МИНИСТЕРСТВО КУЛЬТУРЫ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ
ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ
ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
КИНО И ТЕЛЕВИДЕНИЯ
Кафедра иностранных языков
CHEMISTRY IN USE
Учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку
для студентов 2-го курса ФФиТД
Санкт- Петербург
2013
Составитель: старший преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков Е.Ю.Лобова
Рецензент: Доцент
Н.Н.Мирошникова
кафедры
иностранных
языков,
кандидат
педагогических
наук
Данное учебно-методическое пособие состоит из текстов для студентов факультета
фотографии и Технологии дизайна. К текстам прилагаются лексико–грамматические
задания для закрепления материала.
Рекомендовано к изданию кафедрой иностранных языков Санкт-Петербургского
государственного Университета кино и телевидения в качестве учебного пособия для
студентов 2-го курса ФФиТД.
Пособие утверждено и рекомендовано к изданию на заседании методического совета ФМК
1 ноября 2013 г. протокол № 2.
© СПбГУКиТ, 2013
UNIT 1
MATERIAL
TYPES
1.1.Read and translate the texts:
Text A
METALL AND NON-METALS
Engineering materials can be divided into:
Metals – examples of metallic materials are iron (Fe) and copper (Cu)
Non-metals –examples of non-metallic materials are carbon (C) and silicon (Si).
As iron is such a widely used material, metals can be divided into
Ferrous metals – those that contain iron
Non-ferrous metals – those that do not contain iron.
Text B
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
With regard to the chemical composition of materials – the chemicals they contain,
and how these elements are combined – three main categories can be used
ELEMENTS are pure materials in their most basic form. They cannot be broken
down into different constituents. Examples of elements widely used in engineering
materials are iron, carbon and aluminium (Al).
COMPOUNDS consist of two or more elements that are chemically bound – that is
combined by a chemical reaction. An everyday example is water, which is compound
of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
MIXTURES consist of two or more elements or compounds which are mixed
together, but which are not chemically bound. In engineering, common examples are
alloys – that is, metals which have other metals and/ or non-metals mixed with
them. A common example is steel, which is iron-carbon alloy, and can include other
alloying metals – metal which are added to alloys, in small quantities relative to the
main metal. Examples of widely used alloying metals are chromium (Cr), manganese
(Mn) and tungsten (W).
Text C
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
When you think of examples of hi-tech materials, composite materials come to mind
– such as carbon-fibre, used in aerospace and Formula 1 cars. But although we think
of composites as hi-tech and highly expensive, that is not always true. The earliest
examples of composite materials were bricks made from mud and straw. Or, to use
the correct composite terms, from straw reinforcement – the structural network that
reinforces the material inside, and a mud matrix – the material surrounding the
reinforcement. These terms explain what a composite material is- a matrix with a
reinforcing material inside it. A modern, everyday example is fiberglass – correctly
called glass-reinforced plastic ( GRP) – which has a plastic matrix reinforced with
glass fibres.
1.2. Complete the sentences using the words in the box:
Metal non- metal metallic non-metallic ferrous non-ferrous
1. Carbon (C) is a ____________.
2. Cuprum (Cu) is a ________ metal.
3. Aluminium ( Al) is a common __________.
4. Steel ( Fe+C) is a widely used__________metal.
5. Although it is used in steel, carbon is __________.
6. Aluminium is relatively lightweight for a ______________ material.
1.3. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false, and correct the false
sentences. Look at text B to help you:
1. The elements that make up a compound are chemically bound.
2. Alloys are chemical compounds that are frequently used in engineering.
3. Alloys can contain both metallic and non-metallic constituents.
4. In an alloy, an alloying metal is the biggest constituent, by percentage.
5. Steel is a metallic element.
1.4. Complete the extract about concrete and steel, using suitable forms of the word
reinforce.
From text C.Sometimes there is more than one possible answer:
(1)_________ concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials, and
one we take for granted. However, using steel bars to (2)_________ concrete
structures located outdoors is only possible thanks to a fortunate coincidence-
concrete and steel have practically the same coefficient of thermal expansion – in
other words, as atmospheric temperature varies, the concrete and the steel
(3)__________ expand and contract at the same rate, allowing uniform movement.
Using a (4)_________ material with a different coefficient of expansion would not be
feasible. For example, (5) aluminium-__________ concrete would quickly
disintegrate.
1.5. Read the text below and find two elements, two compounds, an alloy and a
composite:
Generally, the steel used in reinforced concrete will have previously been exposed to
water and to the oxygen in the air. As a result, it will usually be partly corroded,
being covered with a layer of iron oxide (rust). However, once the steel is inside the
hardened concrete, it will be protected from air and water, which prevents further
rusting. Additionally, the cement in concrete does not react aggressively with the ion
in steel
ELEMENT
COMPOUND
ALLOY
COMPOSITE
UNIT 2
STEELS
2.1. Read and translate the texts:
Text A
CARBON
STEELS
Steel is the most widely used engineering material.Technically, though, this wellknown alloy of iron and carbon is not as simple as one might think. Steel comes in a
huge range of different grades, each with different characteristics. For the
inexperienced, it can be difficult to know where to begin.
A good place to start is with two main types of steel. The first, carbon steels, consist
of iron and carbon, and contain no significant quantities of other metals. Carbon
steels can be divided into three main grades
- mild steel – the most widely used grade- is a low carbon steel which contains up to
approximately 0,3% carbon
- medium carbon steel contains between approximately 0,3% and 0,6% carbon.
- light carbon steel contains between approximately 0,6% and 1,4%.
Text B
ALLOY STEELS
The second main category of steel is alloy steels, which consist of iron, carbon and
one or more Alloying metals. Specific grades of alloy steel include:
low alloy steels, which contain 90% or more iron, and up to approximately
10% of
alloying metals such as chromium, manganese, molybdenum and
vanadium.
high strength low alloy steels ( HSLA), which contain smaller quantities of the
above metals ( typically less then 2%)
stainless steels, which contain chromium as well as other metals – such as
nickel- and which do not rust.
tool steels, which are extremely hard and are used in cutting tools. They
contain tungsten and/ or cobalt. A widely used grade of tool steel is high-speed steel,
which is used in cutting tools that operate at high temperatures, such as drill bits.
Text C
CORROSION
One weakness of mild steel is that it corrodes – its surface progressively deteriorates
due to a chemical reaction. This reaction takes place between the iron in the steel and
oxygen in the air, to form iron oxide. When iron corrodes, we say that it rusts. In
some metals, such as aluminiuum (Al) the presence of corrosion is not a problem, as
the layer of oxide around the metal remains hard, which prevents it from oxidizing
any further. However, when mild steel goes rusty, the rust on the surface comes off
continuously, and a new rusty layer forms, progressively eating into the metal
2.2. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false, and correct the false
sentences, Look at texts A and B:
1. Steel is alloy of iron and carbon.
2. Might steel is a high carbon steel/
3. Alloy steels contain carbon
4. Chromium and nickel are used as alloying metals in steel.
5. Low alloy steels contain more chromium than iron.
6. Stainless steel is an alloy steel.
7. Tungsten is added to steel to make it softer.
8. High-speed steel is suitable for making cutting tools that get very hot.
2.3. Complete the article about a special type of steel, using words from texts A,B
and C:
WEATHERING STEEL
The perennial problem with mild (1)______________ is that it (2) __________ when
exposed to air and water. Generally, the only solution is either to apply a protective
coating or to use another(3)__________ of steel that is resistant to the (4)
___________ process – the most well-known being(5) ___________ steel which
contains significant quantities of (6) ________ and, often, nickel.
There is, however, an alternative solution. So-called weathering steel is a special
alloy suitable for outdoor use. But rather than being completely protected from
corrosion, the surface of the steel is allowed to go (7) ________ . Once a layer of (8)
______________has formed on the surface, it stabilizes and forms a hard protective
layer. This layer differs from ordinary (9) ____________ oxide, as it does not
continue to eat into the metal. While not everyone may like the rusty look,
weathering steel has widely used in architectural applications and outdoor sculptures.
2.4. Complete the table with words related to corrode, oxide and rust. Then use the
words to complete the sentences below. There is more than one possible answer:
VERB
Go rusty
NOUN
ADJECTIVE
Oxidized
Corroded
1. When steel is exposed to air and water, it___________________
2. A brown/ red material on the surface of steel is called ______________.
3. The strength of steel is reduced if it is _______________.
UNIT 3
POLYMERS
3.1.
Read and translate the texts:
Text A
Rubber, thanks to its many uses from rubber bands to car tyres, is one of the bestknown polymers. It comes from latex, a natural liquid which comes from rubber
trees. Rubber is therefore a natural polymer. However, most of the polymers used in
industry are not natural, but synthetic. The term plastic is generally used to refer to
synthetic polymers – in other words, those are manmade.
Text B
THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS
Synthetic polymers can be divided into two main categories:
Thermoplastics can be melted by heat, and formed in shaped containers called
moulds. After the liquid plastic has cooled, it sets to form a solid material. A
thermoplastic is a type of plastic that can be heated and molded numerous times.
Examples of thermoplastics that are common in engineering include ABS
(acrylonitrite butadiene styrene) – stiff and light, used in vehicle bodywork.
Polycarbonate – used to make strong, transparent panels and vehicle lights PVC
(polyvinylchloride) – a cheaper plastic used for window frames and pipes.
Thermosetting plastics , also called thermosets, can be heated and moulded like
thermoplastics. They may also be mixed from cold ingridients. However, during
cooling or mixing, a chemical reaction occurs, causing thermosets to cure. This
means they set permanently, and cannot be moulded again If a thermoset is heated
after curing, it will burn. Examples of thermosets used in engineering are Epoxy
resins – used in very strong adhesives Polyimides – strong and flexible, used as
insulators in some electric cables.
Two more categories of polymers are engineering plastics and elastomers.
Engineering plastics are mostly thermoplastics that are especially strong, such as
ABS and polycarbonate. Elastomers are very elastic polymers which can be stretched
by force to at least twice their original length, and can then return to their original
length when the force is removed.
3.2. Circle the correct words to complete the text. Look at text A to help you:
A lot of rubber is made from latex, a (1) natural/synthetic polymer which comes from
rubber trees. However, not all rubber comes from trees. Synthetic rubber is a (2)
manmade/ natural polymer with similar properties to latex. Plastics are also polymers.
Like rubber, they consist of long chains of (3) atoms/ molecules which form
extremely large (4) atoms/ molecules.
3.3. Read the extract describing a plastic panel manufacturing process. Then decide
whether the sentences below are true or false, and correct the false sentences. Look at
text B to help you:
By this stage of the process, the plastic is solid, and has fully cooled. Selected panels
can now undergo quality-control testing, to check they are strong enough to cope
with the tough conditions they will be exposed to in use. Tests include tensile
testing, where narrow length of panels are subjected to high tension loads to check
they do not stretch or fracture. More tests are carried out to check the panels
resistance to impacts and scratching. Any products that fail the tests are returned to
the beginning of the production process, melted down, and their material is reused.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The plastic was heated earlier in the process.
The plastic has now set.
The plastic is now liquid.
To pass one of the tests, the plastic must be an elastomer.
The description suggests the plastic is a type of engineering plastic.
The material is a thermosetting plastic.
The material is thermoplastic.
3.4. Using definitions find the words:
A shorter name for polyvinylchloride –
Used for forming melted plastic –
A group of atoms A long chain of atoms –
To set permanently –
A very elastic polymer –
A plastic that sets permanently –
A natural polymer –
A very strong thermoset resin –
Not natural –
Particles that form molecules –
Another word for not natural –
Material used to make rubber –
Make your own sentences using these words.
UNIT 4
MINERALS AND CERAMICS
4.1. Read and translate the texts:
Text A
MINERAL AND CERAMIC ENGINEERING MATERIALS
A mineral is a natural, inorganic material (one that is not living) which is found on
the ground, often within rocks. Minerals are quite pure. Rocks, on the other hand, can
be mixtures of several minerals, and may also contain previously organic material.
Examples of minerals include different types of ore – from which metal can be
extracted – such as iron ore. Non-metallic minerals include-diamond, an extremely
hard form of carbon (C), which is used as an abrasive (very hard and rough) material
in cutting tools – frequently referred to as industrial diamond when used in
engineering- silicon (Si), found in sand as silica (silicon dioxide), which can be
heated to high temperatures to make glass.
Generally, inorganic, non-metallic materials that have been formed by heating are
called ceramics. Glass is therefore a ceramic. When materials are heated to extremely
high temperatures to form ceramics that are glass-like- that is, with a structure like
that of glass – we say that they are vitrified.
Ceramic materials are used to make construction materials such as bricks. These are
made from clay, and are then fired in a kiln – that is, heated to a high temperature in
an industrial oven. Clay can also be vitrified – for example, to make waterproof
pipes.
Text B
GLASS
A technical adviser for a glass manufacturer is giving a briefing to a group of
engineers at a trade fair “Sheets of glass”, which are obviously flat and thin, are
called float glass. This refers to the manufacturing technique where molten glass is
floated on molten tin, to produce flat sheets. Usually, after float glass has been
formed, it is annealed- it is left to cool slowly. But if it is left in this state, and the
glass later gets broken, it breaks into dangerous, sharp pieces. So for most
engineering and architectural uses, annealed glass is unsuitable. We need to use what
we call safety glass.
One type of safety glass is toughened glass, also called tempered glass. As the term
suggests, the glass is tempered – it is heated and kept hot for a certain time, to change
its structure. Then if tempered glass is broken, it shatters – it breaks into tiny pieces.
These are a lot safer than the long, sharp pieces produced when annealed glass
breaks. The disadvantage of toughened glass is that it cannot withstand impacts from
small objects, such as flying stones. So, for instance, that makes it unsuitable for
vehicle windscreens. So in cases where impacts are a problem, another type of safety
glass – laminated glass- is generally used. This is made by laminating glass with a
polymer – in other words, making a glass and polymer “sandwich”, with a sheet of
polymer in the middle and sheets of glass at either side. The layers of glass are
bonded to a layer of polymer – they are stuck to the polymer – so if the glass does
break, the broken pieces are held together and do not fly.”
4.2. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false. Then, change one word in
each of the false sentences to correct them. Look at text A to help you:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Minerals are organic.
Minerals can be found in rocks.
Silica is a compound containing silicon.
Minerals can be metallic or non-metallic.
Industrial diamond is an abrasive, metallic material
In order to become ceramics, materials must be vitrified.
Clay can be fired to produce material with a glass-like structure.
4.3. Complete the article about bulletproof glass using words from text B,
Sometimes, more than word is possible:
“Bulletproof” is a loosely used word, suggesting something is totally unbreakable.
But technically speaking how accurate is the term “ bulletproof glass”? Outside of
Hollywood movies, can glass really stop bullets? The answer is, not on its own. But if
several (1) _________ of glass are sandwiched with a high-strength polymer to form
(2) ________glass, a bullet-resistant, if not completely bulletproof, barrier can be
obtained.
The technique of sandwiching polymer and glass is nothing unusual. Car
windscreens are made by (3)_________ glass to a polymer, such as PVB, to form a
type of safety glass. Unlike the other main type of safety glass – (4) __________
glass – laminated glass remains intact on breaking. If a stone hits a windscreen, even
though a small section of the glass on the outside may crack, the polymer behind it
will stop the stone, and also ensure the entire piece of glass does not (5) __________.
Bullet-resistant glass uses the same principle, but must be much tougher. A stronger
polymer is therefore used – often polycarbonate- as well as a greater number of
(6)________ of glass and polymer.
UNIT 5
NON – FERROUS METALS
5.1. Read and translate the texts:
Text A
COMMON NON- FERROUS ENGINEERING METALS
Aluminium is widely used, often in alloy forms. An example is duralumin, an alloy
used in aircraft manufacturing, which also contains copper ( 4,4%) and magnesium
(1,5%). Aluminium can also be alloyed with titanium to produce very strong,
lightweight metals.
Copper is an excellent electrical conductor, which makes it ideal for use in electric
wires. Good ductility also makes it suitable for pipes. Copper is widely used in alloys,
notably brass ( copper and zinc) and bronze ( copper and tin, and sometimes lead).
Silver is a precious metal – a reference to its high cost. It is a better electrical
conductor than any other material, so it is often used for electronic connections.
Another precious metal – gold- is also an excellent conductor, and is highly
corrosion- resistant
Text B
PLATING WITH NON – FERROUS METALS
Non-ferrous metals can be used to protect steel from corrosion by plating – that is
covering it with a thin layer of metal. An example is galvanizing ( zinc plating).
Steel can be hot-dip galvanized, by placing it in molten ( liquid) zinc. It can also be
electrogalvanized, which is a type of electroplating. With this technique, the steel
component is placed in a liquid ( often an acid)- called the electrolyte – and
connected to the negative terminal ( -) of an electrical supply, to become the cathode
( the negative side). A piece of zinc is also played in the electrolyte, and is connected
to the positive terminal ( + ) of the supply. This then becomes the anode ( the positive
side ). An electric current then flows between the pieces of metal, through the
electrolyte. This causes a chemical reaction, which deposits zinc on the cathode,
plating the component.
A related process, called anodizing, is used to protect aluminium. The component to
be anodized is connected to the positive terminal (to become the anode ) and placed
in an electrolyte, with a cathode. As electricity flows, aluminium oxide is deposited
on the anode. As this is harder than aluminium metal, it provides protection.
5.2. Make correct sentences using one part from each column. Look at text A to help
you:
1 Duralumin
2 Titanium
can be mixed with copper to make
resist corrosion better than the other precious
Metal,
has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is often
Alloyed with
is an aluminium alloy that also contains copper
And
can be mixed with tin and lead to produce
3 Zinc
4 Copper
5 Gold
silver.
brass
aluminium
bronze
magnesium.
5.3. Complete the word groups below using the names of the metals from the texts.
You will need to write some names more than once:
Metal elements:
Alloys:
Precious metals:
5.4. Complete the checklist for electroplating using the words in the box. Look at text
B to help you:
Anode
Cathode
electrolyte
electroplating
galvanizing
negative
plated
positive
Check that there is sufficient (1) _____________ in the bath to completely cover the
component, in order to ensure that the component will subsequently be (2)________
over its entire surface area
Ensure that the component is connected to the ( 3)__________ terminal of the
electrical supply. During the (4) ___________ the component should function as the
(5) ______________. Ensure that the metal being used for plating – zinc for
(6)_________ - is connected to the ( 7)___________ terminal of the electrical supply.
During the process it should function as the ( 8)______________.
5.5. Translate from Russian into English:
Известно, что водород-самый легкий элемент. При температуре 20С это
бесцветный газ, без вкуса и запаха. Его плотность равна 0,08987, то есть 1/5
плотности воздуха.
Водород только слегка растворяется в воде, при стандартном давлении в 100
мл воды растворимость равна 1,93 мл.
Водород можно найти в свободном состоянии только в очень маленьких
количествах, это обусловлено его высокой химической активностью.
Известно,что его можно получить в лаборатории при его высвобождении из
кислот, оснований или воды.
UNIT 6
6.1.Read and translate the text:
ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
Analytical Chemistry is a critical technology that makes possible all of the materials
and media invention and development at Kodak.
Analytical chemists can influence the course of materials-related efforts through a
few key initiatives:
1.
Providing integrated analytical support for all materials-technology and
product-development programs (from conventional photographic materials to digital
imaging materials, as well as new photographic output and display materials).
In this role, Kodak analytical chemists both characterize materials and provide a basic
understanding about those materials' functions and properties (as they relate to
product systems). Analytical chemists are key members of many technology- and
product-focused teams at Kodak. They work with experts from many technology
disciplines to design and execute experiments, and to extract maximum information
from measurements.
2.
Maintaining state-of-the-art capabilities (both equipment and expertise) in
analytical chemistry and technology, and to be the stewards of these technologies for
Kodak. Analytical chemists have earned external recognition in these disciplines:
o
Molecular spectroscopy
o
Polymer characterization
Separations science
o
Particle and physical characterization
o
Elemental analysis
o
Process analytical chemistry
3.
Analyzing and solving problems. Analytical chemists often are the material
and system "sleuths" for Kodak – figuring out how our material systems work and
why they perform the way they do. They investigate everything from simple chemical
mixtures to complex products in the field.
These scientists combine many analytical technologies and techniques (chemical
separation, surface analysis, and more) with their understanding of materials and
products to solve problems for Kodak and its customers.
o
6.2. Answer the questions:
1. How can analytical chemists influence the course of material-related efforts?
2. Why are analytical chemists key members of many teams?
3. What disciplines are important in analytical chemistry?
4. Why are chemists the material “sleuths” for Kodak?
5. What do scientists combine?
6.3. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false. Then correct the false
sentences:
1. Analytical chemists cannot influence the course of material-related efforts.
2. Analytical chemists are the key members of many teams at Kodak.
3. Analytical chemists work independently.
4. These scientists combine many analytical technologies and techniques.
6.4. Put the following words under the headings: verb, noun, adjective:
Critical, make, invention, digital, science, recognition, influence, simple, separation,
External, field, combine, problems, investigate, analytical, system, surface, earn,
solve.
6.5. Match the words in A with their definition in B:
A
a. technology
b. development
c. digit
d. output
e. design
f. external
g. perform
h. mixture
i. separation
j. investigate
k. solve
B
a. any of the numbers from 0 to 9
b. a drawing or pattern showing how something is to be made
c. a set of substances mixed together
d. the branch of knowledge dealing with scientific and industrial methods
e. production
f. on, of or for the outside
g. to find an answer
h. the act or action of developing
i. to examine carefully
j. breaking or coming apart
k. to do, carry out
6.6. Translate from Russian into English:
1. Эта технология делает возможным использование всех материалов.
2. Химики –аналитики не работают независимо от других химиков.
3. Эту смесь будет очень трудно разделить.
4. Известно,что эти ученые сочетают разные аналитические технологии.
5. Это открытие сильно повлияло на разработку новой техники.
UNIT 7
7.1. Read and translate the text:
ORGANIC PHOTOCHEMISTRY
Photochemistry is the science of how light interacts with matter – and most imaging
is the result of this interaction. Not surprisingly, photochemistry is very important to
Kodak, in both obvious and subtle ways. Many factors must be considered in order
to tune the course of an excited molecule to suit a specific application.
The main areas of imaging technology that directly or indirectly utilize
photochemistry include:



Dyes
Sensitizers
Photoinitiators






Photostabilizers
Optical brighteners
Filters
Fluorophores
Photochromics
Photopolymers
In general, imaging is more than just color formation as a result of light exposure. It
also includes:







Color bleaching
Changes in refractive index
Changes in polarity or wettability
Formation of a fluorescent material
Ablation
Deformation
...and much more
In addition, Kodak's constant desire for more environmentally sound imaging
schemes, those that have simple or no processing, guides our search for novel
solutions.For instance, sensitization is a key process in most imaging schemes. In
silver halide photography, spectral sensitization is a photochemical process involving
photo-induced electron transfer. This very old discipline, but Kodak is investigating
promising new concepts that enhance sensitivity. Sensitization also is an essential
part of photopolymerization, which is widely used in photoresist and protective layer
applications.There more to photochemistry than image formation. This discipline is
critical in determining image quality – especially the photostability of images.
Designing high photostability dyes requires understanding the various electronic
states of excited electrons (lowest-singlet and upper-excited states, as well as triplet
states), as well as the lifetimes associated with each.In electrophotography, charge
carrier generation also employs many photochemical principles. And the same is true
for the reverse process, charge recombination – which produces electronically excited
molecules such those used in light emitting diodes.
7.2. Answer the questions:
1.
What is photochemistry?
2.
What are the main areas of imaging technology?
3.
What does imaging include?
4.
Where is photopolymerization used?
5.
What does designing dyes require?
7.3. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false. Then correct the false
sentences:
1.
Imaging is just color formation.
2.
Photochemistry is not so important to Kodak.
3.
Sensitization is a key process in most imaging schemes.
4.
Designing low photostability dyes requies understanding the various
electronic states of electrons.
7.4.Match the verbs with the nouns:
a. interact
b. tune
c. guide
d. require
e. employ
f. produce
a. search
b. matter
c. course
d. principles
e. molecules
f. understanding
7.5.
Translate from Russian into English:
1.
Много факторов необходимо учесть.
2.
Кодак постоянно ищет новые решения проблем.
3.
Это понятие очень важно при определении качества изображения.
4.
То же самое справедливо и для обратного процесса.
5.
Молекулы в возбужденном состоянии используются в
светоизлучающих диодах.
UNIT 8
8.1. Read and translate the text:
SILVER HALIDE EMULSIONS
The primary element for light capture in photography is the silver halide crystal.
When exposed to light, this crystal forms a small, stable "latent image" that is highly
amplified during photographic development. In black-and-white photography the
reduced metallic silver forms the image. In color photography, the oxidized developer
is used to create a colored image in register with the developed silver. By common
usage, the term "emulsion" denotes what is actually a dispersion of tiny silver halide
crystals (grains) in gelatin. Although the structure of the AgBr and AgCl lattice is
face-centered cubic, an enormous variety of crystal shapes can be obtained,
depending on the number and orientation of twin planes and the conditions during
growth. To add to this complexity, the crystals in commercial emulsions usually
contain mixed halide phases. Films suitable for a hand-held camera generally contain
silver bromoiodide, in which iodide ions are incorporated into the AgBr lattice during
crystal growth. Practical photography is possible from conditions of bright sunlight to
night street lighting. These conditions span a factor of about 10 5in illuminance, and
must be accommodated by the combination of camera shutter speed, lens aperture,
and film speed. Sensitivity to light, or photographic speed, is one of the most
important attributes of the emulsion. Intrinsic sensitivity is typically enhanced during
manufacture by a heat treatment in the presence of tiny amounts of sulfur and gold
compounds (chemical sensitization). Organic dyes, usually cyanine dyes, are then
applied to the crystal surface to extend the basic UV and blue sensitivity to other
colors in the visible spectrum (spectral sensitization). Different layers in a color film
contain emulsions that have been dyed to respond selectively to blue, green, and red
light, thus making color photography possible. The silver halide emulsion literally
"sets the scene" for the subsequent complex chemical processes that lead to the
formation of a colorful image. The perennial challenge to Kodak’s emulsion
scientists is to increase film speed while maintaining image quality and keeping
performance.
8.2. Answer the questions:
1. What is the primary element for light capture?
2. How does the silver halide work?
3. What is the structure of the crystal?
4. How to enhance sensitivity?
5. What makes color photography possible?
8.3.Match the words in A with their definition in B:
A
a.capture
b. stable
c. image
d. obtain
e. complex
f. sensitive
g. enhance
B
1.a system consisting of large number parts
2. a picture
3. the act of taking
4. not easily moved or change
5. to get
6. to answer
7. a degree of goodness
h. respond
i.perennial
j. quality
8. quick to show or feel the effect of something
9. to increase
10. using forever or for a long time
8.4. Write in Russian:
1. the primary element for light
capture……………………………………………………………..
2. forms a small, stable “latent
image”……………………………………………………………..
3. by common
usage………………………………………………………………………………..
4. must be accommodated by the combination
………………………………………………………
5. one of the most important attributes
……………………………………………………………..
6. intrinsic sensitivity is typically
enhanced…………………………………………………………….
7. different layers in a color film contain emulsions
……………………………………………………
8. the perennial challenge
………………………………………………………………………………..
8.5. Translate from Russian into English:
1.
В цветной фотографии оксидированный проявитель используется
для создания цветного изображения.
2.
Кристаллы в коммерческих эмульсиях обычно содержат смешанные
фазы галидов.
3.
Чувствительность к свету один из самых важных атрибутов
эмульсии.
4.
Органические красители применяются для расширения базового
ультрафиолетового цвета.
5.
Надо постоянно поддерживать качество изображения.
UNIT 9
9.1. Read and translate the text:
SYNTHETIC CHEMISTRY
The discovery, design and synthesis of new organic molecules and understanding the
intricate mechanisms by which they interact leads to exciting advances in silver
halide and digital imaging technology. Imaging chemicals are complex
multifunctional molecules often requiring highly selective functional group
transformations of several iterations. State of the art design techniques and synthetic
methodologies are employed by Kodak scientists to arrive at the desired target
structures. Research in synthetic organic chemistry involves both long range
exploratory research and mission oriented research.
The synthesis of new organic materials ranges from milligrams to metric tons.
Discovery phase of research involves modern tools such as combinatorial chemistry
in which multiple reactions can be carried out on solid phase supports or in solution
in a parallel fashion followed by automation, purification and characterization.
Quantitative Structure/reactivity relationships are generously used to design novel
compounds. On larger scale, process development using experimental design is used
for optimization of multi-kilogram syntheses, leading to commercialization. Organic
chemists thrive in a highly interdisciplinary and team environment. Understanding
the function and interactions of complicated molecules is accomplished by physical
organic chemists. From measuring reaction rates to calculating excited states,
important mechanistic information is vital to the design of improved imaging
chemistry. Large molecules are studied by computational science, molecular
modeling and x-ray diffraction to understand how their structure can effect their
performance. The characterization of organic compounds is supported by state-ofthe-art analytical facilities for high pressure liquid chromatography, mass spectra,
nuclear magnetic resonance, and infrared spectrophotometry. Color print and Color
slide films require the design of dyes to spectrally sensitize silver halide, image
forming couplers, stabilizers for improved image stability, organic reducing agents,
organic oxidizing agents, ultraviolet filter dyes which remain in the film or paper,
filter dyes that are removed during processing and accelerators and inhibitors of
silver development. In addition to these materials color negative film requires color
masking image formers, and image modifying chemistry. All these materials have to
be optimized for performance and incorporated into the gelatin matrix of photography
conforming to specific solubility properties. Thermal dye transfer and ink jet printing
systems are capable of producing very high quality images directly from digital files.
Novel dyes have been designed that will work in these systems and yet provide the
color and stability of traditional photographs. High quality digital color proofing
systems for the printing industry are based on Kodak’s laser dye transfer technology.
Specially designed dyes match the colors of the printing inks and convert laser light
to heat. "Invisible" dyes will allow the embedding of additional information
("metadata") into photographs that will prevent misuse of copyrighted images, enable
images to be readily sorted and even provide sound bites for the viewer. More
recently, organic light emitting diode ( OLED) materials are emerging as potential
replacements for flat-screen displays in future electronic products.
9.2. Answer the questions:
1. What are imaging chemicals?
2. What does research involve?
3. How can reactions be carried out?
4. Why is process development used?
5. What do organic chemists thrive?
6. What do color print and color slide films require?
7. What can you say about dyes?
8. What will “invisible” dyes allow?
9.3. Match the words in A with their definition in B:
A
a. discovery
b. intricate
c. tool
d. thrive
e. vital
f. effect
g. solubility
h. dye
i. convert
j. invisible
B
a. any instrument
b. a substance used to colour things
c. very necessary; of the greatest importance
d. the ability to be dissolved
e. containing many detailed parts and this difficult to understand
f. to develop well and be healthy, be successful
g. that cannot be seen
h. to cause, produce or to have as a result
i. the event of discovering
j. to change into another form, substance.
9.4.Write in Russian:
a. the discovery, design and synthesis of new organic
molecules________________________________________________
b. desired target structures ____________________________________
c. phase of research involves ____________________________________
d. organic chemists thrive in team
environment__________________________
e. function and interactions of complicated molecules
_______________________________
f. color print requires the design of dyes
_______________________________
g. accelerators and inhibitors of silver development
___________________________
h. laser dye transfer technology
___________________________________________
i. “invisible” dyes will allow the embedding of additional
Information____________________________________________________
__________
9.5. Translate from Russian into English:
1. Понимание запутанного механизма посредством которого взаимодействуют
молекулы.
2. Многофункциональные молекулы часто требуют трансформации
функциональных групп.
3. Множественные реакции могут быть выполнены при поддержке твердой
фазы.
4. Большие молекулы изучаются ,чтобы понять как их структура может
повлиять на их действия.
5. Новые красители обеспечивают цвет и стабильность традиционных
фотографий.
6. Органические светоизлучающие диоды возникают как потенциальные
заместители плоскоэкранных дисплеев.
9.6. Fill in the gaps in the table for word-classes:
Noun
1.Design
2__________
3_________
Verb
___________
Discover
_____________
Adjective
___________
___________
scientific
Person
______________
______________
_______________
UNIT 10
COLLOIDS AND COLLOIDAL PARTICLES
10.1 Read and translate the text:
If one shook sand and water together in a closed vessel a momentary suspension of
the sand particles in the water would be obtained. As soon as the agitation ceases,
however, the sand particles begin to settle to the bottom of the vessel, where in a very
shot time, nearly all of them collect, leaving a clear supernatant liquid above.
If on the other hand one shook sugar and water together, a homogeneous mixture
would be formed from which none of the solute would tend to settle, so long as there
were sufficient water present to maintain the mixture. The former of these systems
could be referred to as a coarse suspension, the latter as the solution, intermediate
between systems of these two types being a third type of dispersion. The particles of
this middle class, when suspended, are too small. They couldn’t be seen with the aid
of the best of the optical microscopes. They are so small that they couldn’t be caught
by the most fine filter paper, and they do not settle to the bottom of the vessel. These
particles when suspended in a liquid do not tend to diffuse into an adjoining layer of
the pure dispersing liquid. It was Thomas Graham who made a careful study of such
particles. He suggested that they should be named ‘colloid”. This term is derived
from “kolla” , the Greek word for glue. Today the term “colloid”, “colloidal” do not
refer to definite categories of matter, but rather to particles of any variety of matter
whose dimensions lie within a certain range.
A substance which is dispersed in particles of colloidal size throughout another might
be called the dispersed or internal phase of the mixture, while the second component
is known as the dispersion medium or the external phase. If a solid were colloidally
dispersed in a liquid, it could be referred to as a suspensoid, while a liquid colloidally
dispersed in a second liquid could often be referred to as an emulsoid.
Since each of the three states of matter might be suspended colloidally in a matter of
each of the three states, it might be anticipated that there would be nine types of
colloidal dispersions. Actually there are only eight, for mixtures of gases, because of
the relatively large distances between their molecules, form only true solutions.
10.2. Answer the questions:
1. When a momentary suspension can be obtained?
2. What happens when the agitation ceases?
3. What happens if sugar and water are shaken together?
4. What is the third type of dispersion?
5. Is it possible to see the particles of the middle class?
6. Why is it impossible to see these particles?
7. What is a dispersed phase?
10.3. Complete the sentences choosing a suitable word from the list of the words
given below:
Fine, coarse, to settle, to rise, charged, discharge, unlike, like, homogeneous, small,
large, internal, external.
1.
Very…….. particles of substances which have little ability to absorb light
scatter the light more than they do red light.
2.
……… particles are not so affected because their surfaces are very large.
3.
Colloidal particles are small enough to pass through a filter paper, they
do not …. to the bottom.
4.
Nearly all suspended colloidal particles are electrically ………. , as is
shown by the fact that they can travel toward one pole or the other of an
electrolytic cell.
5.
If two sols whose particles have ……. charges are mixed in equal
proportions, precipitation of the dispersed phases takes place.
6.
If you shake water and sugar in a closed vessel a ….. mixture will be
formed.
7.
These particles are too…… to be seen under the microscope.
8.
A substance which is dispersed in particles of colloidal size throughout
another is called the ………. phase of the mixture.
10.4 Translate the sentences paying attention to the meanings of “should”:
1. It should be mentioned that the gamma rays of radium are of shorter wave length
than any other form of radiant energy could be.
2. It is necessary that the solution should be dried.
3. If the experiment hadn’t been so time-consuming, we should have been able to
complete it much ealier.
4. In each case this question should be considered separately.
5. An indicator should actually change colour when acid and base brought together
in chemically equivalent quantities.
6. It is necessary that the battery should be charged.
7. It is necessary that synthetic dyes, perfumes and medicines should be widely used
instead of the natural substances.
10.5. Read the following and give a summary of it:
When dissolved substance is in the molecular or ionic state a solution is
homogeneous.
Solute particles diffuse readily into a layer of the pure solvent. Finally divided
solids produce suspensions when they are shaken with a liquid in which they are not
soluble.
In a coarse suspension the particles of the solid are visible to the unaided eye.
There is an intermediate range between the solution and the mechanical mixture, in
which the dispersed material retains its former phase, but the particles are so small
that they are not visible. Such systems are called dispersed systems.
A colloidal system is a heterogeneous system in which the dispersed material is
distributed uniformly in a fine state throughout the dispersing medium.
UNIT 11
MAN - MADE ELEMENTS
11.1. Read and translate the text:
Man at last understood the elements well enough to make his own. First there were
some elements still missing from the Periodic Table. The fact was they were
practically missing from nature, too. Scientists had to make these elements
themselves. To make such elements meant first of all to carry on great experimental
work. Many scientists worked hard at this problem. In 1919 Ernest Rutherford was
the first to change nitrogen to oxygen by bombarding nitrogen atoms with alphaparticles.
To alter an element artificially is to add or subtract particles in its nucleus. The first
completely new man-made isotope was created by Rutherford*s method, its creators
being Irene Curie and her husband Frederic Joliot. To do that they had to bombard
aluminium with alpha-particles. This attack transformed some of the aluminium
atoms into a highly radioactive substance. This substance was a new kind of
phosphorus, its atomic weight being 30 , instead of natural phosphorus 31.
It was no wonder that phopsphorus 30 did not occur in nature, its half-life being
only two and a half minutes. Thus the Joliot-curies were the first to produce “
artificial radioactivity”.
The era of artificial transmutation began with the building of the first “atomsmasher”, i.e. the cyclotron. By means of cyclotron and energetic particleaccelerators developed later it become possible to open up the nucleus of any atom. It
became possible to add particles to it, and even to create new ones.
The first element produced in this way was the missing number 43, it being named
“ technetium” meaning “ artificial”. The aim of the scientists was to discover other
elements.
In 1939 a new element was found. It behaved like an alkali-metal family. It was
called “francium”. It was detected in nature. Later that element was produced
artificially by an accelerator, and only then did chemists obtain enough of it. For that
reason francium is to be considered as a man-made element.
Later scientists discovered traces of an element in neutron-bombarded uranium.
They called it “ neptunium”. Radioactive neptunium gave rise to another element –
number 94.
In 1955 chemists could produce a few atoms of element 101, which was named “
mendelevium” in honour of Mendeleyv. The isolation of element number 102
occurred in 1958, it being named “nobelium”, as part of the work done at the Nobel
Institute in Stockholm.
The next element to be produced was 103, it was named “lawrencium” for
E.lawrence, the inventor of the cyclotron.
Then the task was to discover the next element. It was 104. It was named “
kurchatovium” in honour of the great scientists I. Kurchatov, who worked in the field
of nuclear physics. He conducted a great deal of research in the field of nuclear
physics.
The scientists of the whole world continue their research in the field of artificial
elements.
11.2. Answer the questions:
1. Why did it become possible to make elements artificially?
2. What problem did many scientists work at?
3. What does it mean to alter an element artificially?
4. What element was produced by Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot?
5. How did they get this element?
6. What is cyclotron used for?
7. What element was produced by means of cyclotron?
11.3. Open the brackets translating the Russian words into English:
1. (При помощи) of a new cyclotron it become possible to open up the nucleus of
any atom.
2. The new device was created (вместо) an old one.
3. The element produced (таким образом) was named “ technetium”.
4. The element behaved (подобно) an alkali-metal.
5. Radioactive element (привел) to another element – number 94.
6. The isolation of element number 102 ( имело место) in 1958.
7. (Не удивительно) that many new discoveries have taken place recently.
8. (Наконец) they succeeded in creating a new type machine.
11.4. Translate the text from Russian into English:
В целом, элементы делятся на две главные категории: металлы и неметаллы.
Металлы имеют яркий блеск и другие характеристики, которые обычно
ассоциируются с такими веществами, как железо, серебро, цинк и олово, тогда
как неметаллы-это такие вещества, которые не имеют характеристик металлов.
Все большее число элементов, как известно, являются металлами, так как все
переходные элементы – металлы. Элементы далее могут подразделяться на пять
групп, три из которых - металлы, а две-неметаллы.
11.5. Translate from English into Russian:
1. The research workers of our Institute had to carry on hard work to find out all the
missing properties of this substance.
2. He has to work hard this term as he missed many lectures.
3. It was hardly possible to distinguish the properties of this substance at a glance,
therefore a powerful microscope had to be used.
4. They worked hard and their hard work resulted in new interesting discoveries.
5. She will hardly come as she is very busy.
6. The molecules of even the hardest steels can be separated by enormous distances
compared to the size of the molecules.
11.6 From nouns by using the suffixes “-er” and “-or” translate the nouns into
Russian. Write your own sentences in English using these nouns:
To accelerate, to create, to invent, to produce, to manufacture.
UNIT 12
THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS ESSENTIAL TO LIFE
12.1. Read and translate the text:
How many of the naturally occurring elements are essential to life? After more than a
century of investigation the question still cannot be answered with certainty.
Only some time ago the best answer would have been twenty. Since then four more
elements have been shown to be essential for life, for example, for the growth of
animals, such as fluorine, silicon, tin and vanadium.Nickel is thought by the scientists
soon to be added to the list.
In many cases the exact role played by these elements would remain unknown or
unclear. Both chemists and biologists have long been surprised by the way the
evolution has selected certain elements as the building-blocks of living organisms.
Thus the composition of the earth and its atmosphere obviously sets a limit on what
elements are available.The solar system, like the universe, seems to be 99 per cent
hydrogen and helium. In the earth’s crust helium appears to be essentially nonexistent, except in a few rare deposits, hydrogen atoms constituting only 22 per cent
of the total.
Eight elements provide more than 98 per cent of the atoms in the earth’s crust,
namely oxygen 47 per cent, silicon 28 per cent, aluminium 7,9 per cent, iron 4,5 per
cent, calcium 3,5 per cent, sodium 2,5 per cent, potassium 2,5 per cent, magnesium
2,2 per cent. Of these eight elements only five are among the eleven that account for
more than 99,9 per cent of the atoms in the human body. Two elements, hydrogen
and oxygen, account for 88,5 per cent of the atoms in the human body, hydrogen
supplying 663 per cent of the total and oxygen 25,5 per cent.
Carbon accounts for another 9,5 per cent and nitrogen 1,4 per cent. The remaining 20
elements now thought to be essential for life account for less than 7 per cent of the
body’s atoms.
Silicon is known to be 146 times more plentiful than carbon in the earth*s crust.
Silicon like carbon has the capacity to gain four electrons and form four covalent
bonds. Carbon was selected over silicon as the central building-block. The difference
that led to the preference for carbon compounds can be explained by the unusual
stability of carbon dioxide and by almost unique ability for carbon to form long
chains and stable rings with five or six members. The versatility of the carbon atom is
responsible for the millions of organic compounds found on the earth.
If some generalization were made about the role of various elements it would be
interesting to note that six elements-carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus
and sulphur make up the molecular building-blocks of living matter: amino acids,
sugars, fatty acids, purines, pyrimidines and nucleotides.
These molecules not only have independent biochemical roles but also are the
constituents of the following large molecules: proteins, glycogen, starch, lipids, and
nucleic acids. This is the first essential group.
The electrochemical properties of living matter depend on elements or combination
of elements that either gain or lose electrons when they are dissolved in water, thus
forming ions
The principal positively charged ions are provided by four metals: sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium. The principal anions (ions with negative charge)
are provided by the chloride ion, sulphur and phosphorus. These seven ions maintain
the electrical neutrality of a body fluid and cells. This is considered to be the second
essential group. The third group of essential elements consists of the trace elements
The fact that they are required in extremely minute quantities in no way diminishes
their great importance.
12.2.Answer the questions:
1. Is it possible to answer the question about the number of naturally occurring
elements with certainty?
2. What have the chemists and biologists long been surprised?
3. What does the solar system consist of?
4. Is there much helium in the earth cust?
5. What eight elements can provide more than 98 per cent of the atoms in the earth
crust?
6. What two elements account for 88,5 per cent of the atoms in the human body?
7 What element is more plentiful, silicon or carbon?
8. What elements make up the molecular building-blocks of living matter?
12.3. Find the pairs of synonyms and remember them:
Lately , to account for, recently, essential, to provide, to explain, to supply,
amount,
Important, quantity.
12.4. Find the pairs of antonyms and remember them:
Existent, clear, disappear, negative, unlike, charge, appear, like, stable, to gain,
artificial,
Unclear, unstable, to lose, discharge, positive, non-existent, natural.
12.5.Translate the text, mind the Adverbial Clouses of Condition and Subjunctive
Mood:
Very pure solutions of hypochlorous acid might be prepared from its anhydride. If
less pure solution were to be prepared, it could be done by one following methods:
1)
The acid might be prepared if chlorine wee passed into a suspension of
finely divided calcium carbonate. Presumably, chlorine would be again hydrolysed
but the relativelyinsoluble carbonate would be attacked only by the stronger acid,
HCL.
2)
If chlorine were passed into a cold solution of sodium hydroxide, a
mixture of the chloride and hypochloride of sodium would be formed. If the solution
had been treated with a weak acid or with a very dilute solution of one of the stronger
acids, weakly ionized hypochlopous acid would have been formed.
12.6. Open the brackets translating the Russian words into English:
1. A temperature change ( будет причиной) volume changes in concrete.
2. No attempt was made (объяснить) asymmetry of the spectrum.
3. In developing this theory the chemical stability of noble gas atoms (была принята
во внимание).
4. (В случае) of bad results the experiment is to be carried out again.
5. The solution will be evaporated (при условии) the temperature is very high.
6. They (обеспечили) us with all glassware necessary for this test.
7. (Таким образом) the element was extracted without any difficulty.
8. They can (едва) fulfil this test without his help.
REFERENCES
1.
Mark Ibbotson ,CUP, 2009. Professional English in Use.
2.
Longman active study dictionary of English. Longman, 2008.
3. Э.Серебрякова, И.Круглякова, М, Высшая школа, 1976. Учебник
английского языка для технических вузов технологического профиля.
4.
Сайт Kodak R&D