2 Welcome Letter
Dear Delegates,
Welcome to the 32nd Annual North American Model United Nations (NAMUN) 2017 at the
University of Toronto! On behalf of all the staff at NAMUN, we welcome you to the
Integrated Simulation of the conference.
In this committee, delegates will be racing against the clock to find concrete solutions for
the war in Afghanistan, which continues to this day. Be you a government official, a
politician, a warlord, a civilian leader or a military general, delegates will be trying to rid
the country of its insurgency and build a functioning democracy (or not). You will be
undertaking new projects, setting new policies, and interacting with the other committees in
order to accomplish your goals. This is a Crisis, and anything can happen.
Allow me to introduce myself. My name is Ilya Bañares, and I am currently studying Social
Sciences here at the University of Toronto. I have been doing Model United Nations for
four years now, and have been delegate, chair, and Secretary General. I was previously
based in Asia, and can’t wait to see MUN in action in North America.
With that, the committee staff and I welcome you to NAMUN 2017 and wish you an
amazing experience at the University of Toronto!
Best regards,
Ilya Bañares
Chair, Global War on Terror: Afghan Cabinet and Advisors
North American Model United Nations
[email protected]
Introduction
The conflict in Afghanistan is largely regarded as one of the most persistent and
most important issues in recent history. For as long as most people can remember, the
country has been in a state of constant belligerence, both within its borders between
various tribal groups, and with countries outside its frontiers such as Britain, the then-United
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, also known as the Soviet Union), and the United States.
The perpetual state of conflict in the region has had many terrible effects:
thousands of civilians have been killed and many more injured as a result of the wars
waged in their territory, countless populations have been displaced, and multiple human
rights violations have allegedly been committed by all sides.
Why is the region such a hotbed for conflict? The answer lies in part in its
geography: Afghanistan is strategically placed at the center of Asia, on the crossroads
from Eastern and Southern Asia to what is considered the Middle East. However, there is
also another reason for the region’s tumultuousness: its largest and fastest growing industry
is the illegal drugs trade, specifically in the form of opiates. It is publicly known that the
Taliban, other terrorist groups, and allegedly even the government profits from the large
industry.
The committee begins in early March of 2003, with the United States on the brink
of invading Iraq, which could have severe repercussions on the entire Middle East area,
including Afghanistan. A storm is brewing anew in the region, and we hope that you, as a
nation and its advisors, will be able to manage the numerous crises that are yet to come.
Definitions
War on Terror
Term used by former United States President George W. Bush to denote the
military campaign of Western nations against terrorism, especially after the events of
September 11, 2001 when Al-Qaeda bombed the World Trade Center in New York
City1. Its focus is primarily against terrorist groups and political regimes that support them.
For the purposes of this committee it refers to any and all attempts, including political,
military, economic and social, to weaken, displace, destroy and combat Al-Qaeda and the
Taliban.
Terrorism
According to the CIA World Factbook, terrorism is defined as “premeditated,
politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational
groups or clandestine agents.”
According to Security Council resolution 1566, terrorism is defined as “criminal
acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily
injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general
public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a
government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, and
all other acts which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the
international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances
justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic,
religious or other similar nature.”
Insurgency
According to the United States Department of Defense, the term refers to, “an
organized resistance movement that uses subversion, sabotage, and armed conflict to
achieve its aims. Insurgencies normally seek to overthrow the existing social order and
reallocate power within the country.” Groups significantly less powerful than the target
government conduct insurgencies, and rely on unconventional and guerilla tactics.
“Text of George Bush’s Speech.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/21/september11.usa13
1
Mujahideen
The term refers to persons engaged in jihad. Mujahideen are often engaged in a
guerrilla-type of insurgency consisting of radical Islamists. It also commonly refers to the
forces that fought against the Soviets during their campaign in Afghanistan.
International Security Assistance Force
Also known as the ISAF, this organization was created by United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1386 and led by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with
the goals of fighting the Taliban and Islamist insurgencies in the country, and helping to
rebuild the Afghan government and armed forces.
Taliban
An Islamic fundamentalist group that is currently waging an insurgency in
Afghanistan. The group is known for its strict interpretation of Islamic Sharia law, which has
led to its often brutal treatment of Afghan civilians. The organization ruled most of the
country from 1996 until 2001.
Historical Background
The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a state located within the Greater Middle
East and has been known as the “Graveyard of Empires2” for good reason. In its many
years of existence, countless attempts have been made to gain control of the area due to
its strategic location, but to date none have succeeded. Efforts include those of Alexander
the Great, the British Empire, and the Soviet Union, all of which failed.
The country was recognized as a state in 1919, and has had a turbulent history
since then. Notable events in the country’s history include the Soviet-backed coup, which
was followed by a civil war between tribal warlords, governmental control by the terrorist
organization Taliban, and Western involvement. The situation in Afghanistan remains
unstable to this day.
Map of Afghanistan. Source: CIA World
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
Afghanistan underwent two regime changes within five years, highlighting the
country’s political instability. In 1973 Mohammed Daud seized power from the King,
Milton Bearden. "Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires." Foreign Affairs.
https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/afghanistan/2001-11-01/afghanistan-graveyard-empires.
2
Mohamed Zahir Shah, who was abroad at the time, and succeeded in a bloodless coup.
However, he only remained in power for five years.
On 27 April 1978 the Soviet supported People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan
(PDPA) overthrew the government in an operation known as the Saur Revolution, so called
because of the name of the month in the Persian language. The coup faced intense
opposition, both from domestic groups as well as foreign nations, such as the United States
and the United Kingdom. In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded the country in
order to secure the communist and pro-Soviet government3.
This action only intensified the opposition, with Mujahideen groups gaining the
support of other outside governments such as the United States and Pakistan. This took the
form of supplying weapons and providing training and intelligence to the groups. Guerilla
groups4 continued opposing the Communist-backed rule and the Soviet invasion until 1988,
when Afghanistan, Pakistan, the United States and the Soviet Union signed a peace deal.
The USSR left the country in 1989. Fighting continued on though, and the PDPA
government collapsed in 1992.
Civil War
Without Soviet ground support the PDPA government struggled to maintain control
of the country while fighting the Mujahideen insurgency. Until 1991 they received aid from
the USSR5, but with the collapse of the USSR in that year Afghanistan no longer received
any sort of help. Following these events, the PDPA government fell in 1992.
After the fall of the communist government, the different tribes in Afghanistan
came together and decided on the Peshawar Accord, a peace agreement and a deal to
share powers under a new government called the Islamic State of Afghanistan. The
agreement did not end the fighting though, as many rebel groups violated or refused to
Robert O. Freedman. "Soviet Policy Towards The Middle East Since The Invasion Of Afghanistan." Journal
of International Affairs 34, no. 2 (1980): 283-310.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24356893.
4 Pierre Allan, and Albert A. Stahel. "Tribal Guerrilla Warfare against a Colonial Power: Analyzing the
War in Afghanistan." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 27, no. 4 (1983): 590-617.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/173887.
5 Fred Halliday, and Zahir Tanin. "The Communist Regime in Afghanistan 1978-1992: Institutions and
Conflicts." Europe-Asia Studies 50, no. 8 (1998): 1357-380.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/153920.
3
participate in the accord. There was very little government involvement, as the continued
fighting disabled the application of the new constitution.
In 1994 the Taliban gained prominence with their successful takeover of southern
Afghanistan. Later, in 1996 the terrorist group was able to gain control of the capital city
of Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan6.
Map of territories held by the Northern Alliance (red) and the Taliban (beige).
The striped area refers to isolated pockets of lands held by the Northern Alliance.
Taliban control of the government
In 1996 the Taliban took control of the government, effectively eliminating the
Islamic State of Afghanistan and replacing it with a regime that strictly interpreted Sharia
law, in a system akin to Saudi Arabia. While the “Islamic State of Afghanistan” still
"U.N. Security Council: Resolution 1267 (1999) (On The Situation In Afghanistan)." International Legal
Materials 39, no. 1 (2000): 235-37. http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/20693974.
6
operated, it no longer held the same swath of territory now under the Taliban. It became
known as the Northern Alliance.
Pakistan, under the leadership of then Chief of Army Staff and future President
Pervez Musharraf, and terrorist group Al-Qaeda both supported the Taliban with
economic and military aid7, such as food supplies and arms, in order to defeat the
Northern Alliance. During this time, only three countries recognized the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, and it was not
recognized by the United Nations.
A few days before the September 11 attacks in New York City, suicide attackers
in northern Afghanistan assassinated the head of the Northern Alliance, Ahmad Shah
Massoud8. After 9/ 11, the United States government under President George W. Bush
immediately suspected Osama bin Laden and demanded that the Taliban give him up.
When the group refused, the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom,
officially starting American military involvement on the ground in the country9.
United States-led intervention in Afghanistan
When the 9/11 attacks occurred the Taliban refused to hand over Osama bin
Laden on the grounds that the United States did not present enough evidence to show the
link between bin Laden and the attacks. At this point the United States and the United
Kingdom decided to invade Afghanistan under Operation Enduring Freedom. The United
States initially sent in a group of Special Forces who coordinated operations with fighters
from the Northern Alliance, and later reinforced the operations with other ground troops.
The initial invasion only included the United States and the United Kingdom. Other
countries such as Canada, France, the Philippines, and Poland joined the mission later as
coalition military involvement continued.
Nasreen Akhtar. "Pakistan, Afghanistan, And The Taliban." International Journal on World Peace 25, no. 4
(2008): 49-73. http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/20752859.
8 Thomas Harding. "Blast Survivor Tells of Massoud Assassination." The Telegraph.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1360632/Blast-survivor-tells-of-Massoudassassination.html.
9 Brian Collins. "Operation Enduring Freedom and the Future of NATO." Georgetown Journal of International
Affairs 3, no. 2 (2002): 51-56. http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/43134050.
7
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the International Security
Assistance Force (ISAF)
As the war raged on, international involvement in Afghanistan grew even larger. In
December 2001 the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1386, creating the
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan10, to be led by the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
The ISAF was created with the goal of helping the national military of Afghanistan
combat the Taliban, and assisting with the democratization and rebuilding of the country.
The operation was initially limited to Kabul and the areas around it, but its mandate grew
gradually as the war went on.
Naomi Weinberger. "Civil-Military Coordination in Peacebuilding. The Challenge in Afghanistan."Journal
of International Affairs 55, no. 2 (2002): 245-74.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24358170.
10
Issues
The numerous wars, revolts and invasions in the region have led the area of
Afghanistan and Central Asia as a whole to become very unstable. Standards of living in
the area are very low compared to other conflict hotspots in the world, and as a result this
and the fighting millions of Afghans endure intense hardship and suffering. The
government is not able to control certain regions, with the Taliban resurging and gaining
control in some towns, leading to some of the country’s cultural heritage being destroyed.
The foundation of the state remains shaky and vulnerable to corruption, especially with the
large influence of the opium drug trade in the country.
Standards of living and consequences of the war on the Afghan population
The war in Afghanistan has had a profound effect on the Afghan population. Since
the beginning of the war in 2001 close to a four thousand people have died11, with
around a quarter of those being civilians and the rest being a mix of foreign military
personnel, Afghan soldiers and police and local militants.
The high number of deaths related to the war has led to many Afghan protests.
Democratically elected President Hamid Karzai has spoken out against the deaths of the
many Afghan civilians due to the war, with particular attention paid to casualties related
to Coalition airstrikes and operations.
Furthermore, the terrible infrastructure in Afghanistan has made life difficult for
many Afghans. In their country ravaged by war for many years, basic infrastructure such
as hospitals and health providers, schools, and transportation has been severely lacking12.
Resurgence of the Taliban
The Taliban government in Afghanistan fell in 2001 when the United States and
other countries invaded the country. Coalition efforts severely damaged Taliban
organizations and institutions. While they were defeated for the time being, the group has
been increasing their activity recently. The ISAF has been building up its operations in a
Marc W. Herold. "»Collateral Damage«?: Civilians and the US Air War in Afghanistan." Sicherheit Und
Frieden (S F) / Security and Peace 20, no. 1 (2002): 18-26.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24230935.
12 Maryann Cusimano Love. "Morality Matters: Ethics and Power Politics in the War on
Terrorism."Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 3, no. 2 (2002): 7-15.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/43134045.
11
bid to secure democracy. However, many local tribes have been supporting the Taliban
resurgence due to widespread anti-Western sentiment. ISAF air strikes have caused many
deaths, and the forces’ anti-opium drive ruined many livelihoods, and embittering
significant parts of the rural the populace. Since 2002, the Taliban has been feeding off
of the discontent to rebuild operations13.
Destruction of cultural property
Afghanistan is a transition point between the East and the West, between countries
such as China and India and places like Spain and Portugal. As such, they represent a
very important part of human history. Throughout archaeological excavations in the area it
has been found that there are a multitude of historical artifacts in Afghanistan, dating
back many centuries. However, the cultural heritage has not been spared by the horrors of
the war14.
During the civil war many historic sites in and around Kabul were destroyed when
the capital city was heavily shelled. According to Mr. Abdul Wasey Feroozi, Director
General of the National Institute of Archaeology at the Ministry of Culture and Information
of Afghanistan, “over 70% of the Kabul National Museum and 100% of the objects were
stolen and looted, and their buildings were damaged and burned down. Illegal
excavations and extensive clandestine digging started at most historical sites and
thousands of valuable items were transported to other countries, notably through Pakistan,
to the international markets.”
"Afghans Avert Assassination Plot." CNN.
http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/central/07/29/afghan.attempt/.
14 Christian Manhart. "The Afghan Cultural Heritage Crisis: UNESCO's Response to the Destruction of Statues
in Afghanistan." American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 3 (2001): 387-88.
13
Destroyed Kabul Museum
Political instability
After the fall of the Taliban in 2001 and the invasion of the United States the
central government lacks control over the entire country15. Many areas are governed by
local tribes and protected by self-governed armed militias.
During the Bonn Agreement of 2001 Hamid Karzai was chosen as the interim
leader of the new state, garnering the backing of the United States and other Western
countries. At the time of the conference, Karzai was in exile in Pakistan, but with the
support of the United States returned as the head of the transitional administration.
The following year a grand assembly, called a “Loye Jirga”, was convened which
formally elected Karzai as interim leader, vesting him with power until the scheduled
2004 democratic elections. Initially, Karzai held little to no influence outside of the capital
Kabul, due to the influence of the local tribe leaders. However, during the formative years
of his presidency Karzai made alliances with them in order to garner support for his
regime16.
Alexander Thier, and Jarat Chopra. "The Road Ahead: Political and Institutional Reconstruction in
Afghanistan." Third World Quarterly 23, no. 5 (2002): 893-907.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/3993394.
16 Astri Suhrke, Kristian Berg Harpviken, and Arne Strand. "After Bonn: Conflictual Peace Building."Third
World Quarterly 23, no. 5 (2002): 875-91.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/3993393.
15
Corruption
According to Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI)
Afghanistan ranks among the lowest countries when it comes to corruption. In fact, in 2002
the country did not even have enough sources for the organization to rank them on the list.
Broken by the Taliban and by the terrorist group’s downfall in 2001, the
government is still rampant with corruption. Many public services are provided to civilians
only after a bribe has been paid, public officials are promoted based on patronage and
favoritism, and many military and police budgets are misallocated to serve personal
wants. This is causing a loss of confidence in and increasing discontent with the Afghan
government, and could contribute to the Taliban gaining support.
The role of opium in the war
Afghanistan is the world’s largest producer of the illegal drug opium. The south
and southwestern regions of the country are known to hold most of the plantations, areas
predominantly held by the Taliban17. According to Antonio Maria Costa, the Executive
Director of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the illicit trade
accounts for around 1.3 billion US dollars generated for producers in 2002 alone. This is
largely due to an addiction within the population, which affects thousands of people in
2003.
Furthermore, the Afghan economy practically depends on the opium trade. With
much arable land and local agricultural trade and transportation infrastructure disrupted
due to the fighting, many civilians have had to turn to drug trafficking in order to
supplement their income.
In fact, whereas the United States government, the Karzai administration, and the
international community officially condemn the drug trade and any form of trafficking
whatsoever, the opium economy has actually increased during recent years. There is now
more production than under the Taliban regime, which used the production and sale of
opium as a means to fund its various activities.
Ahmed Rashid. "Afghanistan: Ending the Policy Quagmire." Journal of International Affairs 54, no. 2
(2001): 395-410. http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24357737.
17
State of Affairs
The Taliban fell only two years ago, and already are regaining power in the south
and southwestern areas. They are reaching out to the local tribes disillusioned with the
American invasion and convincing them to support the terrorist organization’s resurgence.
Bombings and mass attacks on civilian, government and foreign operations are increasingly
common, and are causing death rates to soar to higher levels.
Hamid Karzai’s interim administration has largely been ineffective to matters of
governing and protecting the civil populace. Inside Kabul the Western-backed regime reigns
supreme, but outside the capital city power is mostly left to the leaders of tribes and armed
militias. The International Security Assistance Force is the real power in Afghanistan, to the
strong dislike of many civilians.
However, in the weeks leading up to March 20th Karzai has been painting an image
of optimism in Afghanistan. Foreign aid in the form of money and humanitarian assistance is
pouring in the country from places such as Belgium, and countries like Canada are focusing
peacekeeping efforts on Afghanistan to help keep order in the country. The Karzai regime has
also signed agreements with the United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees to initiate
voluntary repatriation for tens of thousands of Afghan refugees to the country.
With the vision of hope in a new Afghanistan, can anything shatter the image? The
Karzai administration is weaving an era of peace and rule of law in a country that has been
unstable for as long as anyone can remember. However, it is March 2003, and America has
been upping its rhetoric against Saddam Hussein. What will American actions towards Iraq
mean for Afghanistan?
Afghan President Hamid
Karzai. Source: The Wall
Street Journal
Suggested Sources
The War in Afghanistan
Khalilzad, Zalmay. "The War in Afghanistan." International Journal 41, no. 2
(1986): 271-99.
Zalmay Khalilzad was a Professor of Political Science at Columbia
University and a senior State Department advisor under President Ronald Reagan.
This article, published in the International Journal in 1986, describes the effects of
the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan several years after the beginning.
Pak-Afghan Drug Trade in Historical Perspective
Haq, Ikramul. "Pak-Afghan Drug Trade in Historical Perspective." Asian Survey 36,
no. 10 (1996): 945-63
Ikramul Haq is a human rights lawyer and journalist covering drug abuse
and trafficking. This article, published in Asian Survey in 1996, addresses the
effects of the drug trade in the Pakistan-Afghanistan area and the history behind
it.
The Taliban: Exporting Extremism
Rashid, Ahmed. "The Taliban: Exporting Extremism." Foreign Affairs 78, no. 6
(1999): 22 35.
Ahmed Rashid is a journalist who has spent more than twenty years
covering the Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia region for multiple news
outlets. His article, published in Foreign Affairs in 1999, concentrates on the
divisiveness and radicalization that the terrorist group is creating in the area.
Terrorism, Freedom, and Social Justice
Brecher, Irving. "Terrorism, Freedom, and Social Justice." International Journal 57,
no. 1 (2001): 141-47.
Irving Brecher was an Economics Professor at McGill University, and has
written on human rights, economic development, and Canadian public policy. His
article, published in the International Journal in 2001, focuses on the aftermath of
the September 11 attacks in the United States on the war in Afghanistan, with a
specific lens on the effects of terrorism and foreign intervention on the local
population.
Bibliography
Bearden, Milton. "Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires." Foreign Affairs. November
01, 2001. Accessed September 19, 2016.
https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/afghanistan/2001-11-01/afghanistangraveyard-empires.
Freedman, Robert O. "Soviet Policy Towards The Middle East Since The Invasion
Of Afghanistan." Journal of International Affairs 34, no. 2 (1980): 283-310.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24356893.
Allan, Pierre, and Albert A. Stahel. "Tribal Guerrilla Warfare against a Colonial
Power: Analyzing the War in Afghanistan." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 27, no. 4
(1983): 590-617. http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/173887.
Halliday, Fred, and Zahir Tanin. "The Communist Regime in Afghanistan 19781992: Institutions and Conflicts." Europe-Asia Studies 50, no. 8 (1998): 1357-380.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/153920.
"U.N. Security Council: Resolution 1267 (1999) (On The Situation In
Afghanistan)." International Legal Materials 39, no. 1 (2000): 235-37.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/20693974.
Manhart, Christian. "The Afghan Cultural Heritage Crisis: UNESCO's Response to
the Destruction of Statues in Afghanistan." American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 3
(2001): 387-88.
Akhtar, Nasreen. "Pakistan, Afghanistan, And The Taliban." International Journal on
World Peace 25, no. 4 (2008): 49-73.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/20752859.
Harding, Thomas. "Blast Survivor Tells of Massoud Assassination." The Telegraph.
October 26, 2001. Accessed September 25, 2016.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1360632/Blast-survivortells-of-Massoud-assassination.html.
Collins, Brian. "Operation Enduring Freedom and the Future of NATO." Georgetown
Journal of International Affairs 3, no. 2 (2002): 51-56.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/43134050.
Weinberger, Naomi. "Civil-Military Coordination in Peacebuilding. The Challenge
in Afghanistan."Journal of International Affairs 55, no. 2 (2002): 245-74.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24358170.
Herold, Marc W. "»Collateral Damage«?: Civilians and the US Air War in
Afghanistan." Sicherheit Und Frieden (S F) / Security and Peace 20, no. 1 (2002): 18-26.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24230935.
Love, Maryann Cusimano. "Morality Matters: Ethics and Power Politics in the War
on Terrorism."Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 3, no. 2 (2002): 7-15.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/43134045.
Suhrke, Astri, Kristian Berg Harpviken, and Arne Strand. "After Bonn: Conflictual
Peace Building."Third World Quarterly 23, no. 5 (2002): 875-91.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/3993393.
Rashid, Ahmed. "Afghanistan: Ending the Policy Quagmire." Journal of International
Affairs 54, no. 2 (2001): 395-410.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/24357737.
"Afghans Avert Assassination Plot." CNN. July 29, 2002. Accessed October 14,
2016. http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/central/07/29/afghan.attempt/.
Thier, Alexander, and Jarat Chopra. "The Road Ahead: Political and Institutional
Reconstruction in Afghanistan." Third World Quarterly 23, no. 5 (2002): 893-907.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/3993394.