection of water resources through the
implementation of the law.
To advise MWRI upon request for specific environmental problems.
To assist in the development of guidelines for environmental quality protection
based on specific monitoring research activities.
To assist in the development of regulations and standards needed in future
actions of pollution prevention and control.
The main instruments are:
•
•
•
•
•
Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer,
UV-VIS Spectrophotometer,
Gas Liquid Chromatograph,
Ion Chromatograph,
Portable instruments for field measurements (pH, Turbidity, Electric Conductivity,
Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature).
The NRI laboratory have 26 staff, DRI have 23 staff, RIGW 12 staff and CLEQM 67
staff.
The Central Laboratory in Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA)
implements the plan for the annual seasonal monitoring program for the Nile river
through the co-operation with EEAA laboratories in the governorates that are located
on the Nile and its branches.
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The monitoring sites are selected according to the industrial pollution sources on the
River Nile and its branches. Samples are collected to represent the point of waste
discharge, as well as up and down stream and analyses similar parameters to CLEQM.
6.5. Water Quality Data & Monitoring
6.5.1 The Nile
Over the last thirty years a great deal of data has been collected about conventional
parameters but limited data is available about hazardous parameters such as pesticides,
heavy metals and hydrocarbons. There is also to some extent a lack of intra- and interministerial cooperation and data sharing though not internally within MWRI.
Pollutants were monitored along the River Nile between 1976 and 1986 to determine
their effect on water quality for different water uses. The latest in-depth report on the
Nile is entitled the Third Study on Water Quality of the Nile River (2001). This report
is the result of collaborated monitoring by five Regional Branch Offices and the Cairo
Central Centre (CCC). The study was carried out through the Environmental
Monitoring Training Project (EMTP) supported by Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA).
The main conclusions of the report are:
1.
For ten years after 1991 the BOD value of the Nile River has remained fairly
stable, though the BOD values of about 30% of the sampling points was over
6 mg/l, the Egyptian standard limit, particularly in three points at Tanta RPO
and four points at the Upper Egypt.
2.
Nitrite concentrations are about the same as the 2nd study, but nitrate
concentrations were lower than the 2nd study.
3.
Total phosphorous concentrations around Cairo were low.
4.
Cadmium, lead and nickel were not detected in the monitoring points whereas
in the 2nd study, lead and nickel were over 0.01 mg/l in many points.
5.
Pesticides that were detected were at low concentrations.
Since the construction of the Aswan High Dam, the water quality of the Nile in Egypt
has become primarily dependent on the water quality and ecosystem characteristics of
the reservoir (Lake Nasser), and less dependent on water quality fluctuations of the
upper reaches of the Nile. Water released from Lake Nasser generally exhibits the same
seasonal variation and the same overall characteristics from one year to another.
Further downstream changes in river water quality are primarily due to a combination
of land and water use as well as water management interventions such as:
•
•
•
different hydrodynamic regimes regulated by the Nile barrages,
agricultural return flows,
domestic and industrial waste discharges including oil and wastes from
passengers and river boats. These changes are more pronounced as the river
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flows through the densely populated urban and industrial centres of Cairo and
the Delta region.
The main monitoring points can be divided by areas as follows:
Greater Cairo sector has 18 monitoring points including:
•
•
•
most of the water treatment plants intakes in Greater Cairo area and the
beginning of Rosetta and Damietta branches, and
other points for effluent monitoring.
Upper Egypt has 63 monitoring points for pollutants including:
•
•
•
water treatment plants intakes,
drains, and
the point of industrial waste discharging on the large canals that branched
from the River Nile or its main two branches.
From the results of the monitoring exercise carried out by the NRI (Feb. 2001), the
following can be concluded:
•
In general, the dissolved oxygen was satisfactory as all sites DO
concentrations were higher than 7.0 mg O2 /l, indicating the high assimilation
capacity of the River Nile.
•
The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) values showed slight, but steady
increase from south to north. 21 sampling sites out of 35 examined exceeded
the standard limit of (10 mg O2 /l).
The BOD value showed a random distribution but did not exceed the standard
value of 6 mg O2 /l. The correlation between COD/BOD values indicated the
presence of non-biodegradable organic compounds probably from industrial
sources.
•
•
There was an increase in total dissolved solids (TDS) from 171 mg/l at Aswan
to 240 mg/l at the Delta Barrage but this was still within the permissible
limits.
The Law 48/1982 does not specify a standard for faecal coliform counts for the ambient
water quality of the Nile River. Therefore, the value given by the WHO (1989) as a
guideline for use of water for unrestricted irrigation (1000 MPN/ 100 ml) was taken as a
guide for the evaluation of the water quality in the report. The results indicated a great
variation in the spatial distribution of faecal coliform counts. High counts were found
around the catchments areas of Kom-Ombo, El-Berba, Main Ekleet and Fatera drains
and samples taken from the banks where the drain water was pumped, was even higher.
This indicates the presence of untreated wastes in these drains, a situation which
requires special attention.
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6.5.2 The Damietta and Rosetta Branches
The Damietta branch begins at the Delta Barrage and ends 220 km downstream at
Faraskour dam near Damietta. Major sources of pollution are the Talkha Fertilizer
Factory, High Serw 1 Drain and High Serw Power Station.
Assessment of the results of the study during February 2001 indicates the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from 7.8 mg O2 /l at its southern part
to 6.2 mg O2 /l at the northern part.
Nutrients concentration (nitrogen & phosphorous) were within the permissible
limits.
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) exceeded the standards. However, the
values were similar to those of the Nile water from Aswan to Delta Barrage.
(Table 56 & Figure 27 in Appendix 2)
BOD values comply with the consent standard, except at one location at the
end of the branch.
TDS increased from 240 mg/l up to 372 mg O2 /l, but the values are still
within the permissible limits
FC counts exceeded the WHO Guidelines in almost all sampling sites
indicating faecal pollution.
The Rosetta Branch, starting from the Delta Barrage receives relative high
concentrations of organic compounds, nutrients and oil & grease. Major sources of
pollution are Rahawy drain (which receives part of Greater Cairo wastewater), Sabal
drain, El- Tahrer drain, Zawirt El-Bahr drain and Tala drain. At Kafr El-Zayat, Rosetta
Branch receives wastewater from Maleya and Salt & Soda companies.
The principal points of the water quality status of the Rosetta Branch presented in Table
57 Figure 31-32 in Appendix 2, are summarised as follows:
•
•
•
Dissolved oxygen concentrations, ranged from 5.1 mg O2 /l at the southern
part to 6.3 mg O2/l at the northern part of the branch.
Nutrient concentrations were within the permissible limits. COD and BOD
values exceeded the standards, but were similar to those recorded from
Damietta Branch. TDS ranges from 240 at Delta Barrage up to 415 mg/l at the
end of the branch.
High Faecal Coliform counts were detected at Kafr El-Zayat, but downstream
they were less than 1000.
For routine monitoring the following parameters are analysed:
1.
Standard physico-chemical parameters including:
pH, electric conductivity, dissolves salts, water hardness, chlorides, total
alkalinity, sulphates, and minerals such as: sodium, potassium, calcium and
magnesium.
2.
Pollution indicators including:
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Ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), & biological oxygen demand (BOD).
3.
Chemical pollutants including heavy metals and pesticides.
4.
Bacteriological pollution including: total bacterial counts and coliform
bacteria in the Greater Cairo sector - a training program has been arranged for
staff of governorates laboratories to also include the bacteriological analyses
in their laboratories.
It was concluded that a number of monitoring points at some Governorates showed high
level of toxic heavy metals, and other pollutants e.g. Table 15 Appendix 2, which is an
indication of pollution by industrial wastes. This indicates the importance of monitoring
sediments and fish for the heavy metals in the polluted areas. In addition, it is
recommended to study the effect of these concentrations of heavy metals on the selfpurification activity in the River Nile due to its length and flow.
In general the pesticides used in the agricultural area in the delta and river Nile are
detailed in Table 6.2. It was found that the closer the point was to an agricultural area,
the more pesticides appeared in the water. Comparing results of year 2003 with 2002
the pesticides concentrations had decreased.
Table 6.2 Pesticides analysed in the Upper Cairo Nile, Egypt
Organochlorine
Alpha-HCH
Beta-HCH
Gama-HCH
Delta-HCH
Hepta chlor
Hepta chlorepyide
Aldrin
Endrin
O,P-DDT
P,P-DDT
O,P-DDE
P,P-DDE
P,P-DDD
Butachlor
Mirx
Organophosphorous Carbamates
Fenitrothian
Sevin
Chloro Pyriphos-ethyl
Chloro Pyriphos- methyl
Profenofos
Ethion
Malathione
Parathion
Dia Zinon
Cynox
Pyrofe Zine
Dimethoat
Azamethafos
Pyrithroids
Fenvolrate
E-S Fenvalerate
Bio althrin
Deha methrin
Cyper metgrin
Permithrine
The Faecal Coliform density ranges from 200 to 1,600,000 MPN/100 ml. The highest
density is recorded at El-Tibeen 2 while the count for Geziret El-Dahab was only
54,000 MPN/100 ml. The figures for Mostroud and El-Amiria intakes (on Ismailia
Canal) are normal comparable to the River Nile figures. Generally, the lower figures are
observed during winter season while the highest values are in the summer. The
discharges of untreated or partially treated sewage on the River Nile are the main
source of faecal pollution though discharges of animal wastes from farms supplement
this. (Table 74, Appendix 2).
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In 1991, NRI started a modified monitoring program in a reduced number of sampling
sites, 31 sites along the River Nile and 2 on each Delta branch. The number of
parameters was extended to more than 45.
In 2003 the water quality monitoring objectives were changed as follows:
•
•
•
•
to assess the quality of water entering Egypt and of that released from Aswan
High Dam from Lake Nasser;
to determine the seasonal variation water quality along the Nile River and in
irrigation canals;
to quantify the variation in the drainage water quality in relation to the
existing pollution sources; and
to identify the quality and quantity of drainage water reuse in agriculture.
Currently, the network consists of 232 surface water sites. The parameters, sampled and
analysed were selected to reflect the characteristics of each water body and to consider
those critical to various water uses.
A concentrated monitoring program is needed to provide information about the current
water quality. It is important to carryout the following:
•
•
•
•
•
trend analysis,
determining compliance of discharges with standards,
locating discharges that are not licensed or that violate licensed conditions,
identifying the nature and extent of specific pollution problems, and
deciding whether a suspected problem exists or not.
6.6 Recommendations
6.6.1 National Recommendations
Egypt has excellent regulations and legislation for pollution control but unfortunately
their implementation is limited. It is recommended that more resources are acquired
nationally to overcome this problem.
Sewage is a also a problem as it is anticipated that the increases in the capacity of wastewater
treatment plants will be insufficient to cope with the increase in wastewater production
resulting from the predicted population increases as shown in the Table 1.
It is recommended more funds be obtained from the government or donors to overcome
these problems.
6.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
Egypt has excellent water laboratories with modern equipment and trained staff. It is
recommended that this laboratory be used as a Regional Laboratory to assist with the
analysis and training for other neighbouring countries that do not have such facilities.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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7.0 ETHIOPIA
7.1 Water Resources Description
Ethiopia, with its different geological formations and climatic conditions, is endowed
with considerable water resources and wetland ecosystems, including twelve river
basins, some 14 major lakes, and man-made reservoirs. Approximately 123 billion
cubic meters of water runs off annually from the above sources. Most of them are transboundary rivers.
The Nile Basin within Ethiopia consists of the following three river sub-basins:
•
•
•
Abbay (Blue Nile)
Baro-Akobo (Sobat)
Tekeze (Atbara)
They belong to five regional states of Ethiopia namely Amhara, Tigray, Oromia,
Gambella & Benshangul-Gumuz. These rivers are the major tributaries contributing to
more than three quarters of the main Nile annual average flow.
The Blue Nile (Abbay) with a catchment of approximately 300,000km2 drains the
North-eastern Ethiopian Plateau. Its source Lake Tana, a heart shaped body of water,
contributes only about 7% of its annual discharge, as most of the water is collected en
route through the Ethiopian highlands from many tributaries, the largest of which is the
Diddesa Khor. This Nile basin portion of Ethiopia is generally characterized by steep
slopes and erodible soil. It has intense, short rainfall confined to a four-month period.
During this wet season the rivers are turbid and full of suspended solids which cause
siltation of reservoirs downstream. Deforestation and population pressures on the
marginal highland area are a major threat to the basin.
Figure 7.2. The Blue Nile as it leaves Lake Tana, Ethiopia
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7.2 Sources of Pollution
The industrial activities in the basin is currently limited to the regional capital towns
such as Bahir Dar & Mekele and zonal centre towns such as Gonder, Debremarkos,
Weldia, Debrebrhan, Ambo, Neket and Jimma. The main industries are textiles, soft
drinks, food, metals & tannery. Most of these industries do not have any waste
treatment facilities.
One notable pollutant is chromium from the tannery industries, which are expanding.
The estimated effluent volume of eight selected tanneries in the country in 1993 was
1,058,000 m3/year with a mean chromium discharge load of 3,787 kg/year. Other
pollutants include hydrogen sulphide, dyes and caustic soda.
Domestic solid waste and effluent are the major non-point sources of pollution from the
major towns. Most of the Ethiopian population does not have access to sanitation
facilities as the statistics of the institutional sanitation within the regional towns
indicate: Amhara (32%), Tigray (37%), Oromia (12%), Benshangul-Gumuz (25.3%)
and Gambella (6.6%). Similarly there is almost no solid waste collection and treatment
practice in the Basins.
An estimate of the pollution load in the three Nile sub-basins is given in Appendix 2.
Mining and quarrying is also undertaken for building materials, which should not
produce much chemical pollution but it can raise the suspended solids loading. There
are metallic minerals such as gold, copper, lead, chromium and nickel, which when
exploited, produce serious pollution problems.
Even though there are large towns and cities within Ethiopia, it is mainly an agrarian
country, so faecal pollution from cattle, pesticide and fertiliser run-off are the main
sources of non-point pollution.
7.3 Institutional Water Quality Schemes
The management of water resources at the national level is carried out by the Ministry
of Water Resources (MWR) and is responsible for:
•
•
•
•
•
Formulating policies, long-term strategies and generic standards.
Co-ordinating projects and their funding together with liasing with foreign
donor agencies.
Legislating for the utilisation and protection of water resources.
Allocating water between regional governments.
Providing technical assistance and advice to the regional governments within
Ethiopia.
The management of water resources at the regional level is carried out by sector
institutions such as: Energy Resources Development, Mines, and Water Resources
Development Bureaux.
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The goal of the MWR policy is to promote all national efforts towards the efficient,
equitable and optimum utilisation of the available water resources of Ethiopia, and is
mainly focused on the quantity of water. However it also includes:
•
•
•
The development water quality criteria, guidelines and standards for all uses of
water and ensure their implementation.
The formulation of the receiving water quality standards and legal limits for
pollutants for control and protection of indiscriminate discharge of effluents
into natural watercourses.
The development of appropriate water pollution prevention and control
strategies.
The environmental policy was prepared by the Ethiopian Environmental Protection
Authority in collaboration with the Ministry of Economic Development & Co-operation
and was issued in April 1997. Within the policy the following goals on water quality are
defined as:
•
•
•
•
Creation of appropriate mechanisms to protect the water resources from
pollution.
Maintain sustainable development and utilisation of water resources.
Establish standards and classifications for the uses of water in terms of quality
and quantity.
Establish procedures and controls for water resources including waste
discharge, source development and catchment management.
To achieve these goals the following targets were set:
•
•
•
•
•
Prepare national water quality guidelines for the quality of drinking water and
effluent quality standards for industrial and irrigation drainage.
Support the establishment of one central and eight regional water quality
laboratories.
Strengthen the pollution control unit with relevant equipment and staff for
Addis Ababa city administration.
Conduct regular water quality tests.
Carry out a sustainable dam siltation survey, by identifying sampling stations
for the purpose of monitoring water quality and siltation.
Unfortunately, despite these excellent goals, little has actually been implemented.
7.4 Laboratories
There are no central government laboratories responsible for monitoring the Nile,
though there are five regional laboratories, which can undertake limited analysis. These
are at:
•
•
•
•
Gambella,
Tigray,
Benshangul- Gumuz, &
Amhara.
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Their equipment is limited but they can undertake simple physico-chemical and
microbiological analysis. The advanced analysis was undertaken by the Water Works
Design Enterprise Water Laboratory. There are ten other organisations that also have
water laboratories, but they have other priorities, which may conflict with the aims of
the NBI. The Water Works Design Enterprise Water Laboratory should be nominated as
the national regional centre for the analysis of the parameters recommended in
Appendix 1.
Three of the regional laboratories should be supplemented with field kits as specified in
Appendix 3.
7.5 Water Quality Review & Data
The available water quality data does not represent the spatial and temporal condition of
the basin adequately. However using this data, (Appendix 2), a limited overview of
water quality is recorded. The results show that the water quality is normally
satisfactory, though there is a high fluoride and potassium content, which need further
investigation.
7.6 Water Quality Monitoring Programmes
At present there are no water quality monitoring programmes for the Nile basin. A
detailed water sampling programme scheme has been proposed with about 60 sampling
points. This is ideal for a national scheme and should be implemented via a separate
project. However owing to limited funding of the NBI water quality component, it is
recommended that a minimum of 10 sampling points are selected, for the transboundary water quality evaluation. These should be located at hydrological stations and
should be sampled at a minimum of quarterly intervals.
The samples could be obtained by the regional laboratory staff that would also
undertake the on-site analysis of the sample as recommended in Appendix 1. Further
samples would then be taken and sent to the Water Works Design Enterprise Water
Laboratory for a full analysis as detailed in Appendix 1. The regional laboratory staff
would undertake a certified sampling and an analytical training course, prior to the
initiation of the sampling programme.
7.7 Recommendations
7.7.1 National Recommendations
At the moment there is no National water quality sampling scheme of the Nile. It has
been recommended that thirty nine monitoring points sites could be established for the
Abbay Basin, thirty three sites for the Baro-Akobo Basin and eighteen sites for the
Tekeze Basin. These are all excellent sampling points under the National Scheme.
However the number of points that fulfil the minimum sampling points for the transboundary will probably be less.
The criteria for these points are detailed in Section 13.8
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The MoWR is responsible for monitoring and analysing water via the Water Work
Design and Enterprise laboratory. It is recommended that training is provided for this
laboratory for basic and adavanced analysis. The country baseline report should be used
as a platform for proposals to donors to assist in further funding.
7.7.2 Transboundary Recommendations
There are no central government laboratories responsible for monitoring the Nile.
Ethiopia does not have a national water laboratory though there are five regional
laboratories that can undertake limited physico-chemical and microbiological analysis.
The advanced analysis has been undertaken by the Water Work Design and Enterprise
laboratory and should be used as the NBI country laboratory.
As a first measure three of the regional laboratories should be supplemented with field
kits as specified in Appendix 3.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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8.0 KENYA
8.1. Water Resources Description
Kenya receives an average annual rainfall of 567 mm; surface water forms 96% of the
total available water resources, whilst the rest is the groundwater component. The major
rivers are:
•
•
•
•
•
The Tana and Athi rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean;
The Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Nyando, Sondu-Muriu, the Gucha-Migori and the Mara
rivers flowing into Lake Victoria;
The Turkwel and Kerio rivers flowing into Lake Turkana;
The Ewaso Ng’iro North flowing into the Lorian swamp and
The Ewaso Ng’iro South flowing into Lake Natron in Tanzania.
The freshwater lakes include Lake Victoria, Naivasha, Baringo, Jipe and Chala. Lake
Turkana is slightly saline, whilst the Lakes, Nakuru, Bogoria, Elementaita and Magadi
are saline.
Kenya has a fair proportion of shared water resources with Tanzania, Uganda, Somalia
and Ethiopia. The Lake Victoria sub-basin in Kenya is part of the Nile Basin system.
This sub-basin has a drainage area of 49,000 km2, and includes 4,000km2 of lake
surface area. The sub-basin comprises the whole area west of the Rift Valley draining
into both Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga through numerous perennial rivers. The rivers
that discharge directly into Lake Victoria include: Nzoia, Yala, Nyando, Sondu-Miriu
and Gucha-Migori. The River Mara crosses the national boundary and discharges into
Lake Victoria through the Republic of Tanzania. River Sio discharges into Lake
Victoria along the Kenya/Uganda border whilst the Malaba – Malakisi river system
discharges into Lake Kyoga.
The basin constitutes 8% of the total land area of the country and contributes over 50%
of the available national surface water resources. There are four main wetlands, which
act as purification systems for each of their rivers these are:
•
•
•
•
The Yala Swamp, which is an extensive wetland near the Yala River mouth.
The Kano Plains, which are wetlands are at the lower reaches of River
Nyando.
The Sondu River Mouth Wetland, which is at the mouth of Sondu-Miriu
River.
Gucha-Migori River Mouth Wetland, which is at the mouth of Gucha River.
8.2. Sources of Pollution
Surface water resources in Kenya are increasingly becoming polluted from both point
and non-point sources caused by the activities in agriculture, urbanisation, industry,
leachates from solid waste tips, sediments, salts, fertilizers and pesticide residues.Lack
of effective pollution control compromises the quality of water, posing potential health
hazards and increasing treatment costs. Most municipal sewerage plants discharge
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partially treated or untreated wastewater into surface watercourses, also causing
significant health hazards and localized eutrophication. Tanneries, pulp and paper mills,
coffee processing factories, breweries and sugar cane processing facilities typically do
not have effective wastewater treatment plants and their effluents contribute significant
organic loads, heavy metals and other toxic substances to receiving waters.
The lake also acts as a medium for disposal of wastes and is also a source of waterborne diseases. Rainfall causes surface run-off, which is carried into rivers and
eventually into Lake Victoria bringing with it a broad spectrum of large amounts of
pollutants.
The following have been identified as the main point pollution sources that require
attention and closer monitoring:
•
•
•
•
Industrial wastes sources:
Sugar Industries-Miwani, Nzoia, Chemilil, Muhoroni, & Sony.
Paper Industries-Webuye.
Fish Industries-Migori/Homa Bay.
Municipal sewage works at:
Kericho, Kitale, Webuye, Kakamega, Homa Bay, Kisii, Eldoret, Kisumu,
Busia, Bungoma, & Kendu Bay.
Oils and lubricants from workshops, garages and fuelling stations, such as
Kenya Railways locomotive shed and marine workshops, petrol stations and
Jua Kali garages.
Human wastes and refuse from market and urban centres and fishing villages.
The main non-point pollution arises from:
•
•
Release of high nitrate, phosphate and pesticides from the poor application of
agricultural chemicals.
Soil erosion due to poor agricultural practices resulting in soil cover
destruction or overgrazing.
These pollutants have led to changes in the lake ecosystem. Fish stocks have been
decreasing as well as the biodiversity; also algae blooms are frequent, which have
increased drastically and reduced transparency. Finally owing to the eutrophication the
proliferation of water hyacinth can still be a problem in the lake.
The pollution of Lake Victoria waters can be attributed to the discharge of domestic
sewage and industrial effluents, agricultural run-off laden with silt, residual fertilizers,
agrochemicals and other pollutants from urban areas and direct atmospheric depositions.
This deterioration is further exacerbated by in-lake pollution activities mostly along the
lake littoral zone and interference with littoral and terrestrial wetlands, which act as
traps and sinks of pollutants. All these problems are attributed to the increasing
population, which exerts anthropogenic pressures on the natural resources. The situation
is also further exacerbated by the increased river pollution. Though the Kenyan portion
of Lake Victoria is relatively small in size, its self-purification capabilities are affected
by its configuration and the shallow depth averaging about six metres. With a
population of about 12 million people in the basin, the demands for water has been, and
will continue to exert pressure on the resources within the lake basin.
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Owing to these concerns the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme
(LVEMP) was initiated in 1994 through a Tripartite Agreement between Kenya,
Uganda and Tanzania to monitor and improve this situation.
8.3. Water Quality Institutions
In 1980, the Kenya Government initiated a nationwide Water Quality Monitoring
Programme through the then Ministry of Water Development. The Ministry issued
guidelines for effluents standards for the control of water pollution. Under the
programme, two basic types of stations were established:
•
•
Reference/baseline stations in the upper catchments of the major rivers,
designed to provide baseline data on natural water quality in upland areas
relatively unaffected by human activity.
Impact stations sited downstream of major agricultural activities and industrial
as well as municipal areas near to point sources of pollution for water
pollution monitoring. Similar sampling stations were located further
downstream of such point sources to assess the river self-purification capacity.
The programme required each station to be sampled four times each year. Samples from
other sources outside the network were collected and analysed on a random basis or as
the need arose.
The Government approved the following strategy for an effective water quality and
pollution control programme for sustainable water resources management:
•
•
•
•
Establish effective water quality and effluent discharge standards and
guidelines and enforcement systems for water quality and pollution control.
Strengthen the capacity to monitor and enforce water quality and effluent
discharge standards.
Classify water bodies according to quality.
Create awareness on the effects of pollution.
This strategic plan has proposed the following activities:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Undertake studies on the extent and effect of pollution.
Prepare standards and guidelines for effluent discharge.
Strengthen the National Water Testing Laboratory and its regional branches
for effective water testing.
Develop, implement and monitor water quality and pollution control
management plans.
Enforce Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on proposed projects and
land-use changes.
Review the national water drinking standards.
Co-ordinate, collect, analyse and maintain the data on water resources.
In 2002, a new Water Act was passed to establish the framework through the Water
Resources Management Authority, to strengthen the National Water Quality Monitoring
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Programme to achieve effective monitoring of the country’s water resources. The Act
proposed the review of water abstraction and effluent disposal licenses together with
effluent discharge levies introduced as instruments for pollution control. The level of
the levy was set to cover the costs of treatment required for individual effluent
discharges in line with the Polluter – Pays Principle as stipulated in the Water Act 2002.
The Act provides the basis for comprehensive reforms in the water sector, which
include:
•
•
Defining the roles of the stakeholders in the water sector to eliminate conflicts
in institutional responsibilities.
Establishment of effective, efficient and autonomous institutions to manage
water resources and provide water and sanitation services.
From this the following institutions were established to operate as state corporations: •
•
•
•
The Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA), which has the overall
responsibility of ensuring the good management of the country’s water
resources.
The Water Services Regulatory Board (WSRB), which is responsible for the
regulation of water and sewerage services.
The Water Services Boards (WSB), of which there are seven, are responsible
for the efficient and economical provision of water and sewerage services
within their areas of jurisdiction.
The Water Appeal Board (WAB) provides a mechanism for the resolution of
disputes.
The main ministry responsible for the management of water resources is the Ministry of
Water & Irrigation (MOWI)
The functions of the MOWI include:
•
•
•
•
Review the Water Act on a regular basis.
Assess the water resources.
Develop strategies and methods of preservation, conservation, utilisation and
apportioning water resources.
Enforce water pollution control regulations in accordance with the provisions
of the Water Act.
There are at least nine other governmental organisations involved in water supplies.
This includes the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), which
operates under the Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources. NEMA is responsible
for the protection and conservation of rivers, lakes and wetlands and to issue guidelines
for their management. So far effluent discharge standards have not yet been established,
however guidelines which have been set to regulate the quality of effluents discharging
into water- bodies or sewers. These generalised effluent discharge guidelines (interim
pollution control guidelines) are adopted from the British Royal Commission Standards.
Though there is a significant investment in monitoring the Lake Victoria, the
implementation of the excellent national water quality programmes and strategies have
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still to be fully implemented. The on-going water sector reforms in Kenya are expected
to strengthen the National Water Quality Monitoring Program to achieve effective water
quality monitoring.
8.4. Laboratory & Monitoring
In the Lake Victoria basin, there are two laboratories under the MOWI. These
laboratories include the Central Laboratory in Kisumu, which also serves the LVEMP
and the Kakamega Laboratory, which serves the western province. The Kenya Marine
Fisheries Research Institute (KEMFRI) and the Lake Basin Development Authority
(LBDA) also have their own laboratories. The LVEMP laboratory has the most
comprehensive equipment, which covers basic analysis and metals with the Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer.
Since the late 1990’s the three East African countries of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda
have been implementing the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project
(LVEMP) as a comprehensive environmental programme for the conservation of Lake
Victoria waters and its catchment.
Water quality sampling and analysis is undertaken mainly by the following institutions:
•
•
•
•
The MOWI jointly with the LVEMP operates most of the stations established
by the ministry including nine in-lake monitoring stations. There are a few
monitoring stations which are operated by the provincial staff in Western
province.
The LVEMP operates about 100 monitoring stations, which are aligned to the
hydrological river gauging network in the basin.
KEMFRI operates eighteen water quality monitoring stations located at the
major river mouths, at the bays and islands in Lake Victoria.
The Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA) operates over thirty water
quality monitoring stations within the basin. Most of these stations coincide
with the stations operated by the LVEMP.
8.5. Water Quality Data Review
The data for the major rivers was submitted and the following results were noted:
1.
Sio River. 14 parameters were analysis as can be seen from the summary data
in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory.
2.
Nzoia River. 17 parameters were analysed as can be seen from the summary
data in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory, though there are 14 point
sources of domestic and industrial effluent.
3.
Yala River. 17 parameters were analysed as can be seen from the summary
data in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory apart from one excessively
high result for Nitrates of 614 mg/l. There are 4 major point sources of
domestic and industrial effluent.
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4.
Nyando River. 8 parameters were analysed as can be seen from the summary
data in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory apart from one very high
result for TDN of 430 mg/l. There are 4 major point sources of domestic and
industrial effluent.
5.
Gucha /Migori River. 13 parameters were analysed as can be seen from the
summary data in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory. There are 4 major
point sources of domestic and industrial effluent.
6.
Mara River. 12 parameters were analysed as can be seen from the summary
data in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory.
7.
Sondu/Miriu River. 10 parameters were analysed as can be seen from the
summary data in Appendix 2 the results were satisfactory. There are 4 major
point sources of domestic and industrial effluent.
8.6 Recommendations
8.6.1 National Recommendations
The LVEMP MWI is the laboratory that should be used as the NBI focus laboratory as
it is the main centre for water analysis, though it needs further support.
It was noted that the level of awareness on water quality issues is low and in order to
raise the level of awareness, the following activities are recommended.
•
•
Creation of awareness by mounting public awareness campaigns through
public meetings, the electronic and print media. The public would need to be
made aware of their responsibilities as the custodians of the environment
Publication and distribution of posters and leaflets depicting the benefits of
improved water quality.
The Nile Transboundary Environmental Action Program (NTEAP) could facilitate the
above tasks by providing the necessary financial and backstopping support.
The current situation on data and information exchange and networking between
stakeholders is low and in order to improve the situation, the following measures are
recommended:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Establishing a forum for the stakeholders to discuss and identify areas of
common interest.
Undertake inter-laboratory calibration to ensure data quality control.
Standardize data and information collection, processing and storage
procedures.
Develop a common database structure.
Encourage the publication of water quality bulletins.
In order to improve and attract adequate funding for water quality monitoring which is
currently low, the following processes are recommended:
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•
•
•
Commercialise the operations of the laboratories.
Introduce a levy on water abstraction and allocate part of the collected levy to
the water quality monitoring.
Introduce a levy on effluent discharge and apply the polluter-pays principle
with part of the funds raised being ploughed back into water quality
management activities.
The existing laboratory facilities in the Lake Victoria Basin have adequate capacity for
the task of water quality analysis. There is need however to improve equipment and the
co-ordination of staff.
On the monitoring of water quality, it is important to include the following parameters
and monitoring process in the list of important parameters monitored:
•
•
•
Mercury, lead and cadmium (Hg, Pb, Cd).
Biological monitoring as a warming system on the changes in water quality in
the stream/rivers.
Enhance sediment load monitoring.
It was noted that only KEMFRI laboratory is internationally accredited.
recommended that MWI and LBDA laboratories should also be accredited.
It is
For water quality assurance, it is recommended that a programme for ensuring water
quality assurance be initiated.
Based on the experience gained from the National Water Quality Monitoring Program,
which was initiated by the Government in 1980, the following recommendations should
be considered in the implementation of an effective water quality monitoring program.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The water quality monitoring operations should be given priority in budgetary
allocations.
Training of water quality personnel.
Identification and provision of appropriate laboratory and field equipment.
Establish a comprehensive water quality monitoring network of stations.
Development of a good database.
Training of database managers.
Inter-laboratory calibration is essential for the generation of credible data.
It is important to pool resources and avoid duplication in order to maximize
outputs and minimise wastage.
Water quality monitoring should be carried out on continuous basis and not at
random.
8.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
The following stations have been recommended for consideration as transboundary/basin wide
stations:
1.
All stations established in the lake: KL1, KL2, KL3, KL4, KL5, KL6, KP1,
KP2, KP3. These stations are fully geo-referenced (Refer to Annex 3).
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2.
All river gauging stations near the outlets of all major rivers and at or near
border crossings. These stations are tabulated in the Table 8.1 below:
Table 8.1 River Gauging Stations, Kenya
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
River
Sio
Nzoia
Yala
Nyando
Sondu-Miriu
Gucha-Migori
Amala
Mara
Nyangores..
Station
IAH1
IEF1
IFG3
IGD3
IJG4
IKB5
ILB2
ILA3
These are ideal points from which the trans-boundary monitoring points could be
selected. However further co-operative discussions should be held to ensure these points
conform with the minimum criterion for sampling points for all member NBI countries
as detailed Section 13.8.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13
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9.0 RWANDA
9.1 Water Resources Description
Rwanda is a landlocked country situated in the highland Equatorial region. The country
has a dense hydrographic network, which occupy an area of 128,190 ha. Lakes & rivers
cover an area of 7,260 ha and water in wetlands and valleys a total of 77,000ha. Rwanda
has two major water basins, divided by the Congo Nile Ridge. In the west lies the
Congo River Basin which covers 33% of the national territory and receives 10% of the
total national waters. To the east lies the Nile River Basin which covers 67% of the
territory and delivers 90% of the national waters. Waters of the Nile River Basin flow
out of the country through the Akagera River, the main tributary to Lake Victoria, the
source of the White Nile. The Akagera River contributes 9-10% of the total Nile
Waters.
The annual rainfall varies from 700-1400mm in the east and 1200-1400mm in the high
altitude region of the west. Owing to this high rainfall, the high altitude region is
susceptible to erosion, mass movement, whilst the low rainfall areas are susceptible to
flooding and drought. There are two rainfall seasons with the long south-easterly
monsoon rains between February and May, and the shorter north-easterly rains from
September to November. The run-off corresponds to the rainfall, with the highest peak
in May and the smaller peak in November. The river flows are attenuated by a number
of lakes and in particular by two sets of wetlands above and below the Rusumo Falls.
Figure 3. River Nyabalongo at Kigali, Rwanda
The Akagera Basin has a general elevation of 1200-1600m but has peaks reaching
4500m. Most of the basin has become intensively cultivated, resulting in erosion and
siltation from the high rainfall areas. The upper tributaries are generally steep but
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include flatter reaches where swamps have formed. The middle course of the river and
its tributaries above Rusumo Falls are extremely convoluted, producing regional
warping and drainage reversal, with some tributaries appearing to flow towards the
Congo. Between Kigali and Rusumo Falls the slope reduces from about 0.3m/km to
0.05m/km and the valley is filled with papyrus swamps up to 15 km wide. The average
flow is estimated to be 256 m3/s with a low flow of 85 m3/s at Akagera.
The main rivers in the Nile Basin of Rwanda are: the Mwogo, Rukarara, Mukungwa,
Base, Nyabarongo and the Akanyaru, which becomes the Akagera at the outlet of
Rweru Lake.
9.2 Sources of Pollution
The main sources of water pollution are domestic, commercial, industrial and
agricultural activities. A high proportion of the land in Rwanda is used for agricultural
purposes and this has risen with the increase in population. There is an extensive use of
fertilisers and pesticides. Unfortunately the pesticides in the water have not been
analysed and this needs to be investigated more extensively.
The wastewater from most towns and villages are not treated, such that there is
extensive faecal pollution in the rivers resulting in outbreaks of water borne diseases.It
is recommended that an inventory of each effluent producer be produced to highlight
the possible pollutants and to set up an appropriate analytical programme.
9.3 Water Quality Institutes
The Division of Hydrology and Water Resource is one of the three Divisions under the
Directorate of Water and Sanitation and has, among other duties, to monitor the national
quality and the quantity of the surface and ground water.
Before 1994, there were 47 hydrological stations in the country but since then the
numbers has decreased, though at four stations, Nyabarongo, Akanyaru, Kanzenze,
Rusumo, automated monitoring systems have been installed. In 2000, owing to the
decentralisation policy, the Division continued monitoring the key primary rivers, i.e.
the main tributaries of Akagera River, and Provincial governments were responsible for
the secondary rivers, and the rest were the responsibility of the Districts. However these
relatively new decentralised structures need to improve the monitoring of the rivers.
The Division has a database for water quality covered by previous projects or NGOs but
it is not complete. The National Water & Electricity Company also maintains a good
database on water quality especially for drinking water abstraction points.
MINTERE is responsible for the formulation of policies and laws aimed at the
protection and rational use of environment. In 1996, the National Agenda 21 and the
National Environment Strategy and Action Plan were updated. In 1999, the Ministry of
Agriculture, Animal Breeding, Environment and Rural Development were made
responsible for formulating the policy & law for the protection of the environment and
established the Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) in 2004 to
implement these laws.
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In May 1992, a government statement for the norms for the quality of the drinking
water was defined, but this framework law has not yet been adopted. The present
environmental laws are sectoral, old and inappropriate, which has a negative influence
on the management of natural resources and environment. Although the Rwandan
government apparently regards water quality and environment as a priority issue, it has
yet to pass the appropriate the laws that deal exclusively with them and therefore there
are no formal sampling/analytical programmes.
9.4 Laboratories
One of the main laboratories responsible for water quality is the Department of Water
within the Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forest, Water & Mines (MINITERE). It is
responsible for the physical, chemical and bacteriological analyses of drinking water in
rural areas. It is managed by a graduate Physical Chemist and assisted by four
technicians. It is mainly funded by UNICEF and recently the laboratory has transferred
to the Department of Science and Technology at the National University at Butare. It is
equipped for routine chemical and bacteriological analysis but not for advanced analysis
such as pesticides and heavy metals. It is recommended that initially via the NBI, it is
equipped with the field kit with full training for on- site analysis and sampling. The
more advanced analysis could be undertaken by a Regional NBI Laboratory e.g.
Uganda. However, in the next phase it is envisaged that MINITERE would be fully
equipped with an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) and a Gas Liquid
Chromatograph (GLC) with full training. The list of parameters recommended is
detailed in Appendix 1 and a contract for this analysis will be drawn up with the
Regional Laboratory and the MINTERE laboratory.
There are three other water laboratories in Kigali viz.: Rwanda Bureau of Standards,
Electrogaz & Ministry of Health and three in the National University at Butare.
9.5 Water Quality Data and Review
The water quality data was obtained over fourteen sites along the Nile Basin in August
September 2000 by the Department of Water & Purification of MINTERE. The data is
summarized in Appendix 2. Most of the results are satisfactory but there are a number
of anomalies that need further investigations. These include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
The low DO value of Mwongo of 0.74 mg/l when the temperature was not
excessive 19.8 degrees C.
The analysis of Iodine is an unusual parameter and normally this should be
absent but it was found at a concentration of 7.62mg/l at Nyabugogo.
Nyabugogo seems to be a hot spot, with high concentrations of Copper –
1.3mg/l, Fluoride - 1.85mg/l, Ammonia 1.7 mg/l (N) & Sodium high -105.3
mg/l.
Hexavalent Chromium was found in every sample ranging from 0.09 to 0.28
µg/l, whilst this is low, it is unusual.
The water is highly coloured ranging from 47 to 1240 degrees hazen, it would
be useful to ascertain if this parameter is “true colour” or “apparent colour”.
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9.6 Recommendations
9.6.1 National Recommendations
The wastewater from most towns and villages are not treated, such that there is
extensive faecal pollution in the rivers resulting in outbreaks of water borne diseases.It
is recommended that an inventory of each effluent producer be produced to highlight
the possible pollutants and to set up an appropriate analytical programme not only
nationally but also for the NBI.
MINITERE is responsible for the monitoring of the Nile Basin but since 1994 there has
been a deterioration of the monitoring and it has been further reduced by the
decentralised structure as some monitoring is now delegated to the Provinces. Although
the Rwandan government apparently regards water quality and environment as a
priority issue, it has yet to pass the appropriate laws that deal exclusively with them and
therefore there are no formal sampling/analytical programmes.
Owing these problems it is recommended that the country baseline report be used as a
platform for proposals to donors to assist in funding the resources for water quality
monitoring and to assist in the upgrading of the water legislation
9.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
It is recommended that initially via the NBI, MINITERE is equipped with the field kits
with full training for on- site analysis and sampling. The more advanced analysis could
be undertaken by a Regional NBI Laboratory e.g. Uganda. However, in the next phase it
is envisaged that MINITERE would be fully equipped with an AAS & a GLC with full
training. The list of parameters recommended is detailed in Appendix 1 and a contract
for this analysis will be drawn up with the Regional Laboratory and the MINTERE
laboratory.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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10.0 SUDAN
10.1. Water Resources Description
Sudan is a landlocked country of 2.38 million km2 with a population of 29.5 million. It
has two of the main Nile sub-basins - the White and Blue Nile. The White Nile flows
from Lake Albert through the Nimuli gorges at the Sudanese – Ugandan border. In
Sudan, it is called Bahr Eljebel (mountain river), which flows into the Sudd Swamps.
The Sudd consists of 6,000 – 100,000 km2 of vast swamps and shallow lakes such as
Lake Ambadi and Lake No and is the largest wetland in Africa. In the Sudd region the
Bahr Eljebel divides to form the Bahr Elzaraf River, both are joined by the Bahr Alarab,
Bahr Elghazal and other smaller rivers such as the Jur, Bosry, Yei, and Seewy, finally it
is joined by the River Sobat, just to the south of Malakal town, to form the White Nile.
Figure 4. Blue Nile Near Khartoum, Sudan
The Sudd Swamps acts as a buffer to spread the flow of the Nile over the year and also
as a purification system. The Sudd Wetland is flat, with a slope of only 0.01 percent or
less for 400 kilometres from south to north. The annual floods are a key feature
gradually expanding and running over the banks of the main Bahr Eljebel River then
sweeping northwards, and re-enters the main river channel supplemented by the Bahr
Elghazal River.
The swamp vegetation is of three types: permanent, semi-permanent (seasonal) and the
river flooded grasslands. Papyrus dominates the permanent swamp, whilst Typha
dominates the seasonal ones. In the latest study, 350 species of higher plants were
identified, but the area is relatively poor in its biodiversity compared to other African
wetlands because of the harsh environments such as drought, floods and fire.
The second main wetland is the Machar Marsh swamps, which covers an area of about
6500 km2. It receives the floodwater of the Baro River as well as the local rainfall and
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water flow from Ethiopia, which move slowly through the marshes to the Nile system.
It also has an important role in maintaining the river flow throughout the year. Other
important wetlands are located between the Rahad and Dinder rivers, the main
tributaries of the Blue Nile.
The River Sobat, originates from the highlands of southwest Ethiopia. It is formed of
two rivers, the Baro and Pibor south of Sennar, the Blue Nile is joined by two seasonal
tributaries, the Dinder and the Rahad. The Blue Nile joins the White Nile at the
confluence at Khartoum, after which the river system is called the Main Nile. This is
joined by the last main tributary, the Atbara, from the Ethiopian town of Atbara, after
which it flows into Egypt. The Blue Nile flood season extends during the period of June
to October and contributes about 68% of the Nile water budget. There are six cataracts
along the Nile, five of which are inside the Sudan (6th to the 2nd, the 1st being in Egypt).
The main dams in Sudan are: the Sennar Dam, Jebel Aulia Dam, Khashm Elgirba Dam
and the Roseires Dam. Sudan presently has the right to use 20.5 × 109m3 of the Nile
water and 95% is used in irrigation.
10.2 Sources of Pollution
A survey for the Nile System at Khartoum was undertaken in 2002 and 2004 to identify
sources of pollution. Nine sampling sites were chosen at the Blue, and the White Nile
and their confluence. The results were as follows:
•
•
•
•
Two sites at the Blue Nile and at the confluence recorded BOD values higher
than the maximum W.H.O. Guideline value.
All the sampling sites, apart from one, exceeded the WHO Oil and Grease
guideline values, with maximum values of 231 and 237 recorded at the power
stations on the Blue Nile.
The chromium (Cr+6) level of one sample from the White Nile was 0.42mg/l ten times greater than the W.H.O. guideline value.
The White Nile samples were more bacteriologically polluted than the Blue
Nile.
The annually suspended load from Ethiopia was estimated as 140 million tons. This
load causes many problems such as siltation of reservoirs, and irrigation canals and
blockage of hydro-electrical turbines.
Sudan has a great deal of commitment to agriculture, with the consequential application
of pesticides, which started in the 1930’s. D.D.T was used in the Gezira scheme in the
mid-forties until 1982, after which it was replaced by organophosphates & carbamates,
in 2004 neo-nicotinoids were introduced.
The first Act controlling the application of pesticides was passed in 1974; prior to this,
152 pesticides were used. The Act was updated in 1994. Over 500 compounds are
imported as pesticides. Unfortunately the poorer smaller farmers (10%) often do not
conform to the rules of safe application of pesticides, causing a number of pollution
incidents. Irrigation canals in the Gezira region were particularly prone to be major sites
of water pollution. Although concentrations of pesticide residues in the open water body
were lowered by dilution, adverse effects were recorded. In fact organochlorine residues
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have been recorded in fish from lake Nubia, more than 200km downstream. The fish
Hydrocyon Forkalii –‘Kass’ fat tissue was found to have the highest residue levels
ranging from 0.4 - 3.3 ppm, followed by muscles with concentrations 0.01- 0.25 ppm.
Unfortunately, the broad- based pesticides eliminate the natural predators of the pests
and increases the pests’ resistance, such that the dose of the pesticides has to increase
annually to be effective.
Sudan's economy greatly depends on the production of cotton for which an irrigated
area of about 0.5 million feddans is allocated per season. As cotton has a long growing
season it requires the extensive use of pesticides, herbicides and fungicides. Previously
the Gizera region had up to ten pesticides sprays per year; recently this has been
reduced to one. Intensification of agricultural production in other parts of Sudan such as
in the west and the east also suffers from run-off containing agricultural chemicals.
Unknown amounts of these chemicals reach the Nile system either through wind action
during spraying or run-off through the fields or irrigation canals during the rainy season.
The total amounts of pesticides used between 1993 and 1997 is shown in Appendix 2.
Fertilisers also cause severe problems in run-off and supplement the rise of the nutrients
in the rivers leading to algal blooms, multiplication of macrophytes and alter the
phytoplankton species composition and hence all the ecosystem components. Also
owing to the increased eutrophication of the lakes, there has been a proliferation of
water hyacinth. The pesticide 2-4.D has been used in chemical control water of the
hyacinth, which was efficient but the ecological consequences were considered to be
too dangerous and has been discontinued.
Together with the agricultural schemes, there are allied industries such as sugar
production, which are also located by the river, producing highly eutrophic effluent.
Increased urbanisation particularly in Khartoum and Wad Medani has also resulted in
further pollution of the Nile especially from sewage as only a relatively small
proportion of the towns have public sewage systems, the rest have individual cesspits.
The treated effluent from the sewage works is used for irrigation, but in the rainy
season most of this water goes directly into the river. Increased vehicles producing lead
particles and acidic gases often contaminate rivers by run-off from roads.
Finally, there are also problems with solid waste sites, from leachates migrating to the
rivers & power stations disposing of their exhaust oil into the rivers.
10.3 Water Quality Institutions
There are over 16 acts covering Water Management in Sudan. The Natural Water
Directorate reports to The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MoIER) and is
responsible for:
•
•
Ground Water and Wadis Directorate (GWWD), &
The Nile Water Directorate.
The GWWD has the Central Chemical and Environmental Isotopes Laboratories and
undertakes regular monitoring, and analysis of the Nile. Its remit includes:
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•
•
•
Development, management, and monitoring of water resources.
Formulate Polices and strategies in water resources management.
Process shared water issues with neighbouring countries at regional and
international level.
To achieve this, the MoIER has proposed the 25-year strategy, from 2002, for the
utilisation of the water resources.
The following departments are also within the MoIER:
•
•
•
The Hydraulic Research Station responsible for hydraulic, silt and
sedimentation research. The collection and processing of the hydrological data
is the joint responsibility of the MoIER and the Egyptian Irrigation
Department (EID). A monitoring gauging system has been established on the
Nile.
The Permanent Joint Technical Commission for Nile Waters (PJTC) is
responsible for the co-ordination between the Sudan and Egypt in Nile water
management.
The National Water Corporation, formed in 1992, is supervised by the
Irrigation and Water Resources Minister, but is technically part of the state’s
Ministries of Engineering Affairs. The Corporation is responsible for the
provision of the national drinking water supplies.
In 1995 after the Ministry of Environment and Tourism was created, the Council for
Environment and Natural Resources became its technical arm for natural resources
conservation. The Environmental Protection Act of 2001 defined the Council’s duties
which include:
•
•
•
•
Formulate environmental polices – in co-ordination with other institutions –
for the assessment, development, sustainable use and protection of natural
resources.
Formulate a long-term federal policy for sustainable use of natural resources.
Co-ordinate with the concerned institutions to make quality control measures
that lead to environmental protection.
Conserve all sources of water and protect them from pollution.
The council proposed the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) and
Study to be carried out throughout the country.
10.4 Laboratories
The main laboratory is the Ground Water and Wadis Directorate (GWWCL) Central
Laboratories established in 1989. It is responsible for monitoring the water quality in
Sudan and has carried out regular monitoring of the Nile. It has basic equipment but
unfortunately some important equipment is not functioning such as the pH meter,
Oxygen meter, Conductivity meter and Flame Photometer. It is well staffed with some
19 employees and has acquired a new AAS to analyse most metals.
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It participates in inter- laboratory Analytical Quality Control exercises organised by the
International Agency for Atomic Energy (IAAE), which includes a number of water
laboratories in other African countries. Despite this, it still needs extra support for
training and equipment.
There are at least eight other laboratories, which undertake water analysis, but do not
have the same extensive responsibilities as the GWWCL.
10.5 Water Quality Data
The GWWCL take regular water quality monitoring samples, three times a year from
three sites along the Nile:
•
•
•
Blue Nile (Soba),
White Nile (Malakal),
Nile (Dongola).
A summary of this data is shown in Appendix 2 together with analysis from other
sampling points some undertaken by the other laboratories. This data has been
processed to produce thematic Water Quality Maps as shown in Appendix 4.
It is recommended that these maps are used as a model for similar maps to be produced
in each country, and when complete to aggregate them to form a full water quality
profile map of the Nile. This would be an excellent way of displaying the baseline data.
Then subsequent maps could be produced on a yearly basis to ascertain the water
quality changes and the long-term trends.
The results show that the quality of the Nile in Sudan for the limited parameters is
satisfactory. However there were some salient points noted that include:
•
•
•
•
The fairly high value for ammonia 1.29 on the Suba Blue Nile, probably due
to faecal pollution.
The peak values for Turbidities and Total Suspended Solids were exceedingly
high up to 26950 mg/l, obviously due to the raining seasons producing very
high rates of erosion and siltation.
Technically, the chemical analysis should be expressed as a “<” value rather
than 0.
The Total Count is expressed as count/5ml, normally this is expressed as:
count/1ml.
10.6 Recommendations
10.6.1 National Recommendations
The following recommendations have been proposed
1.
The national water quality monitoring programme at the Ministry of Irrigation
and Water Resources should be strengthened. Provision of modern data
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storage facilities and laboratory equipment for the two sections of the National
Health Laboratory which had previously undertaken a monitoring programme.
2.
The sugar factories effluents and other industrial effluents- should be studied.
Their characteristics especially their B.O.D and C.O.D levels at their discharge
sites must be tested. The sanitary laboratory of the Civil Engineering
Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Khartoum could undertake
this if provided with more modern equipments such as data loggers.
3.
The ecological consequences of high nutrient inputs from agricultural run-off,
and high organic loads from industry could be studied if the Analytical
Laboratories of the Institute of Environmental Studies (IESAL) were provided
with modern scientific equipment.
.
It is recommended that the Country Baseline Report be used as a platform to apply for
funds from other donors to assist in providing further resources to improve the
implementation of pollution control.
10.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
The main water laboratory is the Ground Water and Wadis Directorate
(GWWCL)Central Laboratories was established in 1989. It has some basic equipment
that is not functioning such as the pH meter, Oxygen meter, Conductivity meter and
Flame Photometer. Many of these items are in the recommended field kit and
appropriate requests should be submitted. Those items not in the field kit could be
repaired or replaced for the project. At a later stage a GLC could be requested for the
analysis of pesticides but prior to this, the Regional Laboratory in Egypt could assist.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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11.0 TANZANIA
11.1 Water Resources Description
Tanzania is one of the riparian countries of the Nile Basin. The rainfall of Tanzania can
be divided into the following four regions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Coastal area, which is usually hot and humid with rainfall of about 1000 mm
per year.
Inland central area of the country, which receives rainfall of about 800 - 1000
mm per year.
The highland areas with cool climate and rainfall of about 2000 - 2500 mm per
year.
The lake regions, which include the plateaus around the great lakes of Africa
lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa receives rainfall of about 2000 - 2300
mm per year
The country is divided into the following nine water basins, five of which are
transboundary (T):
Pangani, Wami/Ruvu, Rufiji, Ruvuma and Southern Coast (T)), Lake Nyasa (T),
Internal Drainage, Lake Rukwa (T), Lake Tanganyika (T), and Lake Victoria (T). Lake
Victoria is one of the largest lakes in the world and is closely monitored on a tripartite
basis with Uganda and Kenya by a number of agencies. The largest agency is the Lake
Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP), which has been operating for
five years and has accumulated a great deal of water quality data for the Lake and its
environs.
11.2 Sources of Pollution
The quality of water in Tanzania is due to both natural factors and human activities.
Natural factors include occurrence of high fluoride concentrations and/or salinity in
natural waters. Human activity however has a greater influence on the quality of water.
Discharge of municipal and industrial wastewater, run-off from agricultural lands, and
erosion may result in high concentrations of nutrients and other oxygen demanding
substances in water; and pathogens and reduced transparency of the water. Although
these factors are known, there is no comprehensive national program for monitoring the
quality of water or pollution. Water utility companies are required by law to monitor the
quality of the water they supply and this includes monitoring the quality of the water
source.
Until June 1997, there was no regular water quality monitoring program for the
Tanzanian portion of the Nile Basin. The LVEMP program is the first comprehensive
programme on this part of the Nile Basin. The design of the monitoring network is
based on the objectives focusing on a range of water uses, including the water supply
for drinking, industry and irrigation, fish production, conservation of biodiversity,
navigation, and recreation. It also focuses on the media to be sampled including: water,
sediments and biota, for a range of variables - physical, chemical and biological
hydrological and meteorological parameters. This provides information on the
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relationship between the physical (hydrological and meteorological) processes and the
chemical/biological structure and the environmental problems.
The sampling stations’ field measurements, sample preservation and laboratory
analytical methods employed were jointly selected by the three Lake Victoria riparian
countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. This has facilitated the comparison of field
and laboratory data collected by the three countries. The Water Quality Monitoring
Network involves in-lake and catchment based stations. The in-lake monitoring network
consists of eighteen pelagic stations and eleven littoral stations.
Data from the lake details the physical, chemical and biological situation in the lake,
thereby providing information on the eutrophication and sedimentation processes. The
important physical processes include the stratification, horizontal and vertical
circulations in response to meteorological forcing phenomena. The frequency of total
vertical mixing is important for oxygen conditions and biological processes. These
considerations apply to the whole lake, but particularly to a number of bays and gulfs,
which are heavily loaded with nutrients and pollutants from large towns and cities
e.g. Mwanza gulf.
The catchment stations include thirteen hydrometric stations located along the major
lake rivers of Kagera, Isanga, Magogo/Moame, Simiyu/Duma, Mbarageti, Grumeti,
Mara and Mori. These stations were established under the Hydromet Project in early
1960s and 1970s. The catchment River monitoring network is used for monitoring point
sources of pollution and hydrological data from the catchment area.
There are extra monitoring stations and these stations include:
•
Dry and wet atmospheric monitoring stations located on the islands of Musila,
Karebe, Nabuyongo, Gabalema, and Lyamakabe and the urban centres of
Bukoba and Mwanza.
•
Municipal, Industrial effluents and urban runoff monitoring stations as
follows:
- Industrial effluent monitoring stations, Mwanza municipality (11), and
Bukoba town (3) and Musoma town (5),
- Municipal effluents monitoring stations in Mwanza (2), and
- Urban run-off monitoring stations in Bukoba (3), Musoma (3) and
Mwanza (9).
•
Impact stations are located near shore areas close to the point sources of
pollution in: Bukoba (6), Musoma, (6) and Mwanza city (6). The stations
monitor the impact of the effluents being discharged into the lake.
11.3 Institutional Framework
In 1974 the Ministry of Water and Energy together with the Ministry of Health
formulated the Domestic Water Standards and Effluent Standards which was amended
in 1981. In this Act there are three types of water standards: -
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1.
2.
3.
The Effluent Standards, which apply to all treated and untreated domestic and
industrial wastes;
The Receiving Water Standards, which apply to any water body into which
any effluent discharges and
The Temporary Standards for domestic water.
The effluent standards and the receiving water standards are intended to operate
simultaneously. The effluent standards give an indication of pollution concentrations of
individual institutions or agencies, whereas the receiving water standards serve as an
indicator for pollution concentrations of the water body for which the water is
ultimately intended.
The effluent standards are classified into two categories: those discharged directly into
receiving water bodies and effluents that are discharged to wastewater treatment plants,
i.e. before being allowed into receiving water bodies.
The receiving standards apply to any water body to which effluents are discharged.
These standards have an overriding predominance, in that any effluent discharging into
a water body should be seen not to pollute the receiving water. The receiving waters are
classified into three categories:
Category 1:
Water suitable for drinking water supplies, swimming pools, food and
beverage manufacturing industries, pharmaceutical industries or
industries requiring a water source of similar nature.
Category 2:
Water suitable for use of feeding domestic animals, fisheries, shell
culture, recreation and water contact sports.
Category 3:
Water suitable for irrigation and other industrial activities requiring
water of standards lower than those of Category 1 and 2.
The Water Act not only incorporates pollution control and prevention conditions in
water rights, but also includes a regime of consent for discharge of effluent.
The sanctioning strategy for pollution control of the Water Act includes penal measures,
which makes it an offence to pollute water, stream or watercourse or any body of
surface water to such an extent as to be likely to cause injury to public health. In terms
of institutional responsibility, the Act established a Central Water Board (CWB) and
Basin Water Boards. The former has territorial jurisdiction, while the latter has
jurisdiction within the area of the water basin in relation to any river section. The CWB
and the Basin Water Boards are responsible for the control and regulation of water
pollution. However the CWB has additional powers to recommend legislative measures
and standards to the Minister.
There are at least eight other Acts which include water quality aspects. The most recent
is the Environmental Management Act 2004. This Act aims to provide the legal
framework necessary for co-ordinating and harmonising conflicting activities, with a
view of integrating such activities into an overall sustainable environmental
management system.
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In theory the water/environmental Acts are quite comprehensive, however in practice
they are not so effective because of under-resourced Central Water Board & Basin
Water Boards, limiting enforcement; also the penalties are not severe enough to deter
polluters.
11.4 Laboratories
The Nile Basin is monitored by the LVEMP which is the water quality component
under the Ministry of Water & Livestock Development (MoWLD). The senior
management scientists are based at the LVEMP office at Mwanza and the other
Tanzanian laboratories are based along the Lake Victoria Basin at Bukoba and Musoma.
These laboratories have basic equipment but still require a GLC. They have some 26
water quality staff. There are full quality control procedures in place; the standard
analytical methods and inter-laboratory quality controls exercises are carried out in
collaboration with the Entebbe and Kisumi Laboratories.
They monitor some 21 parameters from the lake and catchment monitoring stations, on
a monthly basis and locations where effluent is produced are monitored bi-weekly.
Another component of the LVEMP, the Wetlands Management Programme that
concentrates on the sustainable utilisation of the wetlands to improve their buffering
capacity, is also partially involved in water quality monitoring.
In addition to the above, the water laboratories unit of the MoWLD have the following
on-going water quality monitoring programmes:
•
•
•
The GEMS water project,
Pangani and Rufiji basin Water Quality Monitoring Program,
Dar es Salaam Water Supply Quality Monitoring Program particularly for the
boreholes.
Finally, programmes are carried out by smaller groups of the riparian states within the
Nile, such as: the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Plan (NELSAP), which is
financing integrated water resources management projects for the trans-boundary rivers
of:
• Mara- Shared waters by Kenya and Tanzania,
• Kagera - Shared by Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania.
11.5 Water Quality Data
Lake Victoria has a significant buffering capacity in stabilising and reducing the
concentrations observed in the rivers. The data is shown in Appendix 2.
11.6 Recommendations
11.6.1 National Recommendations
The water and environmental Acts are quite comprehensive and the resources of the
Central Water Board and Basin Water Boards should be strengthened so that the
pollution laws can be enforced and appropriate penalties for defaulters can be levied.
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It is recommended that the Country Baseline Report be used as a platform to apply for
funds form other donors to assist in providing further resources to improve the
implementation of pollution control.
11.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
The LVEMP is a high profile well supported project, however the main laboratory does
not have the following:
1.
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) for the analysis of heavy metals in
industrial effluents and stream flow especially as there are a number of gold
mines within the basin and a number of factories (textiles and leather) whose
by-products are heavy metals
2.
Gas Liquid Chromatograph for pesticide analysis especially as the catchment
area is a rich agricultural area involved in farming of cotton and coffee both of
which are heavy consumers of agrochemicals.
It is recommended that the NBI assist in lobbying the LVEMP to obtain this essential
laboratory equipment for both projects.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13
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12.0 UGANDA
12.1. Water Resources Description
Almost all of Uganda’s water sources fall within the Nile Basin. Though endowed with
a network of drainage systems, there is disparity in the distribution both spatially and in
time. The rivers in the north and northeast (Karamoja) are very susceptible to seasonal
rainfall fluctuations.
The surface water resources fall into eight main sub-basins, namely: Lake Victoria
(shared with Kenya and Tanzania), Victoria Nile, Kyoga, Albert Nile, the Lakes George
and Edward, River Aswa and Kidepo Valley sub-basin. The yield in these catchments,
though very small compared to the total Nile outflow, dominates the water resource
potential of Uganda.
Of the total area in Uganda, 15.3% is open water, 3.0% permanent wetlands, and 9.4%
seasonal wetlands. There is an annual water supply in the form of rain and inflows,
which is unevenly distributed. Consequently there is limited availability of water in
some regions. The open water sources are mainly in the form of rivers and lakes. The
most significant water body in Uganda is Lake Victoria. The basins of the Lakes
Victoria, Edward, George, Albert and Kyoga are rich with floodplains, wetlands and
smaller satellite lakes that support abundant biodiversity and food production.
The River Nile is the only outflow from Lake Victoria. The 130km stretch from Lake
Victoria to Kyoga is the Victoria Nile. The Kyoga Nile drains Lake Kyoga, flowing
through a relatively flat terrain, and a series of rapids to Lake Albert. River Semiliki,
which drains Lakes George and Edward following the Rift Valley also flows into Lake
Albert, then flows from Lake Albert over a gentle slope to the Sudan border through the
Albert Nile reach.
Lake Victoria is an important purifier and oxygenator for the Nile River, and further
downstream, the extensive swampy margins of Lake Kyoga further improve water
quality and storage role of Lake Victoria.
Uganda’s wetlands cover about, 29,000 sq. km, or 12.4% of the total area of the
country. They comprise swamp (8,832 sq. km), swamp forest (365 sq. km) and sites
with impeded drainage 20,392 sq. km. There are basically two broad distributions of
wetland ecosystems:
•
•
the natural lakes and lacustrine swamps which include: Lake Victoria region,
Kyoga swamp complex, L. George area, L. Kyoga area, L.Edward wetlands,
L. Albert area, Bunyonyi swamp, Kijanebarola swamp, Bisinia and Opeta
lakes area, L. Wamala area and wetlands associated with minor lakes;
the riverine and flood plain wetlands which are associated with the major river
systems in Uganda. These include: R. Nile, R. Kafu, R. Mpologoma and R.
Aswa. Apart from Sango Bay, the bulk of Uganda’s wetlands lie outside
protected areas.
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The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and air currents such as the monsoons
influence the climate. Locally, the amount and distribution of rainfall are dependent on
orographic effects, the proximity to water bodies such as Lake Victoria, and the main
moisture bearing winds. Uganda’s rainfall pattern has bi-modal characteristics. In most
parts of the country, the seasons are fairly well marked – as rainy and dry seasons.
Compared to the rest of sub-Saharan Africa, Uganda is well endowed with one of the
most favourable climates for agricultural production, and as farms are dependent on the
amounts of rainfall received, this water is the most important water resource in Uganda.
The average annual rainfall in Uganda varies from about 700mm in the semi-arid areas
of Kotido district to 2000mm on the Islands of Kalangala in Lake Victoria.
The mean temperatures over the whole country show great variation, depending on
elevation and landscape. Temperatures over most of the country range between 15 to
35°C all year round. For areas adjacent to water bodies such as Lake Victoria, maritime
conditions tend to modify the temperatures. The variation in mean monthly and annual
evaporation rates is much smaller than corresponding variations in rainfall.
12.2 Sources of Pollution
Agriculture constitutes the largest land-use in the country, but land for cultivation has
been declining. There is an increased demand and use of agrochemicals by commercial
farms and peasant farmers including pesticides, fungicides, herbicides and fertilizers,
which is of concern to environmental management, and on water quality. Agricultural
practices are the main sources of nitrogen and phosphorous inputs into Lake Victoria.
They account for 50% of nitrogen and 56% of phosphorus, from all sources.
There is on-going exploration for oil in the Pakwach basin, Northern Lake Albert Basin,
Southern Lake Albert-Semliki, Lakes Edward-George Basin, and Rhino Camp basin.
The exploitation of petroleum poses a threat to the water systems and ecosystems of
Lake Albert, and Lake Edward basins.
The areas of hilly terrain have been prone to soil erosion, with the most serious affected
districts being the steep slopes of Kabale, Kisoro, Bundibudyo, Kasese, Kabarole,
Kapchorwa and Mbale districts. Other districts such as Kabale, Kisoro, Sironko and
Mbale have been prone to landslides. This soil erosion has resulted in increased
turbidity and siltation of surface water sources.
In 1999, Uganda’s livestock population of cattle, sheep and goat was 4.5 million, with
an estimated water demand of about 81 million m3/yr with projections of up to 255
million m3/yr by 2010. This is one of the main environmental problems associated with
pastoralism alongside over-stocking, leading to the depletion of drinking water sources,
degradation of vegetation and soil erosion.
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Figure 5: Left: River Kaptokwoi, Uganda, flows with dirty water due to soil erosion.
Cultivation in the slopes of Mt Elgon has contributed to the heavy soil erosion.
Right: Clean water for Sipi River, Uganda, indicating good catchment management.
Deterioration in water quality has a direct impact on the aquatic biodiversity, and the
threats include eutrophication due to pollution, poor land-use practices and degradation
of riparian vegetation, and decrease in oxygen levels due to algal blooms. The impacts
of deteriorating water quality are already felt in terms of increased costs for raw water
treatment, siltation of water sources, algal blooms and the water hyacinth, polluted
drinking water sources, and prevalence of water borne diseases.
The point sources for pollutants include industrial effluents, sewerage and municipal
effluents, and domestic effluents, with urban centres accounting for 77% of the
pollutant load into Lake Victoria. However, it is also polluted by agricultural run-off
exacerbated by changing land-use, as well as atmospheric deposition of pollutants. The
detection of pesticide residues and nutrient loads into surface water bodies is an
indicator of these sources.
Point sources of industrial effluent monitored indicate varying pollution levels, both in
time and spatially. Most of the pollution is localised, as there are no traces of similar
values downstream. The pollution is indicated by depleted oxygen levels at impact
points such as in streams and swamps of discharge (Kyambogo, Kinawataka, Bwaise,
and Kitante streams/swamps in Kampala and Nakayiba swamp in Mbarara). Trace metal
residues in lake sediments and in tissues of common fish species in Lake George have
also been found.
Often the pollutant load results from poor housekeeping practices in industry, and the
adoption of cleaner production measures, as well as end of pipe technologies, such as
the construction of effluent treatment plants and the application of tertiary treatment
with constructed wetlands, could alleviate the problems.
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The pollutants associated with the different industries are noted in Table 12.1
Table 12.1 Effluent characteristics for the common industries
Industry
Abattoir
Brewery
Distilleries
Fish Processing
Meat Processing
Oil and Soap
Battery production
Dairy
Galvanising
Paints
Pharmaceuticals
Soft drinks
Sugar manufacturing
Textiles
Effluent Pollutants
BOD, nitrogen, phosphorus, suspended solids
BOD, COD, detergents
BOD, COD
BOD, COD, nitrogen, phosphorus
BOD, nitrogen, phosphorus, suspended solids
BOD, COD
Heavy metals, oil, lubricants, acids
BOD, COD, detergents, oil
Heavy metals, oil, lubricants, acids
Xenobiotics, heavy metals
BOD, COD, xenobiotics
BOD, COD, detergents
BOD, COD, TSS
Xenobiotics, heavy metals, BOD, COD
Mining has also caused pollution problems, such as the Kasese Cobalt Plant in South
Western Uganda. The tailings of the defunct Kilembe Copper mine dam is subject to
precipitation and treatment prior to discharge into the Rukooki River. The effluent is
regularly monitored and highly controlled.
Breweries also cause problems, such as the UBL beer plant located at Portbell, on the
north shores of Lake Victoria. Its pollutant load into the lake has been of concern,
amounting to 3500 mg/l of BOD, 3400 mg/l in TSS and pH of up to 11, at a discharge
rate of 3750m3/hr. However the plant has since invested in clean technology practices,
and regular effluent monitoring. This load is set to comply with the national standards,
i.e. 50mg/l of BOD, 1200 mg/l of TDS and pH 6-8.
The discharge of solid waste is problem and uncontrolled municipal dumps are used
which produce leachates especially during the rainy season. However there is a pilot
demonstration controlled waste tip in Kiteczi, which is being used as an example to
other municipalities.
Following a recent survey in the predominantly rural districts, and neighbouring major
water bodies which included, Kampala, Wakiso, Mbarara, Mukono, Nakasongola,
Mbale and Jinja, there are water quality concerns resulting from: industrial pollution;
faecal and domestic pollution; degradation of riverbanks and lakeshores, as well as
wetland reclamation producing increased turbidity and siltation.
Other problem activities include local liquor distillation in river systems (Crude Waragi
distillation) with impacts such as increased BOD, and faecal contamination of water
sources due to lack of sanitary facilities.
Makere University conducts a number of research projects into water quality and
pollution. Regular monitoring of organic pollutants at the shores of Lake Victoria such
as: organochlorine pesticides, pyrethroids, organophoshates, and carbamates. The sites
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monitored on a quarterly basis include: the Napoleon Gulf, Murchison Bay, Waiya Bay
and Kisubi Bay, to ascertain the impact of agricultural activities on lake water quality.
The land-use includes: sugarcane estates, tea estates, and horticultural farms. Heavy
metal trails and their distribution in Lake Victoria have also been studied.
The following are the water quality concerns/major threats within the Nile basin
catchments in Uganda:
1.
Siltation: This has resulted mainly from degradation of wetland,
riverine or lake shore ecosystems, and degradation of land cover.
2.
Atmospheric deposition: This is of concern particularly for major
water bodies, such as Lake Victoria.
3.
Industrial effluent streams discharged into water bodies or local
streams and rivers not meeting national standards.
4.
Agricultural run-off: With increasing modernisation of agriculture,
and a higher demand and application of agrochemicals such as
fertilizers, pesticides, poses pollution threat to water systems.
5.
Eutrophication: nutrient loads into the water bodies will lead to
increased eutrophication, as well as de-oxygenation, thus threatening aquatic
life and lake productivity.
6.
Proliferation of water hyacinth in the lakes causing biodiversity and economic
losses in the near-shore areas of Lake Victoria.
7.
Limited monitoring of the effect and fate of heavy metals, and residues from
the use of chemical herbicides and pesticides.
8.
Wetland degradation: encroachment on wetlands particularly around
industrialized districts such as Kampala will lead to loss of pollutant filtration
values, and more pollutants discharged into surface water systems;
9.
Limited capacities: At National, District and within the private sector,
capacities for enforcement of byelaws and in water quality assessment and
monitoring are limited.
10. Population pressure contributing to the existence of “hot spots”, caused by
human waste, urban runoff, municipal effluent.
11. Heavy metals discharge from tailing dams from redundant copper mines
require controlling and monitoring.
.
12.3 Legislation
The National Policy for Water Resources Management which promotes an integrated
sustainable approach to the water resources was approved in 1999 by the Ministry of
Water, Lands and Environment. This covers both water management and development
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and takes into account previous acts such as the Water Act (1995) and the Water Action
Plan (1995).
The National Water Policy includes international resolutions, declarations and
guidelines for the improvement of the water sector situation at country level, such as:
•
•
•
International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade,
UN Conference on Environment and Development – Rio de Janeiro (June
1992),
Regional obligations including membership in the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI),
Inter-Governmental Agency for Drought 1986, Kagera Basin Organisation
1997, Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation 1994, and the Lake Victoria
Environment Management Programme.
A number of policy initiatives at national level have been fundamental in shaping the
Water Sector Policy especially:
•
•
•
•
•
•
The National Environment Management Policy (1994),
The Environment Act (Cap 153),
The Land Act (1998),
The Local Government Act (1997),
The Water Act (Cap 152),
The National Water and Sewerage Corporation Act, (Cap 317)
The Acts that focus on Water Resources and Water Quality include:
•
•
The Water Resources Regulations, 1998.
The National Environment (Wetlands, River Banks And Lake Shores
Management, Regulations), 2000.
The legal regulations that control pollution include
•
•
•
•
•
The Water (Waste Discharge) Regulations, 1998.
The National Environment (Standards for Discharge of Effluents into Water or
on Land), 1999.
National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, 1999.
The Environment Impact Assessment Regulations, 1998.
The Sewerage Regulations, 1999
NEMA has delegated the management of the wastewater discharge permit system to the
Directorate of Water Development (DWD). At district level, comments on applications
for waste discharge permits are publicised and public hearings organized. The holders
of wastewater discharge permits provide quarterly reports to DWD on the status of
effluent discharged. Charges on waste-discharge into open water or river courses have
been introduced based on effluent quality, load and annual environmental audits.
However the implementation of this pollution control system is still in its early stages.
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12.4 Laboratories
The main government water laboratories include:
•
•
•
•
The Water Resources Management Department (WRMD).
The Fisheries Resources Research Institute (FIRRI).
The Uganda National Standards Bureau (UNBS).
The National Water & Sewerage Corporation (NWSC)
There are also Teaching and Research Institutions (Departments of Chemistry and
Geology, MUK) and Private/Commercial laboratories (Chemiphar).
One of the best laboratories is the WRMD, which has undertaken the analysis quoted in
the tables and is located at Entebbe. It has a Gas Liquid Chromatograph and an Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer, and so is capable of undertaking most of the analysis
recommended in Appendix 1. It is undergoing accreditation with SANAS so all the
proper quality control procedures should be in place.
12.5 Water Quality Data
Table X1 in Appendix 2, presents maximum and minimum water quality values for
impact points monitored during 2003 and 2004 by the WRMD water quality monitoring
network. From the WRMD data, there is variation in river water quality both in space
and time. Parameters of concern include TSS, TDS, EC, COD and the incredibly high
value for the nitrite is especially worrying. Analytical results for ammonia, chlorophyll
A, sediments, as well as analysis of other major ions such as chlorides, magnesium and
calcium, and organic pollutants are not listed. The total alkalinity values above 100ppm
indicate self-buffering capacity of the rivers, though higher values could render the river
water unsuitable for irrigation and other domestic use. The majority of the rivers
monitored have total alkalinity values between 20-200mg/l typical of fresh water.
The Table X2 (Appendix 2) presents a summary of maximum and minimum values of
regularly monitored parameters for the dry and wet seasons of 2003 and 2004. Most of
the results are satisfactory, though the COD & TDS values for the dry season of 2003
seem rather high. On a technical note chemical concentrations should be expressed as <
rather than 0 values.
Table X3 (Appendix 3) presents the maximum and minimum water quality results for
the surface waters/lakes over the period 2003 and 2004, monitored by the WRMD water
quality network. The high values of colour, TDS, EC, TSS, pH, hardness, nutrient
content, BOD, and COD, and in some cases depleted oxygen levels and pH are of
concern. However background information and more analytical data is required in
interpreting these values, such as catchment land-use, and pollutant loads from rivers
and streams. Further analysis of lake sediments, aquatic biological tissues, as well as
fish, invertebrate, and algal communities could provide further understanding of the
lake water quality status.
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12.6 Recommendations
12.6.1 National Recommendations
Uganda has excellent regulations and legislation for pollution control but unfortunately
their implementation is limited. It is recommended that more resources are acquired
nationally to overcome this problem
12.6.2 Transboundary Recommendations
Uganda has an excellent water laboratory with modern equipment and trained staff. It is
recommended that this laboratory is used as regional laboratory to assist with the
analysis and training for other neighbouring countries that do not have such facilities.
Uganda also has excellent GIS facilities and staff; it would be useful to NBI if these
could be applied to the project.
There are a number of further transboundary recommendations, which are similar to the
other member countries and these are detailed in Section 13.
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13. OBSERVATIONS
It is clear that the countries all seem to suffer from similar problems viz.:
1. Many are riparian countries dependent on an agricultural economy which gives
the following problems:
i) Non-point pollution from fertilisers giving high nitrate and phosphate levels.
ii) Non-point pollution from pesticides, herbicides, and other complex organic
compounds.
iii) Over cultivation by deforestation resulting in soil erosion and sedimentation.
2. Poor, domestic wastewater treatment, resulting in faecal contamination resulting
in high bacteriological counts, as well as higher ammonia, and chloride
concentrations, high BOD & COD values. In severe cases they can lower the
DO values resulting in fish kills.
3. Insufficient treatment of industrial waste waters which can raise also the BOD
values and produce additional pollutants such as heavy metals, and complex
toxic organic compounds.
4. Tanneries cause great problems with chromium pollution.
5. Mining causes problems with acids, heavy metals such as mercury and toxic
compounds such as cyanides.
6. Some countries particularly those on the rift valley can have natural pollutants
such as fluoride.
13.1 Point Water Pollution Control
The point pollution problems can be solved by wastewater treatment prior to disposal or
by clean production procedures. All the countries have the legislation to enforce
wastewater treatment, although the quality of this legislation is very variable between
the countries. The main problem is the enforcement of the legislation. It is
comparatively easy to pass laws and produce commendable water quality policies
promising high ideals, but the difficulty appears to actually implement these laws and
policies. However it could be argued that though this maybe true initially, but once the
policing becomes efficient the “polluter pays principal” should make the system self
sustaining. However there is concern that these penalties could make companies less
viable, which may encourage companies to relocate abroad, thus producing adverse
economic consequences for the country.
To overcome this dilemma it is recommended that a concerted effort be made to set up a
more acceptable pollution monitoring system, which accepts that many industries may
not be able to completely cease discharging immediately. However, if they can quantify
their problems and are charged accordingly, initially not punitively, but can agree dates
to reduce their pollution loads with financial incentives, as in the banded system, then
this would motivate the effluent producers to reduce their pollutants.
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The first step to initiate this scheme, and as part of the baseline data, would be for each
country to complete a full inventory of all effluent producers along the Nile Basin. This
should include: the geographical co-ordinates, the type of effluent and the possible
pollutants. Some countries such as Egypt and Uganda have already produced this. This
information should be secure by not divulging the name and contact details of the
company externally.
13.2 Non Point Water Pollution Control
Non-point pollutants such as pesticides are more difficult to control. However, a means
of assessing the situation is a desktop study that should be undertaken by of all the
agricultural areas in the Nile Basin recording:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A list and locations of crops;
Pesticides associated with these crops;
Quantities of pesticides imported and purchased by the farmers;
Frequency of applications, and
Times the pesticides are applied.
This information should be collated from the FAO, the Farmers, The Farmers Union,
The Ministry of Agriculture, and the Pesticide Suppliers.
From this data, a sampling scheme should be drafted and implemented. The results of
this pesticide water-monitoring programme could be submitted at a country workshop
with all the stakeholders to produce an action plan to reduce run-off by the priority
pesticides. Farmers should be encouraged to localise run-off by the use of ditches and
channels, etc., which could be used as sampling points, which could then be monitored
as a point source. Similar schemes could be used for other agricultural chemicals such
as fertilisers.
With all these schemes it is important to involve the local stakeholders to ensure that
they understand the concepts and the importance of pollution control.
13.3 Siltation
Siltation is arguably one of the worst problems that affect the Nile particularly from
Ethiopia where soil erosion is extensive on the plateau amounting to 140 million tons
per year and causing the dams in Sudan to silt up by 5% each year. This problem also
occurs elsewhere on the White Nile. It causes high turbidities and total suspended
solids in the rivers, silts up the dams and erodes the lands initiating desertification. The
benefits are that the silt is excellent fertile soil and could act as an absorbent coagulant
for certain pollutants. One way to reduce the soil erosion is by the planting of trees, but
often with the demographic changes caused by the wars and natural disasters, the
reverse happens with deforestation prevalent. To prevent this the government need to be
especially vigilant in managing the land especially in the river basins
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Figure 6. Large siltation islands on the Blue Nile outside Khartoum, Sudan
Research is continuing into siltation prevention schemes and it would be useful to
investigate whether the sediment in the water does actually improve the self-purification
of the river and which pollutants are removed. It would also be useful to process the
data to investigate if there is a relationship between total suspended solids and turbidity
values.
13.4 Pollution Threats
Solid waste dumping is variable in each country and this can only be controlled by good
legislation, controls and designated waste tips. In the developed countries, waste tax and
recycling schemes have been established to reduce this pollution load.
Countries should list threats to pollution such as storage of chemicals close to the Nile,
or factories that do not produce effluent but could produce a waste problem following a
disaster. It is recommended that an inventory of such sites also be made. A Hazard
Assessment study could then be undertaken to produce emergency contingency plans.
In the developed countries periodic emergency trials are undertaken to ensure all the
stakeholders can efficiently deal with such a crisis. This is particularly important in
dealing with trans-boundary pollution control.
13.4 Trans-Boundary Pollution Control
During this study it was noted that a minor pollution incident did occur between two
countries in February 2005. Unfortunately there appeared to be no definitive guidelines
to deal with this situation. It must be one of the priority issues for this project to
establish very clear- cut procedures to deal with these situations, formally agreed
between all countries. These procedures should include the following:
1. Contact details of all the senior stakeholders.
2. Prioritised action plan diagram with all contact details.
3. A rota drawn up to ensure at least the main senior stakeholders are available 24
hours a day.
4. When the pollution incident occurs, all parameters should be noted and analysed
as quickly as possible. By using the recorded river flow from the closest
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hydrological station to track the lifetime of the pollutant as it flows downstream,
as well as continually monitoring the pollution site. At the time it may be
expedient to monitor a surrogate indicative parameter, rather than track the
pollutant itself, but taking preserved samples for further analysis later.
5. When the pollution has disappeared, a report should be submitted by each
affected country. This should be discussed technically by the senior
stakeholders, including the appropriate NBI members in an enquiry held in
private.
6. The output of the investigation should establish ways to improve the procedures,
and to prevent such an incident happening again. It should never be used as a
way of apportioning blame between different countries, as this will only
encourage countries to try to hide such incidences, resulting in the deterioration
of the Nile for all countries.
13.5 Laboratories
Each country has facilities to monitor and analyse the water, but the quality of these are
very mixed. At least four countries had fairly advanced equipment and the rest had
minimal facilities. For a baseline study to be undertaken, it is vital that quality of the
data is reliable and consistent. Ideally each country should have the same good quality
equipment but at this time it is not feasible. Therefore it is recommended that certain
analyses, particularly heavy metals and organic pesticides, be undertaken by regional
laboratories in neighbouring countries. These laboratories could also check on the basic
analysis as well to ensure parity of the results. A comparative table has been drafted
indicating the laboratory facilities for each country in Appendix 6.
All the reports would be an ideal platform for proposals to justify support from other
donors to increase water monitoring resources on a National level. It is recommended
that a workshop is established with the main donors for training and advice in producing
such proposals.
Many laboratories have requested further training. It would be useful for each country to
submit details of their training requirements which could be submitted at the NBI water
quality workshop with a view to establish a training programme.
The quality control, sampling procedures and analytical methods are variable. It is
recommended that all these procedures are standardised and written out as formal NBI
methods and issued for compliance by all members.
13.6 Water Quality Maps
As a means of presenting the baseline data in an understandable format, water quality
thematic maps are proposed.
A number of maps have been drafted for Sudan, (Appendix 4), which show the
following:
1. Values for the 4 parameters: pH, Electrical Conductivity, Chloride, and Nitrate
2. Land Cover
3. Settlements
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This data will be integrated together to ascertain the relationships between these
variables. The data has also been presented as a water quality profile along the Nile to
show how the parameter changes.
It is proposed that similar maps are produced for each country and then amalgamated to
produce single water quality maps of the Nile with the corresponding Water Quality
Nile Profile.
It is feasible to refine the maps to calculate the water quality polygons as a function of
river flows. This could be used to show the purification zones within the river and the
distances pollutants could travel before disappearing.
13.7 GIS and Computer Modelling
Thematic maps and water quality profiles can be an excellent way of assisting in the
understanding and managing the water quality within the Nile basin and should be
developed for all countries.
A Decision Support System (DSS) is an interactive computer-based system intended to
help managers make decisions, through support for retrieving, summarising and
analysing relevant data. DSS can be designed to help river basin managers (and other
users) identify their water quantity and quality problems and select appropriate best
management practices (BMP). The strategic choice and placement of BMP in the river
basin can successfully reduce the input of individual pollutants and can improve water
quality.
In practice, this corresponds to gathering of selected geo-referenced data in a searchable
database, and applying models that will retrieve and analyse this data for pre-defined
purposes.
It is recommended that computerised models should be developed as a part of the DSS
for the Nile Basin management, addressing water quantity, pollution dynamics,
eutrophication and siltation forecasting. The data from the databases built up within the
project and extended with hydrological measurements will be used for the calibration of
the models. This could be a sub- project using the facilities at LVEMP and the NBI.
13.8 Water Quality Monitoring
Many countries recommended a large number of sampling points to establish the water
quality baseline, which is true for a National Baseline. However for the trans-boundary
baseline, resources are limited, so the sampling points will have to be restricted to about
3 or 4 per country or per major Nile tributary in the country. Ideally more points would
be useful especially if they could be monitored under the national programmes.
It is recommended that the site for each of these points will be at a Hydrological Station,
so that flows and levels can be recorded at the same time of sampling. It is therefore
proposed that each country recommend these three sampling points ensuring they will
be indicative of the water quality as it arrives, travels and exits the country.
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It is recommended that water and sediment samples are taken quarterly and ideally the
sampling should be sequentially between countries so that parameters are monitored and
tracked as they flow down the Nile.
To provide an in-depth water quality baseline comparable to the developed world the
parameters required are shown in Appendix 1. However this list of parameters would be
a large increase in the analysis for most countries compared with their previous analysis
and would be very difficult to be undertaken. Therefore as an interim measure the
number of parameters could be reduced to simple nutrient analysis, chemical, physical
analysis and biological analysis. Initially simple biotic indices should be carried out;
training will be required for sampling and analysis possibly by experts from the
LVEMP.
This simplified technique was used in the UK by the Environmental Agency in the UK
and provided sufficient data to establish a General Quality Assessment (GQA) of
surface waters to check whether the water had improved or deteriorated over a three
year period and could be applied to transboundary points on the Nile. However to
ensure that these parameters are meaningful, the analysis should be validated by each
laboratory with full quality control charts. This will ensure that although the number of
parameters are limited, the quality of the results from all the countries will be consistent
and accurate.
13.8 1 Future Monitoring
When the NBI Water Quality Team are confident in the above recommended analysis, it
should progress to undertake more comprehensive ecological surveys at each point
called the Biological Quality Element (BQE) which focuses on abundance & species
composition of:
•
•
•
•
•
Phytoplancton
Phytobentos
Macrophytes
Macro-invertebrates
Fish.
Similarly when all countries are confident in this analysis with validated methods and
quality control procedures in place, the list should expand to include those detailed in
Appendix 1.
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14.0 ACTION PLAN
As a guide to progress the recommendations of the Baseline Study, a draft action plan is
given below and also copied separately in Appendix 5.
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Initial Action Plan For Nile Basin Baseline Study
Month
All countries to prepare for
workshop
Workshop
Purchase Laboratory Equipment
for each Country
All Labs. to validate methods for
all assigned parameters
All countries implement
transboundaty sampling schedule
All Countries to assist in
producing National WQ Maps
Consultant to write standardised
NBI Analystical Methods
Consultant to develop monitoring
Training Schedules
Consultant to establish Analytical
Quality Controls
Construct the definitive GIS map
of the Water Quality indicative
parameters for the Nile Basin.
Progress Workshops
Archive all Analytical Data
Report on WQ monitoring
Make Recommendations for
Phase 2 of Project
Implement Training Schedules
Final Report
Interim Progress Reports
2 0 0 5
2 0 0 6
2 0 0 7
2 0 0 8
Ma JunJul AugSe Oc No De JanFebMa Ap Ma JunJul AugSe Oc No De JanFebMa Ap Ma JunJul AugSe Oc No De JanFebMa Ap Ma
***********
*****
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****************************
*********************************************************************************************************************************
******************************
*************************
***********************************
*******************************
**********
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****
****
************************************************************************************************************* **********
*********************************************************************************************************************
***********
****************************************************************
*****
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*****
*****
*****
APPENDIX 1
RECOMMENDED ANALYSIS
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Parameters Recommended for the General Quality Assessment
Nutrient Analysis
Nitrate-Nitrogen
Phosphate (Soluble)
Chemical Analysis
Ammonia-Nitrogen
Dissolved Oxygen
BOD
Physical Analysis
pH
Electrical Conductivity
Colour
Turbidity
Odour Quality Odour
Biological Analysis
Biotic Index
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Parameters for Full Baseline Survey
1) Ammonia-Nitrogen (OS)
2) *Arsenic
3) Alkalinity (OS)
4) BOD
5) *Cadmium
6) Calcium
7) Chloride
8) *Chromium (VI)
9) COD
10) Colour
11) *Copper
12) *Cyanide (Total)
13) Detergents
14) Dissolved Oxygen (OS)
15) Electrical Conductivity (OS)
16) Fluoride
17) Kjeldahl Nitrogen
18) *Iron
19) *Lead
20) Magnesium
21) *Manganese
22) *Mercury
23) Nitrate-Nitrogen (OS)
24) Nitrite – Nitrogen (OS)
25) *Oil & Grease
26) Pesticides- from Desktop Survey
27) *Phosphate (Total)
28) Phosphate (Soluble)
29) pH (OS)
30) Silicate (Dissolved)
31) Sodium
32) Sulphate
33) TDS
34) Turbidity (OS)
35) Temperature
36) TSS
37) Turbidity
38) *Zinc
39) Faecal Streptococci
40) Faecal Coliform
41) Total Coliform
42) Chlorophyll- a
(* = Analysis carried out on the wet-sieved 63 µm fraction)
Key:
* = Parameters should be analysed also in sediments. Sediments should always be taken from
both left and right profile when sampling at the main river bed. Only wet-sieved 63 µm
fraction of sediments should be analysed in order to be able to compare data from different
sampling sites.
OS= Parameters analysed on-site and confirmed in laboratory
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Recommended Extra Parameters to be analysed in Future Baseline Studies with
Limits
Name of substance
Maximum
Acceptable
Concentrations
in µg/l
Alachlor
Aluminum
Anthracene
Atrazine
Benzene
Barium
0.7
0.4
2.9
49
Boron
Brominated
diphenylether
deca BDE
octa BDE
penta BDE
Chloroalkanes, C10-13
Chlorfenvinphos
Chlorpyrifos
*Chromium Total
1,2-dichloroethane
Dichloromethane
Di(2ethylhexyl)phthalate
(DEHP)
Diuron
Endosulfan
(alpha-endosulfan)
Fluoranthene
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
--1.4
1.4
0.3
0.1
1180
1900
--
1.8
0.01
0.9
0.05
0.6
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Name of substance
Maximum
Acceptable
Concentrations
in µg/l
Hexachlorocyclohexane
HCH gamma-isomer,
Lindane)
Isoproturon
Naphthalene
Nickel
Nonylphenol(4(para)nonylphenol
Octylphenol(para-tertoctylphenol
PCB’s
*PAH’s:
(benzo(a)pyrene),(benzo
(b)flouranthene),
(benzo(k)flouranthene
Pentachlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
*Selenium
Simazine
TOC
Tributyltin compounds
Trichlorobenzenes (all
isomers)
Trichloromethane
Trifluralin
DDT total
para-para-DDT
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Isodrin
Carbontetrachloride
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
0.04
1.3
80
2.1
0.13
1
1
3.4
0.002
50
270
1
0,025
0,010
0,010
0,010
0,005
0,005
12
10
10
Extra Microbiological Parameters
Chlostridia Perfingens
Giardia
Cryptosporidai
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APPENDIX 2
SUMMARY OF COUNTRY WATER
QUALITY CONTROL DATA
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APPENDIX 2
Country Water Quality Data Summary Tables
BURUNDI
FSA Results
River Water Results
River
Nyamuswaga
Parameters
Turbidity
23
Temperature 20
(C◦)
PH (value)
4.4
Suspended
10
material
(mg/)
6
Liquidated
Oxygen
(mg/)
Ammonia
<0.02
kanyaru
Mubarazi
Ruvubu
Ruvyironza
440
21
2560
21
165
22
300
20.5
6.7
450
6.7
1980
6.9
200
7.2
100
9
9
5
8
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
Lake Water Results
Lake
Cohoba
Parameters
Date
Turbidity
Temperature
(C◦)
PH (value)
Suspended
material (mg/)
Liquidated
Oxygen (mg/)
Ammoniac
Rwhinda
Rweru
10/10/1988 09/04/1989 10/10/1988 09/04/1989 10/10/1988 09/04/1989
22
24
20
36
40
46
23.4
26
24.3
26.5
26.5
26
8.5
40
8.6
50
8.7
35
8.3
250
7.8
90
7.5
120
6
8
7
6
8
5
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
Province: KANYANZA
Hill:
Locality: KANYANZA
Source:
MURIMA3 (AEP)
Chemical and Bacteriological Analysis
Analyses
Unites
Results
Guiding Values
5
6.5 to 9.2
Chemical Analyses:
Organoleptic parameter
Optical Aspect
Turbidity
NTU
Clear
0.2
Physicochemical parameters
Hydrogen Concentration
pH
6.43
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Conductivity
Suspended materials
Total solidity (Ca CO3)
µS/cm
mg/l
mg/
40.1
3
12
400
none
500
Parameters Indicating Pollution
Nitrate (NO3)
Nitrites (NO2 -)
Ammonium (NH4 +)
Dissolved Oxygen (O2)
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
9.9
0
0
7.9
50
1.1
0.5
<75% of saturation
Mineralization Parameters
Carbonic Gas (CO2)
Phosphates (PO4 3+)
Total Iron ( Fe)
Chloride (C1)
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
27
0.2
015
13.01
2. Bacteriological Analyses
Total counts
Total coliformes
Escherichia coli
1.
Interpretation and recommendations
100
UFC/100ml 80
3
UFC/100ml 2
0
UFC100ml 0
The water is potable and of good quality
SAC Ltd/Water Analysis Matrix
KARUZI
Locality:
MUTUMBA
Province:
Hill:
BIBARA
Source: KIGARAMA
Chemical and Bacteriological Analysis
Analyses
Chemical Analyses:
Unites
Results
Guiding Values
Organoleptic parameter
Optical Aspect
Turbidity
NTU
Clear
1.0
5
Physicochemical parameters
Hydrogen Concentration
Conductivity
Suspended materials
Total solidity (Ca CO3)
pH
µS/cm
mg/l
mg/l
5.53
9.8
6
11
400
none
500
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
23
0
0
8.0
50
1.1
0.5
<75% of saturation
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
48
0.2
0.07
equilibrating
5
0.3
Parameters Indicating Pollution
Nitrate (NO3)
Nitrites (NO2 -)
Ammonium (NH4 +)
Dissolved Oxygen (O2)
Mineralization Parameters
Carbonic Gas (CO2)
Phosphates (PO4 3+)
Total Iron ( Fe)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
70
Chloride (C1
mg/l
11.75
250
2. Bacteriological Analyses
Total germs
Total coliformes
Escherichia coli
2.
Interpretation and recommendations
100
UFC/100ml 80
3
UFC/100ml 2
0
UFC100ml 0
The water is potable and of good quality
SAC Ltd/Water Analysis Matrix
Province: MUYINGA
Locality: GASORWE
Hill:
KARIRA
Source
GAHOGO
Chemical and Bacteriological Analysis
Analyses
Chemical Analyses:
Organoleptic parameter
Optical Aspect
Turbidity
Physicochemical
parameters
Hydrogen Concentration
Conductivity
Suspended materials
Total solidity (Ca CO3)
Parameters Indicating
Pollution
Nitrate (NO3)
Nitrites (NO2 -)
Ammonium (NH4 +)
Dissolved Oxygen (O2)
Mineralization Parameters
Carbonic Gas (CO2)
Phosphates (PO4 3+)
Total Iron ( Fe)
Chloride (C1
2. Bacteriological Analyses
Total germs
Total coliformes
Escherichia coli
Interpretation and
recommendations
Unites
Results Guide Values
NTU
Clear
0.8
5
4.99
54.7
7
18
400
none
500
pH
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
6.1
0
0
7.7
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
9.4
0.3
0.08
11
50
1.1
0.5
<75% of
saturation
equilibrating
5
0.3
250
UFC/100ml
UFC/100ml
UFC100ml
The water is potable and of
good quality
80
2
0
100
3
0
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
71
EGYPT
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
72
EGYPT
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
73
Table 15a. Results of the National Network for Monitoring of Pollutants in the River Nile and its Branches at Asuot Governorate (Year
2003)
EC
NH3
NO2
NO3
Chlorides
Total
Hardness
Ca
Hardness
Mg
Hardness
Ca
16
8.1
ND
Jan. 2003
El-Badary Drain
17
8.5
ND
Jan. 2003
Downstream of El-Badary Drain
18
8.1
ND
Jan. 2003
Upstream of Abou-Teig Drain
16
8.0
ND
Jan. 2003
Abou-Tegi Drain
18
8.5
ND
Jan 2003
Downstream of Abou-Teig Drain
17
8.0
ND
Jan. 2003
Intake of Filtration Process at Nazlet Abd-Allah
18
8.4
ND
Jan. 2003
Intake of Filtration Process at Asuot
18
8.5
ND
Jan. 2003
Intake of Filtration Process at El-Arbein
26
6.0
ND
Jan. 2003
Discharge of Fertilizers Co. at Mankbad
22
8.2
ND
Jan. 2003
Downstream of Fertilizers Co. Discharge at Mankbad
18
8.5
ND
Jan. 2003
Upstream of Manfalout Drain
18
8.2
ND
Jan. 2003
Manfalout Drain
19
8.0
ND
Jan. 2003
Downstream of Manfalout Drain
19
8.6
ND
Jan. 2003
Upstream of Bani-Korrah Oil Drain
25
6.5
ND
Jan. 2003
Bani-Korrah Oils Drain
18
8.6
ND
Jan.
2003
Downstream of Bani-Korrah Oils Drain
19
7.5
ND
Feb. 2003
Downstream of El-Badary Drain
18
8.8
ND
Feb. 2003
Upstream of Abou-Teig Drain
18
8.8
ND
Feb. 2003
Downstream of Abou-Teig Drain
17
8.5
ND
Feb. 2003
Intake of Filtration Process (Nazlet Abd-Alla)
18
8.6
ND
Feb. 2003
Intake of Filtration Process (Asuot)
18
8.2
ND
Feb. 2003
Intake of Filtration Process (El-Arbein)
23
7.5
ND
Feb. 2003
Discharge of Fertilizers Co. (Mankbad)
20
8.0
ND
Feb. 2003
Downstream of Filtration Co. Discharge (Mankbad)
19
8.1
ND
Feb. 2003
Upstream of Manfalout Drain
19
8.1
ND
Feb. 2003
Downstream of Manfalout Drain
18
8.2
ND
Feb.
2003
Upstream of Bani-Korrah Oils Drain
21
7.5
ND
Feb. 2003
Bani-Korrah
Oil Drain
_______________________________________________________________________________
18 5/8/058.2
ND
Feb.
2003 - Final,
Nile Basin Regional
Water Quality
Monitoring Baseline Study
Report
Downstream
of Bani-Korrah
Oil Drain
pH
H2S
DO
Date
Temp
Locations
7.7
7.9
7.7
7.8
7.7
7.7
7.8
7.7
7.2
7.3
8.1
7.6
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.8
8.0
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.9
7.8
7.5
7.8
7.9
7.9
7.8
8.0
7.8
260
221
209
224
207
210
210
201
215
245
229
245
240
228
760
230
304
220
220
218
218
250
356
240
230
226
228
310
240
0.15
0.19
0.16
0.25
0.11
0.19
0.22
0.15
0.15
0.3
0.21
0.11
0.44
0.12
0.8
0.2
0.24
0.2
0.2
0.26
0.25
0.3
0.28
0.26
0.25
0.25
0.23
0.3
0.25
0.040
0.040
0.020
0.040
0.030
0.020
0.020
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.004
0.006
0.005
0.009
0.700
0.005
0.040
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.020
0.200
0.080
0.060
0.080
0.080
0.040
0.300
0.040
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
3.8
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
28
20
20
18
18
22
20
18
26
24
22
22
24
24
126
22
28
20
20
20
20
22
30
24
20
20
22
24
22
166
164
150
152
144
138
146
140
170
158
152
174
150
154
320
166
140
134
136
150
154
178
186
166
172
160
162
186
172
94
88
82
70
84
90
90
86
100
96
86
100
92
78
170
76
78
88
78
82
80
98
110
92
82
76
82
110
76
72
76
68
82
60
48
56
54
70
62
66
74
58
76
150
90
62
46
58
68
74
80
76
74
90
84
80
76
96
37.6
35.2
32.8
28.0
33.6
36.0
36.0
34.4
40.0
38.4
34.4
40.0
36.8
31.2
68.0
30.4
31.2
35.2
31.2
32.8
32.0
39.2
44.0
36.8
32.8
30.4
32.8
44.0
30.4
74
Table 15a. Results of the National Network for Monitoring of Pollutants in the River Nile and its Branches at Asuot Governorate (Year
2003)
Downstream of Bani-Korrah Oils Drain
Oil &
Grease
Bani-Korrah Oils Drain
F
Upstream of Bani-Korrah Oil Drain
K.
Downstream of Manfalout Drain
Na
Manfalout Drain
SS
Downstream of Fertilizers Co. Discharge at
Mankbad
Upstream of Manfalout Drain
TDS
Discharge of Fertilizers Co. at Mankbad
COD
Intake of Filtration Process at El-Arbein
BOD
Intake of Filtration Process at Asuot
Silicates
Intake of Filtration Process at Nazlet Abd-Allah
Phosph
ates
Downstream of Abou-Teig Drain
Sulphat
es
Abou-Tegi Drain
Mn
Upstream of Abou-Teig Drain
Iron
Downstream of El-Badary Drain
Total
Alkalini
ty
El-Badary Drain
Date
Mg
Locations
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
2003
Jan.
17.28
154
0.03
0.02
32.5
0.250
30
3.5
7.8
180
32
34.0
6.4
0.3
0.80
18.24
142
0.01
0.02
23.5
0.060
27
2.8
7.2
154
30
24.0
5.8
0.3
0.09
16.32
136
0.01
0.02
20.0
0.040
25
2.8
6.4
145
29
20.0
5.3
0.3
0.06
19.68
140
0.04
0.02
25.0
0.050
28
3.0
7.8
155
30
24.0
5.4
0.3
0.60
14.40
136
0.01
0.02
20.0
0.045
25
2.7
6.6
144
29
20.0
5.3
0.3
0.06
11.52
138
0.01
0.02
21.0
0.040
23
1.5
6.4
146
27
20.0
5.3
0.3
0.05
13.44
134
0.03
0.01
20.0
0.060
23
1.8
6.8
146
28
20.0
5.1
0.3
0.05
12.96
136
0.03
0.01
18.5
0.095
25
2.1
7.8
140
29
20.0
5.1
0.3
0.05
16.80
112
0.08
0.02
110.0
0.180
32
3.1
10.2
220
32
48.0
6.0
7.0
0.10
14.88
126
0.04
0.02
31.0
0.640
28
2.2
7.8
170
30
24.0
4.9
1.5
0.06
15.84
150
0.01
0.02
21.0
0.070
23
3.1
7.8
158
29
20.0
4.7
0.3
0.06
17.76
158
2.60
0.04
21.5
0.180
28
3.2
8.2
176
30
24.0
5.4
0.3
0.08
13.92
154
0.03
0.02
21.0
0.150
23
3.1
8.0
167
29
24.0
5.3
0.3
0.08
18.24
146
0.02
0.02
21.0
0.060
25
2.2
6.6
158
28
22.0
5.3
0.3
0.06
36.00
146
0.04
0.02
118.0
0.250
30
5.3
12.0
350
33
176
6.5
0.3
1.20
21.60
144
0.02
0.02
25.0
0.080
25
1.0
7.2
160
30
24.0
5.3
0.3
0.80
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
75
Downstream of El-Badary Drain
Upstream of Abou-Teig Drain
Downstream of Abou-Teig Drain
Intake of Filtration Process (Nazlet Abd-Alla)
Intake of Filtration Process (Asuot)
Intake of Filtration Process (El-Arbein)
Discharge of Fertilizers Co. (Mankbad)
Downstream of Filtration Co. Discharge
(Mankbad)
Upstream of Manfalout Drain
Downstream of Manfalout Drain
Upstream of Bani-Korrah Oils Drain
Bani-Korrah Oil Drain
Downstream of Bani-Korrah Oil Drain
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
Feb.
2003
14.88
160
0.04
0.02
40.0
0.070
30
2.6
6.7
190
30
29.5
5.8
0.3
0.08
11.04
136
0.03
0.02
20.0
0.050
20
1.6
4.2
150
28
19.2
5.4
0.3
0.06
13.92
138
0.03
0.01
20.0
0.050
20
2.0
4.8
154
28
19.2
5.4
0.3
0.06
16.32
134
0.04
0.02
22.5
0.030
20
1.4
4.8
154
27
19.2
5.4
0.3
0.05
17.76
134
0.05
0.03
22.5
0.030
20
1.5
4.8
150
28
19.2
5.6
0.3
0.07
19.20
136
0.06
0.04
28.0
0.800
22
1.8
5.0
152
28
30.2
5.8
0.3
0.08
18.24
112
0.08
0.02
50.0
0.800
38
2.5
9.0
200
30
30.2
5.8
7.5
0.10
17.76
132
0.06
0.01
38.0
0.090
28
2.0
6.8
148
28
19.2
5.3
2.8
0.07
21.60
138
0.04
0.01
22.0
0.050
20
2.2
6.8
162
26
19.2
5.4
0.3
0.08
20.16
138
0.04
0.02
22.0
0.050
22
2.1
6.8
164
26
19.0
5.4
0.3
0.08
19.20
136
0.05
0.03
23.0
0.050
22
1.7
6.8
156
28
19.2
5.4
0.3
0.07
18.24
150
0.10
0.04
30.0
0.200
36
3.2
9.6
200
34
23.0
5.6
0.3
0.25
23.04
138
0.05
0.02
24.0
0.070
24
2.2
6.8
170
28
20.0
5.4
0.3
0.09
Table 74. Results of the National Network for Monitoring the Pollutants "Fecal Coliform Bacteria" in River Nile and its
Branches at Greater Cairo During 2003 as MPN/ 100ml (WTI= Water Treatment Intake)
Locations
Mostroud
El-Delta Co. for Iron & Steel
Osman Bridge
El-Amiriah ( W.T.I )
El-Glatmah Bridge
Rositta Branch ( beginning )
Jan.
500
2300
1700
800
700
1700
Feb.
500
500
200
200
2700
500
March
7900
13000
3300
22000
1300
1300
April
1700
17000
22000
17000
7900
2200
May
200
1400
800
800
7000
160000
June
13000
1300
13000
800
4900
1400
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
July
2200
1100
3300
1700
500
500
August
2200
200
800
1700
500
500
76
Sept.
400
400
800
800
ND
800
Oct.
700
800
500
400
1100
1100
Nov.
800
1700
2300
1400
92000
4900
Dec.
3300
1300
200
1300
3300
200
Damietta Branch ( beginning )
El-Kanater ( W.T.I )
Imbaba ( W.T.I )
El-Giza ( W.T.I )
El-Rouda ( W.T.I )
El-Maadi ( W.T.I )
Starcht & Glucose Co
El-Tibeen 1
El-Tibeen 2
El-Badrashin ( W.T.I )
El-Hawamdiah
Gezerit El-Dahab ( W.T.I )
700
2200
500
700
400
800
1100
200
200
800
800
800
400
11000
900
700
400
1100
200
900
700
1300
1100
500
2300
4600
800
92000
2700
1100
500
2200
200
18000
200
92000
1700
4900
1700
22000
700
700
800
1100
3300
180000
800
11000
160000
18000
35000
800
3300
2700
2300
2200
1100
1700
7900
500
1700
2300
1700
35000
160000
92000
13000
1600000
1600000
35000
17000
54000
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
200
200
200
800
1300
200
1400
14000
800
2700
2200
500
1300
7900
800
1100
2300
500
800
800
13000
200
17000
54000
77
200
200
500
1100
2300
500
200
800
13000
200
17000
54000
1700
800
1300
1100
500
1700
200
1100
2200
1400
1300
2200
14000
92000
7900
500
1100
800
800
900
200
500
1100
200
500
54000
1100
200
800
500
1100
900
200
2200
1700
1400
ETHIOPIA
Abbay Basin Surface Water Quality (Source: USBR, 1964 & BECOM, 1996)
Well Code/Na EC
TDS
pH
Na+
K+
T.
Total
Hardness
(µs/cm)
37
176
105.0
25.0
846.0
mg/l
36
108
78.0
10.0
550.0
mg/l
31
8
4.0
0.9
55.0
mg/l
32
5
2.5
1.0
45.0
Ca++
Mg++
mg/l
34
19
14.0
1.5
100.8
mg/l
34
6
3.1
0.9
58.3
Cl-
PO4--
Alkal
mg/l Ca CO3
19
19
45
36
24.0
22.0
6.0
4.1
238.0
120.0
mg/l
25
4
4.0
0.0
28.0
mg/l
16
2
2.5
0.2
2.8
No of Tests
36
Mean
7
Median
7.2
Min
5.5
Max
8.7
Ethiopia’s
Ambient Surface
6 to
Water Standard
1000
9
250
No. of Tests that
Exceed Drinking
Water Guidelines
1
0
0
0
Comments: The data shows that the water is normally of good quality. Though further data would be needed to
investigate what contributed to the low pH, what salts were contributing to the high TDS values, and more parameters
especially turbity, BOD, DO, ammonia and nitrates would have been useful.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
78
ETHIOPIA
Tekeze (Albarara) surface water quality (Source: MoWR Database)
NO
3
15
20
25
19
21
Mean
36
622
388
7.8
2.6
0.21
28
2.8
197
21
60.
9
median
18
417
284.5
8
1.2
0.02
15
0
195
0
96
88
6.6
0
11.
2
0
0.07
0
49
Min
Mg++
mg/l
25
Ca++
mg/l
8
K+
mg/l
15
Na+
mg/l
11
No. of
Samples
PO
4--mg/l
mg/l
SO
4--
mg/l
HCO
3-
mg/l
CO3mg/l
Cl
mg/l
NO2
mg/l
pH
mg/l
TDS
µS/cm
EC
FTU
Turb
13
14
20.
2
27
27
2
0.2
0.0
4
20
27.
5
13.
5
0
0
0.5
2.5
0.0
5
56.1
18.3
40
16.32
10
2.4
Max
118
2029
1015
8.6
2.8
190
28.8
537
450
1
119
252
252
67.2
Ethiopian
6.5Guideline
7
1776 8.5
50
6
533
483
358
No. of Sample
Exceed
Guideline
6
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Comments: The data shows that the water is normally of good quality. Though further data would be needed to investigate
why were the sulphate, sodium and the potassium values ( Suspect miss print) were so high. More parameters especially
BOD DO, ammonia and nitrates would have been useful.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
79
Color
Turb
FTU
TCU
EC
Hard
µS/cm
ETHIOPIA
Baro-Akobo Surface Water Quality
Alk
total
mg/l CaCO3
pH
TDS
NO3
NO2
Cl
F
SO4
PO4
Na
Fe
(total)
Mn
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
No of
16
18
13
22
21
25
13
24
23
22
17
21
15
12
13
21
Tests
Mean
119
23
139 31
31
7
112
1
0
8
0
8
0
5
1
0
Median
55
18
93
25.75 30
7.2
60
1
0.02
5
0.15
3
0.1
3.05
0.61
0
Min
0
0
22
7.2
0.16 6.3
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
Max
342
64
450 90
60
8
457
10.1
0.4
35
2.1
46.1
0.55
30.9
1.33
0.5
Guideline 22
7
392
6.5- 1776 50
6
533
3
483
358
0.3
0.13
Value
8.5
12
No. of
12
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
3
Tests
Exceed
Guideline
Comments: Most of the results seem satisfactory, though the high fluoride result is of concern and would need to be investigated. More parameters
such as ammonia, BOD, and DO would have been useful.
Estimated Pollution and Waste Load from Domestic Effluent (year 2004)
tone/yr
kg/c/yr
tone/yr
kg/c/yr
tone/yr
133,309.3
59,203.0
19,534.8
6.9
6.9
6.9
126,004.7
55,959.0
18,464.4
16
16
16
292,184.8
129,760.0
42,816.0
36.5
36.5
36.5
666,546.5
296,015.0
97,674.0
3.3
3.3
3.3
60,263.1
26,763.0
8,830.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
7,304.6
3,244.0
1,070.4
3
kg/c/yr
P
tone/yr
29,047.5
N
kg/c/yr
Total
7.3
7.3
7.3
TDS
tone/yr
18,261.5
8,110.0
2,676.0
COD
kg/c/yr
Basin
Abbay
Tekeze
Baro-Akobo
BOD5
1000xm /yr
3
m /c/yr
Effluent Volume
1000x
Pop
212,047.1
200,428.1
464,760.8
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
1,060,235.5
80
95,856.9
11,619.0
KENYA
TN(mg/l)
NO2
(mg/l)
NO3
(mg/l
Water quality characteristics for Nyando River
NH3
TDN
TPN
DON
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
average
1.390
0.039
1.183
0.695
1.490
0.448
0.221
0.148
max
1.390
0.096
1.375
1.529
1.490
1.127
0.416
0.148
min
1.390
0.012
0.991
0.074
sample
details
elec
p.h
temp
DO(mg/l)
1.490
Turb
(n.tu)
0.125
NH3
(mg/l)
0.148
TDN
(mg/l)
average
max
161.950
176.300
7.745
7.790
min
147.600
7.700
TP
(mg/l)
PO4
(mg/l
TDP
(mg/l
TN
(mg/l)
NO2
(mg/l)
0.058
NO3
(mg/l
24.050
24.300
1.390
1.390
0.049
0.139
0.691
1.375
0.695
1.529
144.037
430.000
23.800
1.390
0.003
0.288
0.074
0.620
Water quality characteristics for Gucha- Migori River
TN
NO2
NO3
NH3
(mg/l) (mg/l)
(mg/l (mg/l)
TDN
(mg/l)
average
1.860
0.049
1.408
0.447
max
3.000
0.120
2.372
min
0.830
0.026
0.742
sample details
elec
p.h
temp
average
max
min
72.000 7.288
87.200 7.550
55.500 6.910
22.180
23.000
21.100
TPN
(mg/l)
TP
(mg/l)
PO
4(mg/l
TDP
(mg/l
1.253
0.253
0.169
0.098
0.600
1.640
0.878
0.253
0.274
0.263
DO
(mg/l)
0.810
Turb
(n.tu)
0.031
NO3
(mg/l
1.151
2.372
0.577
0.122
NH3
(mg/l)
0.411
0.600
0.123
0.029
TDN
(mg/l)
1.103
1.640
0.607
TN
(mg/l)
1.803
3.000
0.830
DON
(mg/l)
NO2
(mg/l)
0.044
0.120
0.001
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
81
KENYA
Water quality characteristics for Mara Riverr
TN
(mg/l)
average 0.877
max
1.120
min
0.700
NO2
(mg/l)
0.031
0.105
0.011
NO3
(mg/l
1.135
2.126
0.440
sample
details elec
p.h
temp
average 52.3
max
67.6
6.54
6.58
min
6.5
37
NH3
(mg/l)
0.458
0.924
0.123
TP
(mg/l)
0.215
0.890
0.043
PO4
(mg/l
0.076
0.087
0.064
TDP
(mg/l
0.041
0.078
0.009
TDN
(mg/l)
NO2
(mg/l)
0.0241
231
0.105
NO3
(mg/l
NH3
(mg/l)
19.05
21.1
TN
(mg/l)
0.74942
86
1.12
1.0247
2.126
0.4582 0.656
0.9241 0.932
0.1655882 0.0362
0.89
0.087
0.0400909 0.0463
0.078
0.059
17
0.44
0.001
0.4399
0.1233 0.15
0.034
0.009
Water quality characteristics for Sondu/Miriu River
TN
NO2
NO3
NH3
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
(mg/l
(mg/l)
average
52.3
0.01572
0.9345
0.5198
max
67.6
0.0376
1.25
0.6474
min
37
0.005
0.4981
0.3122
DO
(mg/l)
sample details elec
p.h
temp
average
max
min
7.1
7.1
7.1
22.7
22.7
22.7
48.1
48.1
48.1
TDN
(mg/l)
0.720
0.820
0.670
TDN
(mg/l)
0.855
0.89
0.82
Turb
(n.tu)
TPN
(mg/l)
DON
(mg/l)
TN
(mg/l)
0.8817
1.035
0.77
TP
(mg/l)
PO4
(mg/l)
0.003
TDP
(mg/l)
NO2
(mg/l)
TP
(mg/l)
0.2476
0.616
0.016
NO3
(mg/l
PO4
(mg/l
0.075
0.075
0.075
NH3
(mg/l)
TDP
(mg/l
0.070
0.143
0.023
TDN
(mg/l)
TP
(mg/l)
PO4
(mg/l
0.0165
0.039
0.002
0.819
1.211
0.4981
0.5198
0.6474
0.3122
0.6113
0.89
0.32
0.153
0.616
0.016
0.062
0.104
0.011
TPP
(mg/l)
0.032
TDP(mg/l
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
82
0.0591
0.143
0.023
KENYA
Water quality characteristics of Yala River
TN
(mg/l)
NO2
(mg/l)
0.024
0.043
0.014
NO3
(mg/l
0.617
0.878
0.356
sample details
elec
p.h
temp
average
max
min
68.050
76.500
59.600
7.513
7.600
7.440
22.900
24.100
21.700
average
max
min
NH3
(mg/l)
0.317
0.317
0.317
TN
(mg/l)
0.809
0.972
0.662
NO2
(mg/l)
0.016
0.043
0.002
TP
(mg/l)
0.231
1.090
0.040
PO4
(mg/l
0.100
0.146
0.017
TDP
(mg/l
0.076
0.121
0.041
NO3
(mg/l
123.267
614.000
0.356
NH3
(mg/l)
0.317
0.317
0.317
TDN
(mg/l)
0.270
0.390
0.042
PO4(mg/l
TDP(m
g/l
0.094
0.107
0.079
0.083
0.105
0.064
Water Quality Data for Sio River
sample details
TN
(mg/l)
Average
Max
Min
sample details
Average
Max
Min
elec
NO2
(mg/l)
0.0733
0.0996
0.0562
NO3
(mg/l
p.h
temp
7.48
7.56
7.34
NH3
(mg/l)
0.5004
0.5647
0.4545
DON
(mg/l)
TN
(mg/l)
TP
(mg/l)
0.128
0.179
0.065
NO2
NO3
NH3
(mg/l)
(mg/l
(mg/l)
0.953
0.042
0.409
1.360
0.100
0.466
0.590
0.002
0.351
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
83
TDN
TP
(mg/l) (mg/l)
0.500 0.479 0.139
0.565 0.870 0.381
0.455 0.246 0.011
RWANDA
Summariesd Data for the Nile Sub-basins at Mwogo, Rukarara, Mbirume, Nyabarongo, Mukungwa, Nyabugogo, Base,
Agatobwe, Migina, Akanyaru, Kabogobogo, Ruvubu, Akagera, Ngoma, Muvumba I, Muvumba II and Kagitumba
Parameter TºC
Average
MAX
Min
pH
21.81
24.90
19.70
D.O
mg/l
7.14
8.43
6.40
Salinity Cond.
Acid.
Alkal. mg/l
mg/l
µS/cm
mg/l
TA
7.16
0.04
112.00
17.80
0.60
9.41
0.13
290.00
70.00
10.00
0.74
0.00
17.40
0.00
0.00
Parameter Total
Calcite
CO2
hardness hardness
mg/l
Average
MAX
Min
mg/l
33.40
92.00
8.00
Parameter Cu2+
mg/l
Average
Max
Min
0.17
1.30
0.01
mg/l
17.30
32.00
5.00
Ca 2+
Mg2+
Cl-
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
5.87
25.00
0.00
6+
6.99
12.80
2.00
4.70
17.40
0.00
Fmg/l
mg/l
10.43
25.00
2.00
0.37
1.85
0.00
Cr
Fe
Na
K
C.P.S
mg/l
µ/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
% Na
0.28
0.75
0.09
1.35
3.37
0.09
10.87
105.30
1.65
4.86
19.50
0.50
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
51.30
80.51
18.30
84
Colour
Hazen
38.43
135.00
4.00
NO2-
Mn
0.22
1.08
0.05
TAC
415.53
1240.00
47.00
I2
S.M
mg/l
70.40
367.00
1.00
N-NH3
Turbidity
FTU
118.87
461.00
7.00
SO42-
PO43-
µ/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
0.09
5.06
0.38
18.70
0.58
0.31
7.62
1.70
37.50
1.28
0.03 <0.2
0.00
5.00
0.15
SUDAN
Physico-Chemical analyses data for the whole Nile system in the Sudan (from different sources)
pH
Average
Max
Min
D.O.
E.C.
Cl
NO3
NO2
NH3
Na
Ca
Mg
K
SO4
mg/L µs/cm
mg/L
Mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
Mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
7.99
8.90 264.20
13.51
3.32 0.1990
0.86
19.50 25.88
9.55
4.11
16.38
8.90 11.40 379.20
34.00
12.30 0.9900
1.29
20.00 40.00 17.00
4.11
42.00
6.70
7.50 180.00
2.97
0.68 0.0001
0.30
19.00
5.60
4.80
4.11
4.00
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
85
PO4 -P
SiO2-Si
mg/L
mg/L
0.08
16.02
0.17
34.50
0.02
4.00
SUDAN
Nile Water Summary Data for three selected sites (2003-2004) (G.W.&W Labs)
Location
coordinate
Water level (m)
Discharge(m3/day)
PARAMETER
Appearance
TURBIDITY
NTU
PH
CONDUCT.
Us/cm
Hardness
Alkalinity
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Sulfate
Nitrate
Nitrite
TSS
TDS
Fluoride
NILE
(Dongola)
x
y
30.6E
19.02N
13.5
9.26
BLUE
NILE
(Soba)
X
32.61E
16.25
y
15.5N
8
WHITE NILE
(Malakal)
x
31.6E
12.45
y
9.57N
12.7
680.64
MAX.
muddy
49
MIN.
turbid
552.6
MAX.
muddy
8.3
MIN.
clear
97
MAX.
muddy
12.08
MIN.
turbid
6575
8.4
5
7.3
7275
8.4
4
7.5
115
7.6
6
7.3
278
116
178
40
17
34
39
12.3
0.99
8400
194
0.85
183
50
122
14
3
7.1
1
0
0
8
126
0.2
295
132
183
37.6
13.61
22.72
42
3.96
0.52
8875
189
0.7
194
80
79.2
24.8
2.43
4.6
8
0
0
3
125
0.2
180
86
109
5.6
13
9.9
5
5.7
0
126
18
0.9
121
26
73
2.9
5.7
1
0.3
0
84
2
0.6
Malakal White Nile
Year
2001
2002
2003
W.H.O. Guidelines
E.C. µS/cm
Min.
121
125
176
-
Max.
158
180
236
-
Minimum and Maximum Values
Chloride
Nitrate
Nitrate
Ammonia
mg/l
(NO3) mg/l (NO2) mg/l (NH3) mg/l
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
5.7
9.9
0.31 5.72
0.0 0.02 0.02
0.02
7.1
9.2
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.19
3.5
7.1
2.2
8.8 0.003 0.09 0.11
0.30
250
50
3.0
1.5
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
86
SUDAN
Suba Blue Nile:
Minimum and Maximum Values
Chloride
Nitrite (NO3 ) Nitrite (NO2) Ammonia
mg/l
mg/l
(NH3) mg/l
mg/l
E.C. µS/cm
Year
Max.
244
Min.
3.6
2002
Min.
93.2
2
183
Max. Min.
22.7 0.17
Max. Min.
14.9 0.0
644
4.9
28.6
0.0
874
5.68
35.5
2.2
2004
241
258
W.H.O. Guidelines
Dongola: Main Nile
0.0
16.2
250
0.0
10.5
6
12.3
2
3.96
2003
210
2001
Max. Min.
0.33 0.00
2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.00
6
0.01
50
0.14
8
0.36
3.0
Max.
0.27
0.45
0.06
0.63
0.04
1.29
1.5
Minimum and Maximum Values
Year
E.C. µS/cm
2001
2002
2003
2004
W.H.O. Guidelines
Chloride
mg/l
Nitrate
(NO3) mg/l
Nitrite
(NO2 mg/l
Ammonia
(NH3) mg/l
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max. Min.
Max. Min.
Max. Min.
Max.
238
184
133
183
-
442.2
318
278
309
-
9.2
7.1
4.3
7.8
250
17
12.8
23.4
34
13.6
13.2
12.3
9.24
0.019
0.102
0.08
0.99
0.44
0.38
0.80
0.98
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
50
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.003
3.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
Khartoum State Water Corporation Water Quality Monitoring Results:
Results of raw water analysis by three Khartoum State Water Corporation Laboratories so as to
determine the required treatment for drinking water are summarized in below:
Table (15) Average max and min. concentrations for the Period (1997-2003)
Location
MAX.
WHITE
NILE
BLUE
NILE
Main
NILE
MIN.
MAX.
MIN.
MAX.
MIN.
PARAMETE
R
Overall
Average
Appearance
Temp.°C
TURBIDITY
NTU
PH
CONDUCT.
Us/cm
Hardness
mg/L
Alkalinity
"
Calcium
"
Magnesium "
Chloride
"
Overall
Max
muddy
35
turbid
19
muddy
35
Clear
18
muddy
35
turbid
19
26.83
35.00
Over
all
Mini
18.00
21040
8.7
45
7.9
19575
8.9
2
7.8
22575
8.9
55
7.8
10548.7
8.33
22575.0
8.90
2.00
7.80
240
150
240
160
220
140
191.67
240.00
140.0
70
120
30
4.8
10
50
70
18
2.6
4
75
120
28
4.8
10
50
70
18
2.8
4
60
120
30
4.8
10
50
70
20
2.4
4
59.17
95.00
24.00
3.70
7.00
75.00
120.00
30.00
4.80
10.00
50.00
70.00
18.00
2.40
4.00
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
87
Sulfate
"
Iron total
"
Nitrate
"
Nitrite
"
Copper
"
Manganese
"
Silica
"
TSS
"
TDS
"
Fluoride
Total count
/5ml
Coli form
/1oo
16
0.1
2.4
0.001
0
6
0.03
0
0.0005
0
16
0.1
2
0.0003
0
8
0.02
0
0.001
0
16
0.1
2.8
0.0001
0
7
0
0
0.0007
0
11.50
0.06
1.20
0.00
0.00
16.00
0.10
2.80
0.00
0.00
6.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.04
4.2
0
2.8
0.02
4.8
0
1.8
0.01
4
0
1
0.01
3.10
0.04
4.80
0.00
1.00
24600
40
22350
15
26950
70
12337.5
26950.0
15.00
120
0.32
60
0.31
120
0.35
70
0.32
110
0.45
70
0.32
91.67
0.35
120.00
0.45
60.00
0.31
1700
170
1200
90
2100
200
910.00
2100.00
90.00
20
0
10
0
30
10
11.67
30.00
0.00
Load of Pesticide Consumed (Kg), and fertilizers (metric Tons), (1993-1997) in
Sudan and it show increase in the quantity, also it indicate the pollution risk may
result from the intensive chemicals used in agricultural practices
No
1
2
3
4
Item
Total Insecticides
Total herbicides
Fertilizers, types
Urea 45% nitrogen
Fertilizers, Super
phosphate
1993
360912
94607
199222
1994
743024
76982
73209
1995
2122217
172835
-
1996
113950
213058
183550
1997
905994
274474
170838
35005
28400
-
3630
26378
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
88
TANZANIA
Lake Victoria Environmental Littoral Monitoring Stations
PH
DO
TN
NO2NO3NH4TP
PO4
TSS
(mg/L)
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
mg/L
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Average
8.62
8.28
5.99
7.13
0.825
0.006
0.003
0.050
0.067
0.182 0.107
0.080
0.090 0.036 0.023 7.555 9.116
Maximum
9.32
9.40
8.27
9.13
1.281
0.018
0.006
0.107
0.132
0.400 0.171
0.099
0.152 0.051 0.040 26.250 23.832
Minimum
5.00
4.64
0.00
5.64
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.007
0.000
0.000 0.000
0.057
0.000 0.024 0.000 0.000 0.000
Lake Victoria Environmental Water Quality Monitoring of Pelagic Monitoring Stations
PH
DO
(mg/L)
StNo Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Average
8.19
8.11
7.12
7.05
Max
8.89
9.15
18.36
9.56
Min
7.49
7.22
0.00
5.98
TN
NO2NO3NH4TP
PO4
TSS
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
µg/L
mg/L
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
0.564
0.007
0.011
0.054 0.054
0.297 0.107
0.088 0.095 0.050 0.039 3.485 2.507
1.263
0.027
0.083
0.210 0.140
0.777 0.335
0.149 0.157 0.090 0.056 10.271 7.130
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.003 0.006
0.036 0.018
0.052 0.074 0.025 0.022 0.400 0.400
River monitoring Stations
Q(m3/s
)
STATION
Dry
Sed/load(T/d)
Wet
Dry
Average 41.572 16.215 819.146
Max
141.79 32.08 3253.14
Min
8.52
8.02
13.97
Wet
589.62
2529.8
19.33
TN
TSS
Dry
Wet
525.80 1979.33
1574.47
14434
12.66
18.23
NO3
NO2
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
2.51
3.81
1.21
0.794
1.36
0.01
0.04
0.29
0
0.05
0.14
0.01
0.524
2.58
0.01
_______________________________________________________________________________
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
89
NH4
Wet
Dry
Wet
TP
Dry
Wet
1.553
0.281 0.87 0.586 1.5545
3
1.22 1.39 1.13
7.77 8.79
0.05 0.47
0
0.02 0.16
PO4
Dry
Wet
0.297
0.82
0.02
0.283
0.53
0.03
UGANDA
Table X1 Water Quality Values for Impact Monitoring points
Year
2004
2004 2003 2003
Season
Wet
Dry
Dry
Wet
Temperature, 0c
26.8
25.8
24.2 27.6
Colour, TCU
650
530
494
DO, ppm
12.32 12.59 5.52
7.5
EC, uS/cm
7120
4690 2350 809
PH
9.1
11.8
9.8
8.2
Turbidity, NTU
107
148
1116 85
Talk, ppm
69
31
100
TDS, ppm
6700
2400 1845 101
TSS105, ppm
360
2554
278 68
TSS500, ppm
105
1060 230
50
Thardness, ppm
42 130
53
CaHardness, ppm
23 115
27
Tirons
8.58
7.69
53.58 14.27
Oil Grease, ppm 118.5 11.8
K, ppm
74.5
79.4
119.5 146.9
Na, ppm
1071.2 909.4. 528.5 266.6
PO4, ppm
5.04
5.07 21.05 2.58
Tphosphorus, ppm
1.3
17.67 1.27 0.34
SO4, ppm
4500
62
23
NO2, ppm
4904
4.06
0.133 0.666
NO3, ppm
10.3
26.86 7.48 14.99
BOD, ppm
15.7
402
34.3 318.3
COD, ppm
66
1012 800
Source: DWD, 2005
Table X2: Water quality of rivers: maximum water quality analytical results
for regularly monitored parameters, 2003 - 2004
Year
2004
2004
2003
2003
Season
Dry
Wet
Wet
Dry
Minimum
MTemperature
25.4
25.3
23.8
28
17.2
Colour, NTU 20
580
430
20
CO2, ppm
0.34
2.6 0.34
DO, ppm
11.62 7
8.15
0
EC
580
476
280
418
48
pH
8.7
8.4
8
8.2
5.9
Turbidity
43.2
55.2
138
47.1
.14
Talk
290
330
134
82
4.9
TDS
340
350
200
998
13
TSS105
89
310
135
12
3
TSS500
64
30
115
9
0
Thardness
285
280
96
220
23
CaHardness
190
155
45
140
8
Tirons
7.25
5.43
14.97
8.65
0.1
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
90
K
Na
PO4
Tphosphorus
SO4
NO2
NO3
BOD
COD
4.9
40
0.2
0.54
19
0.008
0.19
9.2
46.5
0.23
0.47
60
0.019
0.36
-
6.5
29.7
0.24
0.43
0
0.025
0.71
3.9 - 3.9 -
6.3
23.4
1.93
0.34
31
3
0.48
101
0.5
3.5
0
0
3
0.52
Table X3: Lake water quality maximum and minimum values for parameters
monitored during the dry and wet seasons of 2003 to 2004
Year
2004
2004
2003
2003
Season
Dry
Wet
Wet
Dry
Minimum
Colour, TCU
32
325
120
20
CO2, ppm
7
30 7
DO, ppm
5.29
5.52
10.2
5
1.96
EC, uS/cm
254
600
618
640
17
pH
9.8
10 9
68
6.2
Turbidity, NTU
20
43.1
21.6
60.1
1.37
Total al
310
277
252
275
5.6
TDS, ppm
335
400
360
325
12
TSS105, ppm
49
68
72
18
3
TSS500, ppm
50
18
6
2
0
Thardness, ppm
325
150
150
135
7
CaHardness, ppm
51
54
68
54
2
K, ppm
47.7
71.5
28.6
41.2
0.5
Na, ppm
95.2
134
86.7
93.7
2
PO4, ppm
1.82
0.3
0.29
0.24
0
Tphosphorus, ppm 2.39
0.63
0.31
0.34
0.13
SO4, ppm
25
36
10
2
Cl, ppm
35
38
36
44
2
NO2, ppm
0.088
0.016
0.011
0.026
0
NO3, ppm
0.79
0.39
0.07
0.07
0
NH4, ppm
3.7
0.176
0.176
Tnitrogen, ppm
5.1
0
55.6
12.6
2.4
BOD, ppm
46.2
-0.1
COD, ppm
62
72
0
S
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
91
APPENDIX 3
RECOMMENDED EQUIPMENT
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
92
Recommended Major Laboratory Equipment
Basic Chemical analysis
1. UV/Vis Spectrophotometer
2. Analytical balance
3. Top-pan balance
4. pH meter
5. Conductivity Meter
6. DO Meter
7. Water still
8. Water Bath
9. Hot plate
10. Refrigerator
11. Flame photometer
12. Turbidimeter
13. Dessicators
14. Computer (Desktop)
15. Printer
16. Fuming cupboard
17. Titration Equipment
18. Oven
19. Centrifuge
Advanced Chemical Analysis
1. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Flame, Furnace & Hydride
generation)
2. Gas Liquid Chromatograph (FID and ECD)
Field Equipment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
pH meter,
DO meter
Conductivity Meter
, Water Sampling Equipment
Comparator or Field Photometer
Portable Bacteriological Equipment
Basic Bacteriological Analysis
1. Two Incubators
2. Membrane Filtration Apparatus
3. Autoclave
Advanced Bacteriological/ Biological Laboratory
1. Inverted microscope
2. Centrifuge
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
93
APPENDIX 4
THEMATIC WATER QUALITY MAPS AND
PROFILES FOR SUDAN
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94
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95
Calcium Distribution along Nile Basin, SUDAN
[Distance
(km)
2509
2044
2034
1701
1334
1262
1246
1228
955
340
0
M.N.Lake Nubia
west Dongola
Dongola
Main Nile Atbara
M. N.Khartoum
B.N.Khartoum
Soba
W.N.Khartoum,
Wad Madani
Jelhac
Ca_mg_L
Malakal
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Ca mg/L
Chloride Distribution along Nile Basin, SUDAN
Distance
(km)
2509
2044
2034
1701
1334
1262
1246
1228
955
340
0
M.N.Lake Nubia
west Dongola
Dongola
Main Nile Atbara
M. N.Khartoum
B.N.Khartoum
Soba
W.N.Khartoum,
CL_M
Wad Madani
Jelhac
Malakal
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Cl mg/l
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Distance
(km)
2509
2044
2034
1701
1334
1262
1246
1228
955
340
0
EC Distribution along Nile Basin, SUDAN
M.N.Lake Nubia
west Dongola
Dongola
Main Nile Atbara
M. N.Khartoum
B.N.Khartoum
Soba
W.N.Khartoum,
Wad Madani
E_C__MS_CM
Jelhac
Malakal
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
EC ms/cm
Magnesium Distribution along Nile Basin, SUDAN
[Distance
(km)
2509
2044
2034
1701
1334
1262
1246
1228
955
340
0
M.N.Lake Nubia
west Dongola
Dongola
Main Nile Atbara
M. N.Khartoum
B.N.Khartoum
Soba
W.N.Khartoum,
Wad Madani
Jelhac
Mg_mg_L
Malakal
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Mg mg/L
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101
Nitrate Distribution along Nile Basin, SUDAN
[Distance
(km)
2509
2044
2034
1701
1334
1262
1246
1228
955
340
0
M.N.Lake Nubia
west Dongola
Dongola
Main Nile Atbara
M. N.Khartoum
B.N.Khartoum
Soba
W.N.Khartoum,
Wad Madani
NO3_MG_L
Jelhac
Malakal
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
NO3 mg/L
Sulphate Distribution along Nile Basin, SUDAN
[Distance
(km)
2509
2044
2034
1701
1334
1262
1246
1228
955
340
0
M.N.Lake Nubia
west Dongola
Dongola
Main Nile Atbara
M. N.Khartoum
B.N.Khartoum
Soba
W.N.Khartoum,
Wad Madani
So4_mg_L
Jelhac
Malakal
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
SO4 mg/L
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
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103
APPENDIX 5
DRAFT ACTION PLAN
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104
Initial Action Plan For Nile Basin Baseline Study
Month
All countries to prepare for
workshop
Workshop
Purchase Laboratory Equipment
for each Country
All Labs. to validate methods for
all assigned parameters
All countries implement
transboundaty sampling schedule
All Countries to assist in
producing National WQ Maps
Consultant to write standardised
NBI Analystical Methods
Consultant to develop monitoring
Training Schedules
Consultant to establish Analytical
Quality Controls
Construct the definitive GIS map
of the Water Quality indicative
parameters for the Nile Basin.
Progress Workshops
Archive all Analytical Data
Report on WQ monitoring
Make Recommendations for
Phase 2 of Project
Implement Training Schedules
Final Report
Interim Progress Reports
2 0 0 5
2 0 0 6
2 0 0 7
2 0 0 8
Ma JunJul AugSe Oc No De JanFebMa Ap Ma JunJul AugSe Oc No De JanFebMa Ap Ma JunJul AugSe Oc No De JanFebMa Ap Ma
***********
*****
*************************
****************************
*********************************************************************************************************************************
******************************
*************************
***********************************
*******************************
**********
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****
****
************************************************************************************************************* **********
*********************************************************************************************************************
***********
****************************************************************
*****
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****
105
APPENDIX 6
LABORATORIES FACILITIES
COMPARATIVE TABLE
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
106
LABORATORY TABLE
Country
Laboratory
Name
Number of
Laboratory
Staff
Accred
ited
Major Analytical
Equipment
Other Water Laboratories
Comments
Sudan
Ground Water
and Wadis
Directorate
(GWWCL):
Central
Laboratories
8 chemists.
3
Hydrogeologists
5 Technicians.
3 Assistant staff.
No
Titration apparatus
-Spectrophotometer meter.
-Detection probes for pH,
conductivity and dissolved
oxygen.
1) Institute of Environmental Studies Lab
2) Sanitary Lab of Civil Engineering
Department University of Khartoum
3) Hydrogeology Lab , Eneelain Universit
4) National Health Laboratory
5) National water Corporation Laboratory
6) Gezira State WC Labs
7) Khartoum State Ministry pf Engineerin
Affairs Environmental Lab
8) Sudanese Petroleum Company Lab.
Ethiopia
Water Works
Design
Enterprise
Water lab
2 Chemists
3 Senior
LabTechnicians
3 lab Technicians
5 Technicians
No
.pH Meter
EC Meter
DO Meter
AAS
Turbiditymeter
Gambella Lab
1 Chemist
No
Tigray Lab
2 Chemists
1 Technician
No
.pH Meter
EC Meter
DO Meter
.pH Meter
EC Meter
DO Meter
Spectrophotometer
1) Addis Ababa Water & Sewerage
Laboratory (AAWSA)
2) Institution of Geological Survey
3) QSAE
4) ENHRI
5) WWDSE
6) Oromia Water Bureau
The following equipment
not in use:
1) pH meter.
2) Oxygen meter.
3) Conductivity
meter.
4) Flame Photometer.
5) The liquid
scintillation
counter the main
part Environmental
isotopes laboratory
The AAS is new but is
not commissioned and
staff require training
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
107
BenshangulGumuz
1 Technician
No
.pH Meter
EC Meter
DO Meter
Amhara
1 Chemist
1 Biologist
1 Technician
No
Country
Laboratory
Name
Number of
Laboratory
Staff
Acredi
ted
.pH Meter
EC Meter
DO Meter
Spectrophotometer
Major Analytical
Equipment
Tanzania
Mwanza Lab,
Bukoba Lab
Musoma Lab
1 Scientist
4 Technician
2 Assistant
technician
3 Support Staff
4 Technician
2 Support Staff
1 Scientist
2 Technician
2 Assistant
technician
2 Support Staff
No
No
No
Spectrophotometer
Analytical balance
Incubators
microscope
pH meter
Water still
Refrigerator
Flame photometer
Muffle furnace
Turbidmeter
Centrifuge
Autoclave
Distillers
Oven
Lumex machine (Mercury
analyser)
Other Water Laboratories
Comments
12 other Regional laboratories:
1) Dar es Salaam,
2) Morogoro Iringa,
3) Mbeya,
4) Sumbawanga,
5) Songea,
6) Mtwara,
7) Tanga,
8) Arusha,
9) Singida,
10) Dodoma,
11) Kigoma,
12) Shinyanga,
No GLC
1)
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
108
Country
Laboratory
Name
Number of
Laboratory
Staff
Accred
ited
Major Analytical
Equipment
Other Water Laboratories
Comments
LVEMP-MWI
Nyanza
Laboratory
Kisumu
6 Scientists
7 laboratory
Technicians
3 Support Staff
No
2) MWI Western Laboratory
Kakamega
3) Lake Basin Development Authority
(LBDA)-Kisumu Laboratory
4) Kenya Marine Fisheries Research
Institute (KEMFRI)-Kisumu
Laboratory Facilities
No GLC
Uganda
WRMD
Assistant
Commissioner
2 Principal
Chemist
4 Senior Chemist
4 Biologist/
Analyst
2 Sen. Techn.
Ongoin
g
DO meter
Analytical balance
Turbidmeter l
Ion meter
Kjeldhal apparatus
Atomic absorption
spectrophotometer
Spectrophotometer
Automatic titrators
BOD track kits
COD reactors
pH meter
Conductivity meter
Sediment sampler
GPS & TOC
Electrometer
Titrimetry
Spectrophotometer
AAS
GLC
Microscope
Membrane Filtration
Nutrient Analyser
Rwanda
Water Quality
Laboratory
Directive of
Water &
Sanitation
1
PhysicoChemist
2 Biochemists
1 Physicist
1 Supervisor
No
Spectrophotometer
Colorimeter
pHmeter
Digital Titrator
Conductivity meter
1) Water Quality Lab, National
University of Rwanda,
2) Water Quality Lab, Ministry of
Health
3) ELECTOGAZ
Kenya
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
NWSC
FIRI
GAL
UNBS
Chemiphar
Chemistry Dept, University of
Makere
7) Geology Dept, University of Makere
No AAS or GLC
109
Ministry of
Lands,
Environment,
Forest, Water
& Mines
(MINITERE
Country
Laboratory
Name
Number of
Laboratory
Staff
Accred
ited
Burundi
REGIDESO
Water
Laboratory&
1Environmentalis
t / Chemist
2 Technicians
No
DRC
REGIDESO
Water
Production &
Distribution
Corps.
20 staff:
1 Organic
Chemist
1 Biologist
4 Pharmacists
13 Technicians
No
DO meter
COD Digester
BOD meter
Autoclave
Sterilizer
Incubator
DelAgua Kit
Microscope
Membrane Filtration
Kjeldahl App.
Major Analytical
Equipment
pH-meter
DO meter
Conductivity meter
Spectrophotometer
Turbidity meter
Incubator, Furnace
Vapour sterilizers
Membrane Filtration
Autoclave
Microscopes
pH-meter
Spectrophotometer
Turbidity meter
Autoclave
Air oven
Comparator
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
Other Water Laboratories
Comments
1) National Institute For Environment &
Nature Conservation (INECN)
2) Quality Control& Analyst Society
(SAC)
3) Faculty of Agronomy (FACAGRO)
No AAS or GLC
1) CREN K Hydrology & Physics
(Kinshasa Regional Centre for Nuclear
Studies)
2.Ecotoxicology Lab,
University of Kinshasa
3.Soil Laboratory University of Kinshasa
No GLC or AAS
110
Country
Laboratory
Name
Number of
Laboratory
Staff
Accred
ited
Egypt
Central
Laboratory for
Environmental
Quality
Monitoring
(CLEQM)
Director & Deputy No
25 Inorganic Chem
15 Organic Chemis
15 Microbiologists
15 Soil Chemists
5 Biologists
5 IT staff
Major Analytical
Equipment
Other Water Laboratories
Ion Selective Electrode
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
UV-VIS Spectrophotometer
Gas Liquid Chromatograph
Ion Chromatograph
Grab Sampler
pH meter,
Turbidity meter,
Conductivity meter,
DO meter
1) Water Pollution Control Department
Laboratory
2) National Research Centre Laboratory
3) Greater Cairo Water Supply
Foustat Central Quality Laboratory
4) Central Laboratory
EEAA
5) Environmental Laboratory for Ministry
of Health
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
Comments
111
APPENDIX 7
APPRECIATION AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report - Final, 5/8/05
112
Appreciation/Acknowledgement
This Report was made possible through the combined efforts of a number of
individuals who participated at the national level in consultations, provided useful
comments or were involved in the preparations of the National Baseline Water
Quality Monitoring Study Reports, as follows:
Burundi
Mr. Audace Ndayizeye, National Project Coordinator, (NPC)
Mr. Joseph Ndayegamiye, Regional Water Quality Working Group (RWQWG),
member
Mr. Boniface Nyakageni, RWQWG member
Mr. Mathias Kinezero, National Consultant, Water Quality Monitoring Baseline
Study (WQMBS)
DRC
Mr. Joseph L. Afata, NPC
Prof. Mafuka Mpiempie, RWQWG member
Ms. MayeleRose Mukonkole, RWQWG member
Dr. Sudi Kachaka, National Consultant WQMBS
Egypt
Dr. Ithar Khalil, NPC
Prof. Tarik Tawfic RWQWG member
Prof. Mohamed AbdelKhalek RWQWG member
Prof. Helmy Zanfaly, National Consultant WQMBS
Ethiopia
Mr. Yesuf Abdella , NPC
Mr. Zeleke Chafamo, RWQWG member
Mr. Solomon Gabretsadik, RWQWG member
Eng. Fitsum Merid, National Consultant WQMBS
Kenya
Ms. Lily Kisaka, NPC
Mr. Bernard Mulwa, RWQWG member
Mr. Samuel Gor, RWQWG member
Mr. Peter W. Karani, National Consultant WQMBS
Rwanda
Mr. Emmanuel Muligirwa, NPC
Mr. John Nkongori, RWQWG member
Mr. Birori Mardochee, RWQWG member
Dr. Joseph Mukasa Ahorukomeye, National Consultant WQMBS
Sudan
Dr. Abdelsalam Ahmed, NPC
Ms. Nadia Babiker Shakak, RWQWG member
Nile Basin Regional Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report – Final 5/8/05
113
Mr. Mohamed Kalafalla Ahmed Ali, RWQWG member
Dr. Mrs. Zeinab Osman Saeed, National Consultant WQMBS
Tanzania
Mr. Abdalla Said Shah, NPC
Dr. Hassani Mjengera, RWQWG member
Mr. Dickson Rutagemwa, RWQWG member
Eng. Beda Lyimo, National Consultant WQMBS
Uganda
Robert Nabanyumyia, NPC
Dr. Florence Adongo, RWQWG member
Mr. Mohamed Badaza, RWQWG member
Mr. Moses Otim, National Consultant WQMBS
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114