International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 11, Number 9 (2016) pp 6081-6086
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
The Continuity of Astrolabe as a Multipurpose Astrofiqh Instrument
Mohd Hafiz Safiai
Department of Syariah, Faculty of Islamic Studies & Institute of Islam Hadhari,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
Ibnor Azli Ibrahim
Department of Syariah, Faculty of Islamic Studies & Institute of Islam Hadhari,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
Ezad Azraai Jamsari
Department of Arabic Studies and Islamic Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
Md Yazid Ahmad
Department of Syariah, Faculty of Islamic Studies,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
Badlihisham Mohd Nasir
Faculty of Islamic Civilization,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
Abstract
Astrolabe is a device invented during the Greek age and is
known as a multifunctional analogue computer used by
astronomers and navigators. This research focuses on the
historical development of astrolabe through the times beginning
from pre-Islamic to the peak of astronomical knowledge in the
golden age of the Muslim civilization. The research objective is
to study the civilizations, whether Muslim or non-Muslim. This
research uses a qualitative approach through the methods of
historical study and content analysis, specifically of works by
Western and Muslim scholars in the field of astronomy.
Research findings argue that the astrolabe is a multipurpose
analogue instrument in astronomical computation and
observation for civilization after civilization and is the basis for
development of digital astronomy after the advent of Islam.
Among the functions of the astrolabe is to obtain the precise
timing of sunrise and sunset, determine Qibla direction,
compute prayer (solah) time schedule and determine the
beginning of Hijri months.
Keywords: Astrolabe, Analogue Computer,
Astronomical Instrument, Astrofiqh, Cosmofiqh.
Safiha,
Introduction
Astronomy is a study of celestial objects by scientists using
astronomical instruments. It is a field which constantly attracts
human interest throughout time. It is a natural science which has
developed for ages in almost every past civilization
such as the Babylonian, Egyptian, Indian, Greek, Chinese and
Muslim civilzations [1]. This field attracts the interest of various
social classes from the professional to the amateur. This is due
to the superiority and uniqueness of the study of celestial objects
such as the sun, moon, planets and galaxies. In this context,
astronomy is the study of outer space and celestial bodies
contained in it [2, 3, 4].
The continuity aspect of astrolabe as a research subject begins
from analysis of some previous research which discussed the
historical development and function of astrolabe in old
civilizations. According to Maddison [5], the astrolabe is indeed
a traditional astronomical instrument which requires to be
preserved. Its preservation needs to be emphasized to show
proof of technology in previous civilizations. He added that
technological progress achieved in the past was due to the
ingenuity of scientists and their ability to invent. This statement
is supported by Ball [6] who asserted that success and
excellence of a civilization are measured through its
achievements. He explained that England was active in
encouraging the people to possess and learn how to use the
astrolabe. He added further that the astrolabe invented in the
14th Century was auctioned in the British Museum in London to
a bidder for about RM2 million. This pocket-sized astrolabe was
used to calculate time based on the positions of the sun and to
determine the date of Easter. This effort should be emulated by
Malaysia to promote mastery of the science of astronomy
(falak) among the society.
However, the pertinence and accuracy of traditional instruments
such as the astrolabe is frequently disputed. There is a statement
to the effect that traditional calculation is unscientific. For
example, Zainal [7] rejected this statement because the method
of traditional calculation contained certain mathematical
concepts and had been applied since thousands of years ago.
Such criticism appeared because the method of calculation
contained in astronomical manuscripts was presented in general
descriptive form, not in quantitative form or using symbols as
in modern methods of calculation. In addition, Abdul Aziz [8]
was of the view that the method of modern calculation currently
applied is still being disputed, for example the concept of the
western-most point of reference in the calculation of prayer time
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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
zone which is inaccurate. This goes to show that traditional
calculation is still relevant since the accuracy of the modern
method of calculation may still be disputed.
Van Brummelen [9] also analysed astrolabe in his article, ‘The
Melon-Shaped Astrolabe in Arabic Astronomy’ by discussing
previous scientific expertise related to science and mathematics
in the use of the astrolabe. Use of the astrolabe requires good
scientific and mathematical skills as it has more than 100
functions if skilfully used. Van Brummelen’s article focuses on
the study of constructing an astrolabe by a Muslim astronomical
scientist of the 9th Century CE, Habash al-Hasib in his book,
Book on the Construction of the Melon-Shaped Astrolabe,
which was translated into English. This article found that skills
in the use of astrolabe were only developed and widely-known
in the past age. It also summarized that such skills were
increasingly forgotten as various more sophisticated modern
instruments replaced the astrolabe. Hence, the objective of this
research is to examine the continuity of the astrolabe as a
multipurpose astronomical instrument in Malaysia which
bypassed various civilizations, Muslim or non-Muslim. This
research uses a qualitative approach by the use of historical
method and content analysis, particularly of works by Western
and Muslim scholars in the field of astronomy.
Astrolabe as an Astrofiqh Instrument
In the pre-Greek and Greek civilization before the advent of
Islam, astronomy was considered as a component of traditional
knowledge which was more abstract, mythical and generalised
and based on theory and speculation as was the pattern of
knowledge then. However in the era of Muslim civilization,
astronomy and other fields of knowledge came with the identity
of being practical, rational and empirical based on revelation
[10, 11]. In Malaysia, astronomy is better known as shariahbased falaq. Currently, the term astrofiqh has been introduced
and began to be used by certain parties in Malaysia as referring
to shariah-based astronomy. According to Ibrahim et al. [12],
astrofiqh in terms of legal discussion involves family issues of
the ‘iddah period (waiting period after divorce is pronounced),
calculation in determining nasab (lineage), determining of
Qibla (Mecca) direction, computation of prayer (solah) times
and determining of fasting month of Ramadan, Eid al-fitri and
al-adha Muslim celebtrations. The term astrofiqh is brought up
in this research and coupled with the term cosmofiqh. This
combination has formed the corpus of new knowledge
combining space science and Islamic fiqh. Ibrahim [13] defined
fiqh al-falak wa al-kawn (astrofiqh and cosmofiqh) as:
Knowledge which discusses the universe, the positions and
movement of celestial objects to determine taqwim
(calendar), Mecca (Qibla) direction and schedule timings
related to the rules on ibadah (worship), aqidah (doctrine of
faith) and akhlaq (moral character) based on shariah
(Muslim law).
Further, according to Ibrahim [13], astrofiqh also encompasses
discussion of cosmofiqh relating to the creation of the universe
and objects in it. This field is a branch of knowledge without
frontiers as knowledge of the universe is indeed too vast for
exploration. Beginning from Ibrahim’s view in [13], this
research finds that research on astronomy has been widened to
encompass issues of aqidah (doctrine of faith) and akhlaq
(moral character) besides laws of the universe generally without
limiting research to space as research subject. Hence, the
Shariah‘s position is that whatever is in the earth such as the
oceans, winds, clouds, earthquakes, lightning and georaphical
affairs of the earth are included in the cosmos (al-kawn) as
intended in the definition [14].
Thus, in order to facilitate a clearer understanding of the
universe, particularly to be applied in ibadah (worship), Muslim
scholars have systematically conducted astronomical
observation activities through the invention of an astronomical
instrument to assist in exploring the universe [15, 16]. One of
the instruments invented is the astrolabe. Al-Farghani [17]
explained that the astrolabe is an astronomical instrument
invented based on the movement of space objects such as the
sun and stars in the circle of the celestial sphere. This
astronomical instrument may be used to measure time of day
and night, the sun’s altitude and position of space objects such
as planets and stars.
According to Malaysian astrofiqh resarchers, Ibrahim, Ahmad
& Safiai [18] the astrolabe is an instrument invented in the past
and was known as a multifunctional analogue computer for use
by astronomists and navigators. It was used to measure the
position of a sky object, calculate local time and determine the
location of a place. Beginning with the golden age of the
Muslim civilization, the function of the astrolabe was extended
to determine the direction of Kaaba in Mecca (Qibla) and
computation of prayer (solah) time [19, 20]. The word astrolabe
originated from the Greek word, asturlabun which means startaker. In past civilizations the astrolabe was known as an
analogue computer which functioned to solve various
calculation problems. According to the Collins English
Dictionary [21], an astrolabe is defined as:
An instrument used by early astronomers to measure the
altitude of stars and planets and also as a navigational aid. It
consists of a graduated circular disc with a movable sighting
device.
On the same subject The American Heritage Science Dictionary
[22] defines an astrolabe as:
An ancient instrument used widely in medieval times by
navigators and astronomers to determine latitude, longitude
and time of the day. The device employed a disk with 360
degrees marked on its circumference. Users took reading
from an indicator that pivoted around the center of the
suspended device like the hand of a clock. The astrolabe was
replaced by the sextant in the 18th century.
And Random House Dictionary [23] explains an astrolabe as:
An astronomical instrument for taking the altitude of the sun
or stars and for the solution of other problems in astronomy
or navigation; used by Greek astronomers from about 200
B.C. and by Arab astronomers from the Middle Ages until
superseded by the sextant.
Despite the ingenuity of this invention, most of today’s society
are unaware of the astrolabe and its functions or are indifferent
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towards this traditional instrument. For some, it is an obsolete
instrument not suitable for this modern and sophisticated age [9,
24]. Upon the realization that knowledge of the astrolabe is
important and needs to be revived and re-mastered, this research
is significant to revive the importance of this almost forgotten
knowledge. Thus, this research attempts to investigate and
enlighten on this invention according to standards in Malaysia.
This research is one of the efforts to give society exposure on
this traditional astronomical instrument, in line with the
government’s efforts to develop astronomical knowledge in
Malaysia. Such development may at the same time rekindle
some of the excellence from the past Muslim civilization.
Astrolabe Research in Malaysia
The appearance of the early astrolabe in the Greek civilization
had influenced its invention or innovation in the whole world.
During the golden age of the Muslim civilization, the functions
of the astrolabe were extended to Islamic matters of ibadah
(worship) such as determining the Qibla direction and solah
(prayer) times. In fact, most of today’s astrolabes are based on
the astrolabe model of the Muslim civilization in terms of the
construction process [25]. The development of the astrolabe
invented in the Muslim civilization is considered excellent and
brilliant, particularly during the reign of Caliph al-Ma’mun of
the Abbasid era [26].
However, a detailed and in-depth research on astrolabe in
Malaysia has yet to be found. Most of previous research on
astrolabe only discussed its historical and functional aspects. In
Malaysia, there is a dearth of writings on astrolabe, and the little
there is is more focused on rubu‘ mujayyab. Rubu‘ mujayyab
is a kind of quadrant-shaped astronomical instrument used to
solve mathematical problems in trigonometry. This instrument
is part of the astrolabe and contains grid lines for the angle scale
and trigonometric ratios or functions of the acute angle [27]. It
is a well-known instrument among scientists for its great
function and portability [28].
Rubu‘ mujayyab was invented thousands of years ago, though
the history of its beginning is unknown. However, Charette [29]
was of the opinion that the rubu‘ mujayyab was first invented
in Baghdad in the 9th Century Hijrah and that its invention was
closely associated with al-Khawarizmi and later developed by
Ibn Shatir in the 11th Century Hijrah. Ibn Shatir’s full name was
‘Ala al-Din ‘Ali ibn Ibrahim. He was born in the year 1305 CE
in Syria. He was appointed as head muwaqqit in Umayyad
Mosque of Damascus in Syria as the person responsible for
regulating astronomically defined prayer times. He was famous
in the West as having reformed Ptolemy’s planetary theory of
the sun, planets and moon. Nicholas Copernicus’s mathematical
details were said to be identical to those of Ibn Shatir’s, and he
was said to have further developed Ibn Shatir’s planetary theory
[30]. The astrolabe was a measuring instrument which may be
used to determine the direction of Qibla, to calculate and set
prayer times, measure the altitude of a sky object and calculate
the depth and width of an object. Due to its practical use in
various measurements, it is considered as an analogue computer
[31].
It cannot be denied that among published writings on the
astrolabe, there are none describing the construction of an
astrolabe according to Malaysian standards. This situation
should be rectified as the astrolabe is an astronomical
instrument which is part of the heritage from the golden age of
the past Muslim civilization [32]. In this regard, Abdullah [33]
was of the opinion that there is very little written on astronomy
in Malaysia, at once extremely discouraging the development
of astronomy. He suggested that research on astronomy should
be conducted to advance the status of astronomy in Malaysia in
the eyes of the world.
Use of Astrolabe in Astrofiqh in Malaysia
During the era of the Muslim civilization, the astrolabe was
extensively used by all classes of society, whether the
government, scientists or the general public. Thus, many
instrument makers began to learn about the astrolabe, developed
their skills in fabricating it and maintained the business of
making astrolabes for many years [34]. As explained earlier, it
may not be denied that the early form of astrolabe was initiated
by scientists of the Greek civilization. However, Muslim
scientists in the golden age of the Muslim civilization using the
basis of the Greek model succeeded in reconstructing it [35]
and later improved on its capacity by adding some functions
such as determining the direction of Qibla, calculating of prayer
times and determining the Hijri calendar [36].
Using the astrolabe to determine the direction of Qibla is rather
complicated. It requires knowledge and high skills in the field
of science and technology. The ability of Muslim scientists in
using the astrolabe to determine the direction of Qibla shows
their high intellect of that time [37]. The word Qibla is an
Arabic term which means point of reference to the location of
the Kaaba in Masjid al-Haram, Mecca. Bagvi [38] was of the
opinion that in certain ibadah practices, the direction of Qibla
needs to be emphasized and the method of determining the
direction of Qibla should be learnt and known by Muslims in
order that their ibadah practice is valid and accepted by Allah
SWT. One of the important aspects in legal validity is the facing
of Qibla and this is one of the conditions of prayer (solah),
whether obligatory (fard) or optional (sunnah) prayer.
Likewise, in the management of burial services for a Muslim
and other ibadah practices, facing the Qibla is highly
recommended. The whole of one’s body is required to face the
Kaaba in Mecca al-Mukarramah while performing prayer [38].
The duty to pray facing the Kaaba was prescribed by Allah
SWT in the second Hijrah year. Previous to that, prayer was
performed facing Baitul Maqdis (al-Aqsa Mosque), in
Jerussalem, Palestine. When the Messenger pbuh was in
Medina, he had performed prayers facing Baitul Maqdis for
about 16 months before changing direction to Kaaba on
Monday, 17th of Rejab while praying in Bani Salamah Mosque.
Bani Salamah Mosque was named after the former site of Bani
Salamah’s home which was situated on a hilltop north of Harrah
Wabrah, Medina. It is now known as al-Qiblatayn Mosque
which means mosque of two Qibla due to the event when the
new Qibla was commanded [39].
Using the astrolabe, the basis of falaq calculation shows the
movement of the celestial bodies such as the sun, moon and
stars to us on earth. Prayer time is determined guided by the
sun’s movement causing time differences daily for prayers
based on location. Calculation is based on the celestial sphere
concept and using certain spherical trigonometric formulae
[40]. Prayer is one of the Islamic tenets obligatory on every
mukallaf. The commandment to pray five times daily was
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received through revelation directly from Allah SWT by the
Messenger PBUH during the event of Isra’ and Mi‘raj.
Calculation of prayer time is very essential to Muslims because
it involves the requirement of daily ibadah. Every Muslim is
required to pray at specific times, failing to do so without valid
excuse is a grave offence and sin in Islam [41]. There are two
astronomical measures that are essential for calculating prayer
times which are the equation of time and the declination of Sun.
The equation of time is the difference between time as read from
a clock or sundial. It results from an apparent irregular
movement of the Sun caused by a combination of the obliquity
of the Earth’s rotation axis and the eccentricity of its orbit. It
can be ahead fast or slow as shown in the graph:
Figure 1: The Equation of Time
While the declination of the Sun is the angle between the rays
of the sun and the plane of the earth equator. The declination of
the Sun changes continuously throughout the year. This is a
consequence of the Earth's tilt, such as the difference in its
rotational and revolutionary axes.
Sun’s path can be seen as shown in the paragraph below:
The outcome is that the Muslim society today is able to keep
their prayers by referring to the clock or prayer schedule
provided by the responsible authorities [43].
Conclusion
Discussion regarding astrolabe makes interesting research. But
however, research resources which discuss in detail its
development and function in Malaysia are lacking. All previous
research discussed only briefly in a limited manner the
historical aspect of its development and function. Moreover,
this research has not found any academic writing which
discusses astrolabe chronologically, comprehensively and in
detail, particularly in Malaysia. Hence, research such as this is
needed to provide information not discovered in previous
research at once providing complete documentation on the
astrolabe of the past Muslim civilization and in Malaysia today.
In addition, the accuracy level of an astrolabe is discussed in
order to improve the progress of astronomy in Malaysia and to
give exposure to the general public. Research such as this may
assist government efforts to improve progress in the field of
astrofiqh in Malaysia. This research is conducted to complete
information on astrolabe not found in previous research.
Specific academic research on the history of astrolabe invention
towards the development of astronomy is extremely lacking.
This dearth of research on the astrolabe in connection with other
instruments such as the rubu‘ mujayyab is a factor for
conducting this research.
Knowledge and ideas initiated by scientists of the Greek
civilization had developed from time to time across civilizations
into the Muslim civilization. It cannot be denied that several
concepts by Greek scientists were learnt and applied by Muslim
scientists through translations of Sanskrit and Pahlavi texts [20].
However, the ingenuity of Muslim scientists had made
astronomy more interesting through modifications and
improvement of earlier theories and concepts. Even today,
theories and concepts improved or invented by Muslim
scientists are renowned throughout the world and are still
applied to solve certain problems.
The Muslim civilization was very extensive embracing diverse
states and cultures. Numerous contributions and breakthroughs
by scientists were made in the Muslim civilization. This proves
the uniqueness of Islam as a religion which has enabled the
building of a civilization that upholds the dignity of mankind.
The Muslim civilization had succeeded in leading to become
the model of reference for the building of human civilizations
even till today, including in the discussion of the continuity of
the astrolabe as a multifunctional astrofiqh instrument in
Malaysia.
Figure 2: The Declination of Sun
As has been discussed above, the prescribed five prayer time
periods are based on the two sources of al-Qur’an and al-Hadith.
This prescription was then interpreted and discussed in detail by
jurists so that it became easily understood and practised by the
Muslim society. The jurists’ interpretation was further specified
and linked to astronomy to enable the scheduling of prayer
times based on falaq computation and later linked to time
measurement instruments such as the astrolabe and clock [42].
Acknowledgement
This study is financed by the Research Group of Astrofiqh and
Cosmofiqh (ANCOR, GUP-2015-013), UKM; the Research
Group of the Nasrid Studies (GUP-2015-011), UKM; the
Research Group of Arabic Culture and Islamic Civilization
(KUKAPI, DPP-2015-067), UKM; the Research Group of West
Asian Studies (AKRAB, DPP-2015-085); and the UniversityIndustry Incentive Grant (SAKTI: INDUSTRI-2012-006),
UKM.
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© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
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