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CHAPTER 3
ANALYSING ARGUMENT
Argument versus opinion
Having an opinion is part of presenting an argument, but it’s not the same thing.
Argument: a text or statement intended to persuade others by presenting facts or reasons
in support of the view.
Opinion: a personal point of view, attitude or belief.
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Salt and vinegar chips are disgusting.
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Of course, people present arguments with varying degrees of skill, sophistication and
success. Consider the following two examples. Which one might be presenting an argument
and which is simply presenting an opinion?
Don’t eat salt and vinegar chips because eating a lot of salt is unhealthy.
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The first example above is only giving an opinion – the taste of salt and vinegar chips is
unpleasant. There is no argument or logic, and no supporting reasons are given. If someone
said this to you, the sentence would imply that you should think the chips disgusting too.
But to insist that, just because one person doesn’t like something, no-one else should like
it either is not a good argument.
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However, the second example provides us with a supporting reason: ‘because eating a lot
of salt is unhealthy’. This is an argument because it offers a justification or reason why
we shouldn’t eat the chips: because they have a lot of salt, and eating a lot of salt is
unhealthy.
Beware the disguised opinion
Some sentences are structured to look as if they are offering strong supporting evidence/
information when they only contain opinion. For example, consider the following sentence:
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Salt and vinegar chips should be banned because they’re disgusting.
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The opinion ‘salt and vinegar chips are disgusting’ is being presented as a supporting
point, but it’s really just an opinion. The conjunction ‘because’ suggests that supporting
information is coming next but actually the second part of the sentence is simply an
opinion phrased as a fact.
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Other conjunctions that imply cause and effect, such as therefore and consequently, can
also give the same impression.
Bias
To show bias or have bias is to form an opinion based on your own preconceived prejudices
and preferences. The term is often used in a very negative or pejorative sense, but we
all have different biases based on our background and experiences. It’s impossible to be
completely objective or impartial about everything.
Understanding where a writer’s bias lies will help you analyse the strengths and weaknesses
of their argument.
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CHAPTER 3
ACT I V I
Explore your own bias
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1 In pairs or small groups, consider the following questions and discuss what aspects of
a person’s life and beliefs might influence their attitudes about the issue.
a. Should private schools receive more government funding?
b. Should all religious clothing be banned?
d. Should internet providers be required to block illegal downloads?
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c. Should pay rates for casual work be higher?
2 Consider your own biases and make a list of five issues that you would find it hard to be
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objective (unbiased) about. For each, briefly describe why you would hold a biased view.
Main contention and supporting points
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A good argument usually has two main parts:
a contention or main point of view
supporting points, which are the ideas that back up the main contention with some
kind of reason or justification.
Consider the following examples:
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[Contention] University education should be free because
[supporting point] society benefits from having a highly educated population.
[Contention] University students should pay for their degrees because
[supporting point] they reap the benefits of being better educated by earning higher
salaries when they graduate.
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Identifying the contention and supporting points is not always this clear-cut. Often you
will find that the contention and supporting points are implied (not stated directly but
suggested in other ways) or the supporting points are presented in more abstract ways,
for example, through rhetorical questions or an assertion that seems like a statement of
fact. Read the very short letter to the editor below:
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o school-leavers face a six-month wait before they can apply for
the dole. I must be missing something. Why should taxpayers
take over from parents when children leave school?
Michael Doyle, Ashburton, The Australian
This letter begins by giving context for the comment that hints at what the argument
is really about, but the contention and supporting points are implied through the
rhetorical question. The implied contention is that parents should support their children
after they leave school. The supporting reason given is that it’s not taxpayers’ job to
support young people.
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CHAPTER 3
ACT I V I
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ANALYSING ARGUMENT
Find the contention and supporting points
1 Read the two letters to the editor below carefully.
a. Write the main contention of each (in your own words) in the spaces below.
b. Highlight the supporting points.
2 In pairs or as a class, discuss which letter you think presents the strongest argument
Is it safe to eat?
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and why.
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hy are there rarely ‘suitable for diabetics’ options alongside the
gluten-free offerings of cakes and slices for coeliacs that are
now available in our cafes? This is at a time when the incidence of
diabetes is growing at an alarming rate. It is estimated that 280 people
in Australia develop diabetes every day.
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Katriona Fahey, Alphington, The Age
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Fashion, what a con
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nna Wintour, the editor of United States Vogue, is lobbying to ban
babies from Fashion Week (The Age, 3/3). Why not go the whole
hog and ban it and fashion parades? Or at least name them for what
they are – pretentious codswallop. Has anyone been seen wearing those
silly clothes at Kmart, the pub, in the street or at granny’s afternoon
tea? Perhaps the kids who threw tantrums were bored and wanted
to protest against third-rate nonsense masquerading as sophistication
and what is, arguably, a confidence trick.
Phillip Turnbull, Cornelian Bay, The Age
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Structuring strategies
Writers select and arrange their arguments to have particular effects on their audience.
Often the same structuring techniques will be used in similar types of writing. For
example, letters to the editor have to be short, so writers often outline their contention
early and structure their argument around their strongest supporting point. Editorials
are written by a newspaper’s senior staff, who generally want to appear balanced and
thoughtful, so they often acknowledge other viewpoints but make sure that their argument
seems the strongest.
Other structuring techniques used by writers include:
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starting with the strongest supporting points and ending with the weakest
starting with specific information, or one particular case, and ending with general
information
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ANALYSING ARGUMENT
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●
starting with personal experience and ending with universal examples
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strategic placement of the contention (at the start, the middle or the end)
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using subheadings to break up the text and identify the main points
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omitting information that undermines their case in order to be more persuasive.
Consider the structure of the argument in this letter to the editor:
Hit for six
not have problems with
sharing the park on a
temporary basis.
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SUVs and outer suburban peoplemovers from time to time. She
knows the joys of chasing a bouncing
ball and would happily travel to faraway suburbs to do so too.
The proposal to commandeer a
large portion of a very rare stretch of
inner city parkland for a permanent,
sealed carpark is just not cricket.
Main point: The people
who park there are not
locals and only visit
occasionally.
Contention: turning
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s a resident of East Melbourne, I
am used to giving up half of the
beautiful parkland surrounding the
MCG to the grass-chewing wheels of
sports lovers’ cars. It’s something I just
work around.
My trusty pooch, Eudora, even
seems to be OK with sharing half of
her limited running space with visitors’
Main point: Locals do
part of the park into a
permanent carpark is
unfair.
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Mapping out the main points in any argument is a good way to help you see how the
structure works. For example, in the letter above, it makes sense to place the contention
last because the main points set up the writer as a reasonable person who is willing to
compromise. The writer’s contention, however, is that establishing a permanent carpark
in the public parkland is unfair.
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If we rearrange the argument and put the contention first, the writer seems less
reasonable and fair-minded. The contention comes across more abruptly, and the whole
argument seems more urgent and confrontational. The main points also take on a more
complaining tone.
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he proposal to commandeer a
large portion of a very rare stretch
of inner city parkland for a permanent,
sealed carpark is just not cricket.
As a resident of East Melbourne,
I am used to giving up half of the
beautiful parkland surrounding the
MCG to the grass-chewing wheels of
sports lovers’ cars. It’s something I just
work around.
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Hit for six
My trusty pooch, Eudora, even
seems to be OK with sharing half
of her limited running space with
visitors’ SUVs and outer suburban
people-movers from time to time.
She knows the joys of chasing a
bouncing ball and would happily
travel to far-away suburbs to do so,
too.
Notice also that the writer starts with their personal experience and moves to the wider
community (in this instance their dog) and then to the car drivers who are from outside
the community altogether. This is intended to highlight the writer’s status as a local, which
implies that they have more of a right to say what happens in their local community.
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CHAPTER 3
ANALYSING ARGUMENT
A holistic approach
Strategies for a holistic approach
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Analysing the way an argument is constructed is not just about being able to identify the
strategies or argument techniques the writer has used. In the same way that understanding
persuasive language techniques requires analysing how they work together, analysing a whole
argument is about looking at the ways the argument is constructed to form a cohesive piece
of writing. A holistic approach is one in which the whole picture is considered, not just
individual parts.
Begin with purpose and audience
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The following strategies will help you to ensure that your analysis of an argument shows how
its construction as well as its specific techniques work to persuade the reader.
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A writer’s purpose is directly linked to the main contention, so start by identifying this. A
contention may be quite broad, such as ‘We should consider the impact of our grocery-buying
habits on the environment’. Or it could be quite specific, such as ‘Buying fresh local produce
will reduce pollution from transporting goods long distances’. Identifying the main contention
will help you understand the sort of responses the writer might want to evoke in the reader,
and the kinds of techniques they might use to achieve their purpose.
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It is also helpful to consider who the writer’s intended audience might be, as some argument
techniques will work more effectively with some audiences than with others. An audience
could be as broad as ‘Australians’, ‘women’ or ‘teenagers’, or as specific as ‘parents who
choose not to vaccinate their children for religious reasons’ or ‘residents of Berwick who
travel to work on public transport‘. Think carefully about where a media text was published
or broadcast when trying to identify the audience.
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Once you have identified a writer’s main purpose and audience, you can start to look for the
ways their specific argument has been tailored to convince those particular people to agree
with them.
Consider how the techniques work together
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It’s important to recognise how individual strategies for presenting an argument work in a
text, but the essence of a holistic analysis is discussing how the argument is constructed
overall and how techniques work together to achieve the writer’s purpose.
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If a writer’s aim is to make you feel a certain way, they will use techniques to structure their
argument that rely on feeling rather than logic, such as emotional appeals or ad hominem
attacks. For example, if a writer wanted to persuade an audience of Australians to donate
money to an overseas charity appeal, the aim would be to evoke sympathy and therefore
incline the reader to want to help. This might be done by starting with a touching anecdote
to help the reader imagine how they might feel in the same situation, followed by an appeal
to a sense of justice (e.g. it’s unfair that the reader has so much and the charity recipients
have so little).
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ANALYSING ARGUMENT
CHAPTER 3
In contrast, a writer who intends to generate fear and to demonise a particular
group will use a very different set of techniques to construct their argument. For
example, to make the audience feel afraid of asylum seekers, the writer might make
generalisations about them as a group (e.g. they all hide their real identities), appeal
to the reader’s fear and self-interest (e.g. they will take our jobs) and/or include a
range of dehumanising ad hominem attacks, using language that implies that asylum
seekers are crafty and unreliable (e.g. illegal arrivals, terrorist sympathisers).
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Consider the argument's structure
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The structure of an argument also plays an important role in positioning readers.
For example, if a writer wanted to persuade their audience that a Medicare co-payment
was a great idea, they might begin with the specifics (it is only $7) and work their
way through to the general benefits (it will help keep our health system strong).
Assess all claims carefully
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Alternatively, if a writer wanted to portray themselves as balanced, they might
structure their argument to discuss the pros and cons of the issue, before stating their
contention at the end. This helps give the appearance that they are working through
the issue in a fair and considered way. In such a case, there would be fewer attacks,
as these do not make a writer seem fair-minded, and more appeals to the reader’s
sense of fairness and justice.
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A good analysis will recognise flaws in logic, or claims that are presented as fact
but may only be opinion. Remember, however, that your analysis should not focus
on criticising the writer’s argument but on understanding their aim in presenting
their opinion in a particular way. For instance, if a writer uses a weak analogy, your
analysis should concentrate on the effect they were intending to have on their
audience, rather than on the ways in which their analogy is faulty.
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CHAPTER 3
ACT I V I
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ANALYSING ARGUMENT
Analysing a whole argument
Headline sets up argument
as a juxtaposition between
individual enjoyment (people’s
creepy thrills) and a greater good
(understanding). The first two
paragraphs continue this line of
argument.
Read the piece below and answer the questions that follow, using the annotations
to help you build a holistic analysis of the argument.
Creepy thrills won’t open doors to
understanding
Gives context to the argument –
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why this argument is current.
The early inclusion of a personal
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anecdote, coupled with the heavily
negative descriptions of gaols,
puts the reader in the position of
considering their own personal
experiences of gaols. It is also
an appeal to group loyalty – the
writer suggests that she, too,
used to be the kind of person who
could enjoy a party in a prison.
Appeals to a sense of justice with
emotive language.
The writer now introduces some
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aims to make the reader compare
their own actions to laughing in
the face of prisoners who have
suffered and died. In light of the
anecdote and the rise in prison
museums, it positions the reader
to feel guilty about not having
considered this irony before. It
works with the contrasting images
of fun and partying to shock.
Note that the writer does not
acknowledge at this stage that the
prison punishments were legally
imposed for crimes committed.
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This appeal to a sense of justice
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facts and figures. Mentioning
specific gaols adds validity and
the language chosen derides
people who want to pay to sleep
in a gaol (positioning the reader to
dissociate from them).
ou’d have to pay me handsomely
to spend a night at Old
Melbourne Gaol. It’s a grim, stark
place, steeped in sadness. With its
hangman’s scaffold and mean little
cells, the gaol is a creepily instructive
time warp. But the National Trust’s
plan to turn these cells into pricey
hotel rooms strikes me as a kind of
incarceration porn.
I once went to an office Christmas
party at the gaol and that was weird
enough. We danced to pop songs
under coloured lights and trooped
upstairs to see the place where Ned
Kelly was hanged. I later returned to the gaol –
in daylight – and noticed a dark,
cellar-like room just near where I’d
danced. A sign informed me it was
an underground punishment cell,
‘designed to break a prisoner’s spirit
by total sensory deprivation’ – no
light, no sound, no human contact
and limited food. I felt ashamed,
reading that sign. A
The phrase ‘deeply crass’ has
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connotations of poor taste
and extreme thoughtlessness,
encouraging the reader to want
to distance themselves from such
socially unacceptable behaviour.
The writer links staying in prisons
to problems with the current
penal system, implying that the
former practice affects the latter,
inducing guilt in the reader. But
the prisons used for sleepovers
are decommissioned so stopping
the National Trust plan won’t help
functioning prisons at all.
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What to do with our old jails? It’s
a complicated question. They’re on
valuable real estate and cost a lot to
maintain. They may be museums but
they’re also mourning places. People
suffered, died and were sometimes
buried on the grounds of these
imposing piles. At the old Pentridge site, jaunty
new townhouses flank gloomy
bits of prison: the bluestone wall,
D-Division. In Castlemaine, there are
plans to turn the old sandstone jail
into a function space. In Geelong,
the council’s plan to sell its jail is hotly
debated.
The Trust plans to charge guests
up to $250 for an ‘immersive
experience’ at the gaol, featuring
dinner, tales of famous inmates and
a trundle bed in a cell. I’m all for
contemplating the past, but there’s
something deeply crass about paying
heaps to slum it in an old cell for a
night when our current penal system
is crying out for attention. , CHAPTER 7
CONTINUED
WRITING YOUR ANALYSIS
3 Now write one or two sentences identifying how the writer’s choices about the structure
of their argument help to position the reader to agree with their point of view. Use the
sample sentences on p.145 as models.
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Writing on argument and language together
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In your analysis you will need to write about how argument and language interact and
work together to position the reader. You might notice that certain argument techniques
are often associated with particular language techniques. For instance, an appeal to group
loyalty is often presented using inclusive language, while a straw man argument might be
associated with hyperbole and exaggeration.
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When writing about language used to present or support an argument you can phrase
your sentence like this:
advances
enhances
reinforces
bolsters
makes plausible/relevant
strengthens
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WORD BANK
The writer’s use of [language/technique] _____________________________ their
argument that [argument being presented].
develops
promotes
sustains
EXAMPLE
The writer’s use of inclusive language and emotionally charged terms reinforces their
argument that this decision will affect everyone in the community.
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When writing about language used to rebut an opposing argument you can structure
your sentence in the same way, using terms from the word bank on p.143 for rejecting a
point of view.
EXAMPLE
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By using exaggeration and colourful language, the writer mocks the opposing
argument as being based on flimsy logic and out of touch with reality.
Sometimes a writer will use a compare/contrast approach in order to consider both their
own and opposing viewpoints side by side. To do this, they will use words and phrases
such as ‘conversely’, ‘however’, ‘in contrast’, ‘on the other hand’ and ‘whereas’. They will
also use words with positive associations in relation to their own argument, and words
with negative associations for opposing arguments.
EXAMPLE
By contrasting the expense and injustice of the proposed system with the current
process, which is more affordable and popular, the writer reinforces her argument that
there should be no change to the system.
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WRITING YOUR ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 7
Practise writing about argument and language working together
ACT I V I
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Select an article on an issue you are studying, or refer to the opinion piece ‘Beaches may be
free to all but access is another matter’ on pp.152–3, to answer the following questions.
1 Using the vocabulary and sample sentences on p.146 as a guide, write a sentence about
the writer’s use of persuasive language to support or develop their argument.
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2 Write a sentence about the writer’s use of language to rebut an opposing argument.
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3 If possible, identity one place in the article where the writer compares and contrasts
their own point of view with an opposing one. Write a sentence about the way in which
language is used to imply the superiority of the writer’s position or argument.
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Comparing two or more media texts
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Sometimes you may be required to analyse and compare the use of argument and
persuasive language in multiple media texts. While you might discuss each text in turn,
one after the other, you should aim to incorporate some comparison throughout your
analysis.
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The introduction and conclusion of your analysis are appropriate places in which to
include brief comments comparing the overall approach taken by each writer. The word
bank of linking words on p.149 provides some useful vocabulary for discussing the
similarities and differences between texts. These words can also be used at the beginning
of body paragraphs where you transition from analysing one piece to analysing the next.
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EXAMPLE
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In contrast to Jones’ reliance on exaggeration and sarcasm, Addicott takes a more
thoughtful approach to the issue, reflected in her mostly measured tone.
When writing about the second or subsequent texts, it is also appropriate to include brief
comparisons to particular language or argument techniques used in a text discussed earlier
in your analysis within your body paragraphs.
EXAMPLE
Addicott examines multiple perspectives on the issue, conveying the impression that
she is fair and balanced. Her tone is mostly serious but, like Jones, she also uses
humour to encourage the reader to view her as amusing and likeable. However, while
Jones directs his sarcasm outwards towards opponents of his view, Addicott’s humour
is conveyed through a self-deprecating anecdote that positions the reader to view her
as warm and humble.
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WRITING YOUR ANALYSIS
The following sentence starters and model sentences can be used to compare the
argument and language used by two or more writers.
To express differences between texts
Like Writer X, Writer Y also …
Unlike Writer X, Writer Y …
In the same way that Writer X relies on …, Writer Y also
uses ...
While Writer X relies on …, Writer Y takes a more …
approach.
Both Writer X and Writer Y use …
Writer X and Writer Y use contrasting techniques …
Writer X and Writer Y both approach the issue from a
similar perspective.
Writer X and Writer Y approach the issue from very
different perspectives.
Writer X and Writer Y agree that …
Writer X disagrees with Writer Y on the issue of …
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Avoiding negative judgements
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To express similarities between texts
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Although identifying logical fallacies such as straw man arguments or begging the
question is a legitimate part of your analysis, criticising or exposing flaws in a writer’s
argument should not be the focus of your discussion. Remember that your main aim is
to analyse and not to critique. When comparing two or more texts, avoid commenting on
which you think is most effective. You should also avoid giving your own opinion on the
issue being discussed.
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The best way to ensure that you don’t fall into the trap of criticising a text is to keep your
focus on the writer’s intent. The left-hand column of the following table shows examples of
sentences that veer towards criticism and are not appropriate for your analysis. The righthand column shows how these sentences could be rewritten to demonstrate an awareness
of the effect the writer is trying to achieve by using language or argument in this way.
Analytical sentence
The writer’s use of a straw man argument shows that
they don’t understand the other side of the debate at all.
The writer’s use of a straw man argument is intended to
convey the impression that that their opponents are …
Although the writer tries to convey the impression that
their argument is based on reason and logic, they fail to
do this since their conclusion that ‘junk food advertising
is harmful’ is just begging the question.
The writer’s use of such words as ‘because’ and
‘therefore’ convey the impression that their argument
is based on reason and logic. However, their conclusion
that ‘junk food advertising is harmful’ is an example of
begging the question and may cause the reader to feel …
The writer’s analogy, likening schools to factories for
producing good citizens, doesn’t work because, as a
student, I know I’m a lot more than just a ‘product’.
The writer’s analogy likening schools to factories for
producing good citizens is likely to appeal to adults more
than students, as the latter may be more inclined to
question the suggestion that they are ‘products’.
Chan’s use of logic and a calm tone is much more
persuasive than Smith’s use of exaggeration and
aggressive language which weakens his argument.
While Chan uses logic and a calm tone to encourage the
reader to have confidence in his opinion, Smith’s use
of exaggeration and aggressive language is intended to
provoke the reader’s outrage and indignation.
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Critical sentence
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