Intelligent Systems Analyzing Sections of the Great Wall of China for Ming
and Pre-Ming Dynasty Construction
THESIS
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master
of Science in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Jin Rong Yang
Graduate Program in Civil Engineering
The Ohio State University
2012
Master's Examination Committee:
Dr. Fabian Tan, Advisor
Dr. Frank Croft
Dr. Shive Chaturvedi
Copyright by
Jin Rong Yang
2012
Abstract
As society moves into the future, environmental concerns such as
global warming increase due to human activity (U.S. EPA 2009:2). In
construction, the use of cement in concrete contributes to this problem.
Scientists and Engineers believe building green, yet durable, is the key to
solving this problem. To achieve this goal, researchers must move
backward in time to examine how our predecessors built their structures
without modern technology, and then they can incorporate the
techniques that were used to reduce waste.
One of the most qualified structures to examine is the Great Wall of
China. The technology they used was not only environmentally friendly,
but the structure is also very durable. Some parts of the structure that were
built over two thousand years ago still exist today.
The research is focused on Ming and Pre Ming dynasty. The
research centers on the similarities and differences between the two time
periods in construction techniques. Since the Great Wall is very long in
length, this research and the research methods mentioned below are
limited to Beijing, Hebei and Gansu province.
iii
The author found out that the main construction method that was
used was rammed earth. The rammed earth method is a technique of
building walls by compressing the raw materials such as earth, gravel and
lime into the shape of a wall. The construction materials that they used to
construct the Great Wall were mainly fire kiln bricks and mud bricks. Fire
kiln bricks are made through chemical change when the clay is fired up in
the kilns until it is vitrified. Mud bricks, on the other hand, are made
through a physical change by letting the bricks dry out in the sun. The
main transportation of the material to construct the Great Wall was using
a class 2 lever wheelbarrow, though the workers used animals as well.
Since the Great Wall was built a long time ago, many historical
records and documents were lost or destroyed. The methods listed above
are not binary, meaning they are not completely true or false. The author
would have to incorporate fuzzy logic to measure the statements, such as
how “true” they are, using subjective values. The author also uses Artificial
Intelligence and Multi-Media system in his research to assist the end user in
the absence of a Great Wall expert. The research results are shown in the
Multi-Media system.
The research shows that the Great Wall from the Ming dynasty is far
superior to the dynasties before it in terms of construction techniques.
However; Pre-Ming Dynasty does incorporate more green construction
iv
techniques than the Ming Dynasty. Therefore, the author concludes that
the structure is durable when it is from the Ming dynasty. The structure is
greener when it is from the Pre-Ming dynasty. However, both Ming and
Pre-Ming Dynasty’s construction methods are greener than modern
practices. With these conclusions, the author recommends using both
construction methods from the Ming and the Pre-Ming dynasties to build
green yet durable structures for the future.
v
Dedication
This document is dedicated to my Mother Whon Jing, my Father Gwon
Fang and my friends.
vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Dr. Fabian Tan for mentoring and supporting
me throughout my undergraduate and graduate studies. I would also like
to thank him for helping and guiding me in the right direction for my thesis.
Furthermore, I would like to thank the committee members Dr. Frank Croft
and Dr. Shive Chaturvedi for their suggestions on my thesis as well. Lastly, I
would like to thank Katharine Hibbard, Jamie Crowsley and Bart Ridgill for
proofreading my thesis.
Next, I would like to thank my friends who gave me positive
encouragement and support throughout my college career. I would like
to thank Bart, Jinhang and others who took CE 881 and CE 888 with me.
They were there for mental support when we took those classes together
and they still give me positive advice and support now that the classes
have ended. I would like to thank my closest friends Jimme, Matt and
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others (you know who you are) for their continuing support outside the
academia.
Finally, I would like give the deepest thank you to my Mom, Whon
Jing, and my Dad, Gwon Fang, for their love and support throughout my
life. They kept me going by encouraging me to go farther with school and
in life even though I feel like quitting during the hard times. Without them, I
would not be here. Mom, this is for you and you will forever be in my heart.
viii
Vita
June 2006 ................................................Eastmoor Academy High School
March 2011 .............................................B.S. in Civil Engineering, Ohio State
University
2012 to present ......................................Graduate Teaching Associate,
Engineering Education Innovation
Center, The Ohio State University
Fields of Study
Major Field: Civil Engineering
Specialization: Construction
ix
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................... iii
Dedication ............................................................................................................. vi
Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................vii
Vita ...........................................................................................................................ix
Fields of Study .........................................................................................................ix
Table of Contents .................................................................................................. x
List of Tables .......................................................................................................... xv
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xvi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 2
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Goal, Objectives and Tasks ........................................................................ 3
1.3 Scope of Study.............................................................................................. 6
1.4 Limitations ...................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SEARCH ........................................................................... 8
x
2.1 Brief History of Who, When and Where ..................................................... 8
2.2 Why build the Great Wall and why did it never fulfill its purpose? ..... 12
CHAPTER 3 HOW DID THE ANCIENT CHINESE CONSTRUCT IT? ....................... 15
3.1 Legendary ‘How’........................................................................................ 15
3.2 Historical ‘How’ ........................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Before the Ming Dynasty .................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Ming Dynasty ........................................................................................ 19
3.3 Factual ‘How’ ............................................................................................. 23
3.3.1 Before the Ming Dynasty .................................................................... 23
3.3.2 Ming Dynasty ........................................................................................ 29
3.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW OF THE COMPUTER PROGRAMS ............................... 40
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 40
4.2 Program Usage and Limitation ................................................................ 40
4.3 End User’s Knowledge ............................................................................... 41
4.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER: 5 DECISION TREE ................................................................................. 43
5.1 Introduction to the Decision Tree............................................................. 43
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5.2 The Decision Tree for this Research ......................................................... 44
5.3 Conclusion to the Decision Tree .............................................................. 47
CHAPTER 6: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ............................................................... 48
6.1 Introduction to the Artificial Intelligence ................................................ 48
6.2 Knowledge–Based Expert System (KBES) ................................................ 49
6.2.1 Architecture of the KBES ..................................................................... 50
6.2.2 The Knowledge Base ........................................................................... 50
6.2.3 The Inference Engine .......................................................................... 52
6.2.3.1 The ‘How’ of the Inference Engine ................................................ 52
6.2.4 The Short Term Memory....................................................................... 53
6.2.5 The Explanation Facility ....................................................................... 53
6.2.6 The User Interface ................................................................................ 54
6.2.7 The Knowledge Acquisition ................................................................ 54
6.2.8 Video, Audio, and Pictures Interface ............................................... 54
6.2.9 The Stages of Developing the KBES .................................................. 55
6.3 “The Great Wall of China EXpert” ............................................................ 60
6.3.1 Knowledge Structure of “The Great Wall of China EXpert” .......... 62
6.3.2 Knowledge Base .................................................................................. 64
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6.4 Conclusion to Artificial Intelligence and “The Great Wall of China
EXpert” ............................................................................................................... 66
CHAPTER 7 FUZZY SET CONCEPTS ....................................................................... 68
7.1 Introduction to the “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set”
program ............................................................................................................. 68
7.2 Introduction to the Fuzzy Set Concept ................................................... 70
7.2.1 The Fuzzy Set Variables........................................................................ 74
7.3 Instruction on using “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set”
Program ............................................................................................................. 76
7.4 How to Interpret the Results ...................................................................... 83
7.5 Multiplication Operation in Matrix (Mathematic) ................................. 87
7.6 Conclusion to the Fuzzy Set Concept Program ..................................... 88
CHAPTER 8 FUZZY MODUS PONENS DEDUCTION ............................................. 89
8.1 Introduction to the “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” Program ....................................................................... 89
8.2 The MPD in Logic Equations ...................................................................... 91
8.3 The Rule and the Fact ............................................................................... 97
8.4 Instruction on using “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” program (How to Use It) ............................................ 97
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8.5 How to Interpret the Result ..................................................................... 102
8.6 Conclusion to the “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” Program ..................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 9 RESEARCH RESULTS......................................................................... 105
9.1 Multimedia System ................................................................................... 105
9.2 Artificial Intelligence Integrated in the “The Great Wall Intelligent
Multi-Media System” ...................................................................................... 105
9.2.1 Decision Tree and Research Results ............................................... 112
CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION ............................................................................... 114
10.1 Summary .................................................................................................. 114
10.2 Conclusion............................................................................................... 115
10.3 Recommendations ................................................................................ 115
References .......................................................................................................... 117
Appendix A: Fuzzy Set, MPD and AI Program Images ................................. 122
xiv
List of Tables
Table 1: Data of Pre Ming dynasty .................................................................... 38
Table 2: Data of Ming dynasty ........................................................................... 39
Table 3: Location and Assigned Value f(x) ...................................................... 71
xv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Chinese plain in the late Spring and Autumn period ..................... 11
Figure 2: Modern Map and Location of the Great Wall of China ............... 12
Figure 3: Chinese rammed earth watchtower in Dunhuang, Gansu
province ................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 4: Rammed Earth on Foundation .......................................................... 29
Figure 5: Jinshanling Tower showing all the material needed to construct
the structure .......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 6: Chinese Wheelbarrow......................................................................... 34
Figure 7: 3D Structure of the Great Wall at Coordinate 40.350449,
116.003181 ............................................................................................................. 37
Figure 8: Decision Tree from Excel ..................................................................... 45
Figure 9: AI Architecture ..................................................................................... 60
Figure 10: Architecture of the Author's Intelligent System ............................. 61
Figure 11: Test Path from Intelligent System ..................................................... 63
Figure 12: C# version (from Intelligent System) of the Location and
Assigned Value f(x) .............................................................................................. 72
Figure 13: Table 1 & 2 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set 75
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Figure 14: Table 1 & 2 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set 76
Figure 15: Table 4 & 5 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set 77
Figure 16: Equation 1 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set . 78
Figure 17: Equation 2 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set . 80
Figure 18: Equation 3 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set . 81
Figure 19: Equation 4 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set . 82
Figure 20: Graph of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set ........ 83
Figure 21: Tx of "Very Low" to "Fair" Strength Material ..................................... 84
Figure 22: Graph of "Very Low" to "Fair" Strength Material ............................ 84
Figure 23: "Fair" Strength Material ...................................................................... 85
Figure 24: Graph of "Fair" Strength Material ..................................................... 85
Figure 25: "Fair" to "Very High" Strength Material ............................................. 86
Figure 26: Graph of "Fair" to "Very High" Strength Material ............................ 86
Figure 27: Cancellation of Variable in Multiplication of Matrix ..................... 88
Figure 28: Graph of ITFM ..................................................................................... 92
Figure 29: Graph of LIR ........................................................................................ 93
Figure 30: Graph of TFM ...................................................................................... 94
Figure 31: Graph of Baldwin's Model ................................................................ 95
Figure 32: Fuzzy MPD Program ........................................................................... 98
Figure 33: ITFM of Fuzzy MPD Program .............................................................. 99
Figure 34: LIR of Fuzzy MPD Program ............................................................... 100
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Figure 35: TFM of Fuzzy MPD Program ............................................................. 101
Figure 36: Baldwin's Model of Fuzzy MPD Program ....................................... 102
Figure 37: Comparison between the Result and Baldwin's Model ............ 103
Figure 38: Welcome Screen of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media
System (Beijing) .................................................................................................. 107
Figure 39: Video in the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System ............ 108
Figure 40: Question 1 of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System ... 109
Figure 41: Question 2 of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System ... 110
Figure 42: Question 3 of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System ... 111
Figure 43: Test Path of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System ...... 113
Figure 44: Table 4 & 5 of Fuzzy Set Example One .......................................... 123
Figure 45: Equation 1 of Fuzzy Set Example One .......................................... 124
Figure 46: Equation 2 of Fuzzy Set Example One .......................................... 125
Figure 47: Equation 3 of Fuzzy Set Example One .......................................... 126
Figure 48: Equation 4 of Fuzzy Set Example One .......................................... 127
Figure 49: Graph of Fuzzy Set Example One .................................................. 128
Figure 50: Table 4 & 5 of Fuzzy Set Example Two........................................... 129
Figure 51: Equation 1 of Fuzzy Set Example Two ........................................... 130
Figure 52: Equation 2 of Fuzzy Set Example Two ........................................... 131
Figure 53: Equation 3 of Fuzzy Set Example Two ........................................... 132
Figure 54: Equation 4 of Fuzzy Set Example Two ........................................... 133
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Figure 55: Graph of Fuzzy Set Example Two................................................... 134
Figure 56: Inputs and Outputs of Fuzzy MPD Example One ........................ 135
Figure 57: Inputs and Outputs of Fuzzy MPD Example Two ......................... 136
Figure 58: Welcome Screen of Multi-Media System Example One ............ 137
Figure 59: Brief Video of Multi-Media System Example One ....................... 138
Figure 60: Question 1 of Multi-Media System Example One ....................... 139
Figure 61: Question 2 of Multi-Media System Example One ....................... 140
Figure 62: Test Path of Multi-Media System Example One........................... 141
Figure 63: Question 1 of Multi-Media System Example Two ........................ 142
Figure 64: Question 2 of Multi-Media System Example Two ........................ 143
Figure 65: Question 3 of Multi-Media System Where It Is Not Applicable
Example Two ....................................................................................................... 144
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Construction materials, methods and techniques improve with time.
In ancient times, structures were built using hand tools, which made
construction a dangerous and difficult task. At present people have the
benefit of more advanced technology, and our structures are built using
machines. Such improvements increase production time and, as safety
awareness is currently emphasized, they have lead to a decrease in fatal
work injuries. There are, however, negative consequences to these
advancements, such as energy and environmental issues. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a report suggesting that
the earth’s temperature has been steadily increasing since the 1800’s,
yielding global climate changes, i.e. global warming.
The EPA blames many recent environmental issues on human
activity (U.S. EPA 2009:2). One of the suspected causes of the climate
change has come from an increase in carbon dioxide, which is made
during the production of the cement needed to mix concrete. Carbon
dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gases that contribute to global
warming. This is why it is argued that civil engineers need to improve on
2
their methods and techniques, and need to find green construction
techniques materials to reduce waste. To achieve this goal, researchers
may need to go back and examine ancient cultures to see if there are
practices that can be used in present and future operations. A perfect
example to support this is the Great Wall of China, which was built long
before the technological miracles we have today, and yet was created
using environmentally friendly materials and techniques.
To accurately evaluate the construction process of this ancient
structure, one would have to go back through time and see how it
actually was built. Since this is not possible, the only logical option is to
search for data and use historical facts to evaluate the construction
process. Even with the information we have, it is not enough to evaluate
the construction process because the data is not complete. Since the
data is incomplete, intelligent systems such as fuzzy logic must be used to
help the engineers understand, combining them with rule-of-thumb,
educated guesses and other heuristic-based methodologies.
1.2 Goal, Objectives and Tasks
The goal of this research is to get a better understanding of the
construction techniques used for construction of the Great Wall of China
in the Ming and Pre-Ming dynasties. There are a number of objectives and
tasks to complete the goal. They are listed as follows:
3
Objective 1: Separate Construction Methods used between Ming
and Pre-Ming Dynasty using Intelligent System
Task 1: Literature Review
a.
Search and review a brief history of the Great Wall of
China, including who, when, where and why the Great
Wall of China was built.
b.
How the Great Wall of China was constructed based
on legendary, historical, and factual data.
c.
Gather pictures of the wall, detailed drawings, and
technical specifications such as labor force,
management, material, transportation, construction
techniques, and planning & design.
Task 2: Research Methods
a.
Develop a Decision Tree System using IF-THEN paths
based on the knowledge from the research of the
Great Wall of China.
b.
Develop an Intelligent System using Knowledge-Based
Expert System (KBES) developed based on the
knowledge of the factual ‘how’ to determine what
transportation, construction methods and materials
were available during the Ming Dynasty.
4
c.
Develop two fuzzy logic systems using fuzzy set
concepts and modus ponens deduction to determine
the possibility that a structure is from the Ming Dynasty
era.
d.
Develop a Multi-Media System using C# that consists of
pictures, audio, video, and research results of the Great
Wall of China.
The research that was done in this report involved the use of several
computer programs, which includes logic methodologies. All computer
programs in this research use either Microsoft C#® or Microsoft Excel® or
both. The first computer program used in the research is the Multi-Media
System, which displays pictures, audio, video and research results based
on queries of the end user. The second computer program contains the
logic methodology used in Decision Trees, which in turn employs IF-THEN
paths based on the knowledge acquired from the research of the Great
Wall of China. These paths are also needed to debug the knowledge
contained in the system. The program shows how the knowledge leads to
a final result. The third computer program used in the research is the
Intelligent System, which uses KBES developed based on the knowledge
from the factual ‘how’. It will combine with the Multi-Media System to
show the research results. The last computer program contains a concept
called ‘fuzzy logic’. After examining all the programs provided in this
5
research, the end user is expected to get a better understanding of the
ancient Ming and Pre-Ming dynasty construction techniques used in
building the Great Wall of China. They may then apply the same
techniques to constructing more green yet long-lasting structures in the
future.
1.3 Scope of Study
The scope of the study is mainly focused on the construction of the
Great Wall of China, though there will be some information on the general
history of the Great Wall. The research is also mainly focused on the PreMing and Ming dynasty time periods. There will be fuzzy logic applied as
the different studies of the Great Wall continue backward in time. Most of
the ancient walls from before the Ming era have eroded. Also, there are
less than a few existing historical records of the wall’s technical features,
such as the length of the wall, from before the Ming era, therefore some
information will be provided on the time leading up to the Ming Dynasty.
The research will focus on the wall itself, though only general information
will be provided on the watchtowers and barracks. Since the Great Wall
of China is long, the research only covers notable areas of the Great Wall,
the Beijing, Hebei and Gansu province. The reason for this is the interest in
Badaling, Dunhuang, Jiayuguan and the Warring States sections of the
Great Wall. Badaling is located in Beijing while Dunhuang and Jiayuguan
are in Gansu. The most significant Warring States sections of the Great
6
Wall are located in Hebei. There are interesting features in Hebei, such as
a large presence of rocks in Laiyuan County, Chajianling and other areas
in Hebei. The research presented will cover labor force, management,
material, transportation, construction techniques, and planning & design
through literature searches and engineering knowledge from the author.
1.4 Limitations
The limitation of this research is that the author of this report will not
go to the site for his research. Therefore, any actual pictures of the Great
Wall in this report and in the software developed by the author are from
reliable resources. All photos in this research can be found in Wikipedia
and permission to use the photos has been granted to the author of this
report. The author of this report has attributed the photos to their
respective owners.
7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SEARCH
2.1 Brief History of Who, When and Where
The Great Wall of China is a series of walls in northern China built for
strategic military defenses (Waldron 1990:30). It runs from east to west. The
direct translation of the “Great Wall of China” from Chinese is “ten
thousand li long wall”. 10,000 li is equivalent to 4,044 miles. However,
10,000 li metaphorically represents “infinite”, therefore the translation for
the Great Wall of China is “the long wall of infinity” (Geil 1909:11). The
exact length of the wall is still unknown. It was recently estimated to be
13,171 miles long according to the BBC and NBC news reports. The wall
first started construction in the 5th century BC. Over the years, the wall has
been renovated and rebuilt. This project has been renovated and rebuilt
for military purposes for approximately 2000 years. The major construction
ended at the end of Ming Dynasty, which was in 1644 AD (Roberts &
Barme 2006:289). The idea of behind the Great Wall first emerged from the
Warring States. The Warring States consisted of small numbers of
independent states prior to the unification of China. The Warring States
consisted of the Wei, Zhao, Qin, Yan, among others (Roberts & Barme
2006:52). They constantly fought one another. They came up with the idea
of building a wall in order to defend their own territories. This idea is known
8
as fortification. The Wei started the fortification construction in 352 BC and
continued with it until 225 BC (Roberts & Barme 2006:pp. 52-53). It is
located in what is now known as the Henan Province of China. The Zhao
began wall construction in 333 BC and continued until 222 BC (Roberts &
Barme 2006:pp. 52-53). It is located in the Hebei, Shanxi and Shaanxi
provinces of China (Roberts & Barme 2006:pp. 52-53). The Qin State
started wall construction in 324 BC and continued until 221 BC (Luo &
Zhao 1986:3). It is located in Shaanxi, China (Luo & Zhao 1986:3). The Yan
started wall construction in approximately 254 BC and continued until 222
BC (Luo & Zhao 1986:3). Yan is located in Hebei, China (Luo & Zhao
1986:3). However, Qin Shi Huang from the Qin State defeated all the other
states and united China in 221 BC, forming the Qin Dynasty (Luo & Zhao
1986:4). He destroyed the wall that divided his empire and built a new wall
to connect with the rest of the wall and form a new northern frontier (Luo
& Zhao 1986:pp. 4-5). The Qin Dynasty constructed the wall from 221 BC to
206 BC (Lovell 2006:pp. 361-362). After the Qin Dynasty, other dynasties
took control of China and they also carried out extensive renovations,
reconstruction and additions to the Great Wall to defend their borders
from the northern invaders: the Mongolians. For instance, the Han Dynasty
renovated, reconstructed, and added sections to the Great Wall
between 206 BC and 9 AD and between 25 AD and 220 AD (Luo et al.
1981:187). Then, the Northern Wei Dynasty and the Eastern Wei Dynasty
9
renovated, reconstructed, and added sections to the Great Wall from 386
AD to 550 AD (Roberts & Barme 2006:289). After that, the Northern Qi
Dynasty renovated, reconstructed, and added sections to the Great Wall
from 550 AD to 577 AD (Roberts & Barme 2006:289). Next, the Sui Dynasty
renovated, reconstructed, and added sections to the Great Wall from 581
AD to 618 AD (Lindesay 2007:286). After Sui, there was a long period when
no construction took place. The dynasties after Sui did not see the need
for the wall, until the Liao and Jin Dynasties. The Liao re-started
construction of the wall in 907 and continued until 1125 (Lindesay
2007:286). The Jin took over after the fall of Liao and continued
construction from 1125 to 1234 (Lindesay 2007:286). The last dynasty that
restored the wall for military purposes was during the Ming era. The Ming
revived the wall from 1368 to 1644 (Lindesay 2007:286). The maps below
show the locations of the wall during each of the dynasty’s ruling periods.
All the dates listed above before the First Empire of the Qin Dynasty are
approximated by individual authors including Barme, Luo and Lovell
(Lovell 2006:pp. 361-365) (Luo & Zhao 1986:pp. 57-59) (Luo et al. 1981:187)
(Roberts & Barme 2006:289). This means that the date differs from one
author to the other. All the dates listed above on and after the First Empire
Qin Dynasty can be found on page 286 of “The Great Wall Revisited: From
the Jade Gate to Old Dragon’s Head” by William Lindesay (Lindesay
2007:286) and other sources. However, the dates are identical from one
10
author to the other. See figure 1 for Warring States location. See figure 2
for the modern map of the Great Wall of China and the location of the
Great Wall is circled in red.
Figure 1: Chinese plain in the late Spring and Autumn period (Hugo Lopez
2011)
11
Figure 2: Modern Map and Location of the Great Wall of China (Google
Maps 2012, Red oval created by the author of this report)
2.2 Why build the Great Wall and why did it never fulfill its purpose?
As the author of this report mentioned in the previous section, the
Great Wall was built to protect the Chinese Empire from the Mongolians
and other invaders. Luo Zewen one of the authors who wrote: “The Great
Wall”, supported the argument, but stated that it was hard for the Great
Wall to prevent attacks from nomadic tribes because they could move
12
easily with their horses. Also, the wall was built to create a peaceful
relationship with the northerners. Luo argued that it could be expensive
because the people have to give gifts such as food, crops, and even
daughters and princesses to marry the nomadic tribes. The last reason as
to why the Great Wall was constructed was to slow invaders and enable
military defense (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 42-43).The wall was effective and
actually proved successful earlier on in its history, since the ancient people
only had limited techniques and weapons to be utilized, such as
cavalrymen, knives, spears and bows and arrows. However, as the time
passed, the Great Wall was shown to be largely ineffective against
enemies for many reasons, such as the inventions of gun powder and
other weapons, officers in charge of the wall turning traitor, poorly-trained
soldiers, and insufficient numbers of soldiers, among other things.
Therefore, the Mongols took control of China for almost one hundred
years (Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368) despite the barrier created by the Great
Wall. In another book “The Great Wall of China in History and Legend”,
the authors Luo Zhewen and Zhao Luo described another military purpose
for the construction of the Great Wall. They posed the idea that the Great
Wall was used to communicate during a military attack. For instance, if
the fire signals in the watchtowers and barracks were to light up, then it
was a warning signal to tell the troops that invaders were coming (Luo &
13
Zhao 1986:14). Therefore, the Great Wall had quite a few purposes but it
never achieved its full potential.
14
CHAPTER 3 HOW DID THE ANCIENT CHINESE CONSTRUCT IT?
3.1 Legendary ‘How’
There is a famous folk tale about a newlywed wife named Meng
Jiang Nu and her husband who departed to work on the Great Wall.
There are several versions of this story in literature (Luo & Zhao 1986:pp. 4650) (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 126-127) (Roberts & Barme 2006:pp. 36-43).
However, the main theme is about the tragic love and the hardship that
went into building the Great Wall. The story suggests that the Great Wall of
China was constructed using human remains as a strong foundation.
During the Qin Dynasty, Meng Jiang Nu’s husband, Fan Qiliang, was sent
to work on the Great Wall of China. Fan never returned home. Since
Meng did not hear any news from Fan, she decided to go and search of
him by going to the Great Wall. When Meng arrived at the Great Wall, she
found out that her husband had died from laboring too hard. The laborers
stated that Fan died from working, like so many others, and his body was
buried in the Great Wall. Meng was deeply saddened by the news and
she cried for three days. The Goddess heard her crying and made one of
the corners of the wall collapsed. Emperor Qin Shihuang, who happened
to survey the land at that time saw what had happened to the wall, but
instead of killing her, Emperor Qin decided to marry her due to her
15
beauty. Meng agreed to marry the Emperor after three conditions were
met. First, the Emperor must find the body of her husband Fan. Second,
the Emperor must conduct a traditional Chinese burial. Third, the Emperor
must allow Meng to visit the sea. The Emperor agreed and met the first
two conditions. However, after meeting the terms of the third condition,
Meng committed suicide by jumping into the sea. The story suggests that
the laborers were worked to death and that the human remains were
then buried underneath the wall as part of the foundation of the Great
Wall. The story of Meng Jiang Nu is a folktale, and there is more than one
version of this story. The story described above was passed on to the
author during childhood by his parents.
3.2 Historical ‘How’
3.2.1 Before the Ming Dynasty:
Construction Labor Force and Construction Management:
Labor force and management are needed in every construction
project. The Great Wall of China is no exception. The three main groups
that built the Great Wall of China were frontier guards, peasants, and
convicts (Roberts & Barme 2006:290) (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 130-131). There
are no accurate records of the exact number of individuals worked on
the Great Wall.
Construction methods were varied by location. Different areas used
different methods. During the Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu Di assigned the
16
military governors of Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan, and Dunhuang (four
cities) to be in charge of reconstructing the wall within their own areas
(Luo et al. 1981:131).
Construction Material:
The main materials used during the construction of the Great Wall
before the Ming dynasty were earth, stone, timber and tiles. Large stones
were excavated to build walls in the mountains, while the rammed earth
walls were put up on the flat areas. The three main types of stone that
were used to build the Great Wall were believed to be granite (igneous
rock), white marble (metamorphic rock) and white stones (sedimentary
rock). Local materials were used on different parts of the Great Wall.
Therefore, the Great Wall looked different from one area to another (Luo
et al. 1981:132).
Transportation of the Material:
During the Warring State period, the methods of transporting the
materials to the site for construction were manpower, simple tools, and
animals. Stone, timber and other building materials were carried on the
backs of laborers and it was also common to use carrying poles. To
transport materials to the top of the mountain, the laborers formed a line,
like an assembly line or bucket brigade, and passed the materials on from
hand to hand until it reached its destination. The method was used to
avoid collision and long trips to the mountain. Simple tools were used as
17
well. Handcarts were used on flat surfaces. Wooden rods and ropes were
also used to lift the materials during this time period. Lastly, animals were
used to carry stones. The two common animals were goats and donkeys.
Donkeys used their backs to carry baskets of bricks and stones. Goats
were used to transport construction materials. Materials were tied to their
goats’ horns (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 132-133).
Construction Technique:
During the Warring States period, the construction method for the
Great Wall was rammed earth. Rammed earth was a technique for
building walls using local raw materials like earth, chalk, lime, and gravel.
Since lime was not available during the Warring State period, it was
believed that the ancient Chinese used animal or human blood as a
replacement for the lime. They also used rice flour to mix the material. The
construction of the wall started with a temporary frame, also known as the
formwork, which was most likely made out of wood. The formwork acted
like a mould for the shape and dimensions of the wall. The form was well
braced and the two opposing walls were clamped together. It would
prevent deformation from the compression forces once the material was
packed into it. The laborers would pour moist earth and gravel into the
formwork. Then, the workers would tamp it down one layer at a time and
repeat the procedure until the desirable height was reached. Tamping
was done by hand during that time period by using a long ramming pole.
18
Each layer was poured to seven inches before it was compacted down to
five inches. Once the completed section of the wall was strong enough to
stand on its own, the formwork would be removed and used again for the
next section of the Wall (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 133-134) (Xujie et al. 2002:pp.
12–14, 21–22).
In other areas of the Great Wall, at and near Dunhuang (located in
the desert), the structure was built using sand, pebbles (rocks), tamarisk
twigs and reeds. First, tamarisk twigs and reeds were laid on the ground,
then sand and pebbles were added on top of the tamarisk twigs and
reeds. Then additional tamarisk twigs and reeds were laid on top of the
sand and pebbles. So there were multiple layers, like a sandwich. Tamarisk
twigs and reeds are durable types of plants and could be used in
construction. The thickness of the twigs and reeds layer was two inches,
while the thickness for the sand and pebble layers was eight inches (Luo
et al. 1981:pp. 134).
3.2.2 Ming Dynasty:
Construction Labor Force and Construction Management:
Like the dynasties before it, the three main groups that built the
Great Wall of China were frontier guards, peasants, and convicts (Luo et
al. 1981:pp. 130-131). Again, there are no accurate records on precisely
how many individuals worked on the Great Wall.
19
Like the dynasties before, construction tasks were separated and
assigned to different military governors or generals. The Ming dynasty
Emperor assigned the construction of each part of the wall to different
commanding generals in the nine strategic towns. For instance, Wang Ao,
Bi Gong, and other commanding generals were in charge of the section
at Liaodong outside the Shanhaiguan Pass. Also, General Qi Jiguang
supervised the watch towers and beacon towers from Shanhaiguan to
Juyongguan (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 131-132).
Construction Material:
The main materials used during the construction of the Great Wall
during the Ming dynasty were earth, stone, timber, tiles, bricks, and lime.
Bricks and lime were available during the Ming dynasty. Bricks, tiles, and
lime were made on the spot using kilns. For instance, many towers in
Jiayuguan were covered with mud brick in the top portion of the tower. If
they were not available, bricks, tiles, and lime could be transported from
nearby cities. This same procedure applied to timbers if there was no
forest nearby. Also, like the previous dynasties, large stones were
excavated to build walls in the mountains, while the rammed earth walls
were put up on the flat areas. The stone types remained the same across
time period, which were granite (igneous rock), white marble
(metamorphic rock) and white stones (sedimentary rock). Local materials
were used on different parts of the Great Wall. For example, since there
20
were a lot of rocks in Heibei, the majority of the wall and towers were
constructed using cut stones with mortar or dried mud. Consequently, the
Great Wall looked different from one city to another (Luo et al. 1981:132).
Transportation of the Material:
During the Ming dynasty, the methods of transporting the materials
to the site for construction were manpower, tools (more advanced when
compared to the Warring States period), and animals. Stones, timbers and
other building materials were carried on laborers’ backs, and it was still
common to use carrying poles. To transport materials to the top of the
mountain, the laborers again formed a line and passed the materials on
from hand to hand until it reached its destination. More advanced tools
were used as well. Wooden rods and ropes were used to lift the materials
during this time period. Wheelbarrows, levers, and windlasses were used
during the Ming era. Wheelbarrows are a class 2 lever, which means the
load (rocks and stones) is in the middle while the effort (the laborer’s
force) is applied on one end of the load with the fulcrum located on the
opposite side of the effort (Davidovits 2008:10). Lastly, animals were used
to carry bricks and stones. Like the previous dynasty, the two common
animals were goats and donkeys, with the same process of placing
baskets on the donkeys and tying the materials to the horns of the goats
(Luo et al. 1981:pp. 132-133).
Construction Technique:
21
During the Ming dynasty, because bricks and lime were available
they improved on building the wall by adding two layers of wall together.
The outer and inner layers of the thick wall were stacked with stone slabs,
and then filled with stones, cobbles, lime, and earth in between, much like
a sandwich. When they reached the correct height, bricks were laid on
top of it. There were two methods for laying brick work. Bricks were
stacked diagonally to cover the ramp on gradients less than forty five
degrees. Bricks were placed together in the form of a stairway when the
gradient was greater than forty five degrees (Luo et al. 1981:134).
The Ming dynasty used the same technique from the previous
dynasty, like rammed earth. The difference between the Ming dynasty
and the previous dynasty was that Ming’s layer of rammed earth was
much larger than the previous dynasty. Each layer of rammed earth was
three to four inches thick in the Qin and Han dynasties, while it was about
8 inches thick during the Ming dynasty (Hanbury-Tenison 1987:pp. 45-46)
(Luo et al. 1981:pp. 133-134).
Planning and Design:
All the walls were built at the peak of the mountain to maximize
military communication ability. Also, the designers and planners of the
Great Wall used the idea of “following the terrain” to save labor, material,
and cost. For example, in Badaling, the walls were built along the edge of
the mountain. This strategy led to the saving of many bricks and stone
22
slabs because many steep cliffs and stones on the edge were used
instead (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 134-136).
3.3 Factual ‘How’
The author of this report found very little information on any modern
research, experiments, or published studies on the factual ‘how’ for the
Great Wall. However, based on the photos from credible literature, and
the logic and engineering knowledge of the author, the factual “how” of
the Great Wall of China is very similar to the historical ‘how’. The author of
this report will now comment on how the factual ‘how’ is similar to the
historical ‘how’.
3.3.1 Before the Ming Dynasty:
Construction Labor Force:
As before, the three major groups of individuals that constructed
the Great Wall of China were military guards, farmers, and prisoners
(Roberts & Barme 2006:290) (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 130-131). There are still no
precise records on numbers of individuals who worked on the Great Wall.
However, according to a video called “The Great Wall: Deconstructed”
by History.com, it is estimated as many as one million workers worked on
the Great Wall, and from that million there were three hundred thousand
fatalities. The video also claimed that the bodies were buried in the wall
itself. The Legendary ‘how’ also supports this theory. To be conclusive,
more scientific research is needed on this topic.
23
Construction Management:
Construction tasks were separated and allocated to different areas
of China. During the Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu Di put the military
governors of Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan, and Dunhuang (four areas) in
charge of reconstructing the areas of the wall within their respective
localities (Luo et al. 1981:131). The logic behind this plan is that each area
of the Great Wall was structurally and architecturally different from each
other, and each governor was most familiar with their own terrain.
Construction Material:
The most important materials that were used during the
construction of the Great Wall before the Ming dynasty were timber, tiles,
earth, stone and burned and sun-dried mud bricks. As always, large stones
were excavated to construct walls in the mountains, while the rammed
earth walls were built on the flat areas. Also as before, the three major
types of stone that were used to assemble the Great Wall were white
marble (metamorphic rock), granite (igneous rock) and white stones
(sedimentary rock). Terrain affected the construction a great deal,
because there were a lot of rocks in Laiyuan County, Heibei, the majority
of the walls and towers were constructed using cut stones with mortar or
dried mud in Laiyuan County, Heibei. This is a conclusion based on the
photos from “The Great Wall Revisited: From the Jade Gate to Old
Dragon’s Head” by William Lindesay on pages 134-135. Local materials
24
were used in different part of the Great Wall. Burned and sun-dried bricks
were bricks made from physical changes. For example, wet mud and
straw were shaped into a brick. The straw or rice husks were used to
reduce the weight of the bricks and also to reinforce the strength of the
bricks. Then, it would be set out in the sun to dry. Once it was dried, the
mud and straw would harden into bricks that were used in the
construction of the wall. This is a physical change because it could go
back to original state of clay and therefore mud bricks do not last as long
compared to fire bricks (Luo et al. 1981:132). There are several reasons to
support the theory that local resources affected the makeup of the wall.
First, the Great Wall looked different from one area to another. Next, there
was Chinese writing on the stones to describe the materials used. Lastly,
we could inspect the materials by examining what is left of the wall in
China.
Transportation of the Material:
Manpower, simple tools, and animals were the main methods of
transporting the materials, such as stones, to the site for construction
during the Warring States period. Work force manually used their backs to
carry timbers and other building materials and like before it was common
to use carrying poles. In Badaling and Laiyuan County, the work force
formed a line and passed the materials on from hand to hand until it
reached its destination. The technique was used to prevent accidents
25
and long walks to the mountain. Handcarts and simple tools were used as
well, the carts were used on flat surfaces, and wooden rods and ropes
were needed to lift the materials. Animals were still needed to carry
stones, and as before the two common animals were goats and donkeys.
The logic behind this theory is that there were no advanced construction
machines or other means of transportation. The only possible way
therefore was to use manpower, simple tools, and animals.
Construction Technique:
The main construction method for building the Great Wall was the
rammed earth during the Warring States era. As stated before, rammed
earth was a technique to construct walls using local raw materials such as
lime, gravel, chalk and earth. It was thought that the ancient Chinese use
animal or human blood as a replacement for the lime because lime was
not available during the Warring States time era. They also added rice
flour to mix the material. The rice flour and blood were used as mortar,
also known as glue to the raw materials. The first step of the rammed earth
method started with a temporary frame, the formwork, which was most
likely made out of wood. The formwork was required to act as a mold for
the wall’s shape and dimensions. The form was securely braced and the
two opposing walls faced tightly together. This step would stop
deformation from the compression forces when the materials are jampacked into it. Then, the workers would pour moist earth and gravel
26
material inside the formwork. After that, they would tamp it down one
layer at a time and do the procedure again until the right height is
accomplished. Since mechanical machines were not available during
that time period, tamping was done manually by hand using a long
ramming pole. Each layer was poured to seven inches before being
compacted down to five inches. The formwork would need to be
detached and used again for the next section of the Great Wall once the
precious completed section of the wall was tough enough to stand on its
own (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 133-134) (Xujie et al. 2002:pp. 12–14, 21–22). The
logic behind this theory is that some of the earlier structures, from before
the Ming Dynasty, still exist today and we can see that it was built by using
the rammed earth method. See figure 3 for Chinese rammed earth
watchtower in Dunhuang, Gansu. See figure 4 for the tools needed for
rammed earth method on the foundation.
As mentioned above in the historical ‘How’ section of the research,
the sandwich method between sand along with pebbles and tamarisk
twigs with reeds, was used in areas of the Great Wall such as Dunhuang
(located in the desert). The structure was built using sand and pebbles
(rocks) sandwiched in the middle by layers of tamarisk twigs and reeds on
top and bottom. The desired height for the combined sandwich layers
was six meters. Tamarisk twigs and reeds are durable types of plants could
be used in construction (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 134).
27
Figure 3: Chinese rammed earth watchtower in Dunhuang, Gansu
province (Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Summer_Vacation_2007,_263,_Watchtow
er_In_The_Morning_Light,_Dunhuang,_Gansu_Province.jpg. Permission is
granted under the GNU Free Documentation License)
28
Figure 4: Rammed Earth on Foundation (Nubarron 2008)
3.3.2 Ming Dynasty:
Construction Labor Force:
The three primary groups that comprised the labor force that
constructed the Great Wall of China were armed forces, peasants, and
criminals, identical to the dynasties before (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 130-131).
The logic behind this theory is that despite the fact that the Ming Dynasty
had more advanced construction techniques than previous dynasties;
29
they still did not have complex construction machines. Therefore, frontier
guards, peasants, and convicts were still the main sources of labor that
were needed to build the Great Wall.
Construction Management:
Construction tasks were given to different military governors or
generals in different cities, as did the previous dynasties. The Ming dynasty
Emperor assigned each part of the wall to be constructed to different
commanding generals in the nine strategic towns. The commanding
generals that were responsible for the section at Liaodong outside the
Shanhaiguan Pass were Wang Ao, Bi Gong, and other commanding
generals. In addition, the watch towers and beacon towers from
Shanhaiguan to Juyongguan were supervised General Qi Jiguang (Luo et
al. 1981:pp. 131-132). Like the previous dynasty, the logic behind this
theory is that each area of the Great Wall is structurally and architecturally
different from each other, and the generals were most familiar with their
own land.
Construction Material:
The materials used in building the Great Wall during the Ming
dynasty were stone, timber, tiles, earth, fire kiln bricks and lime, and the
last two were only accessible during and after the Ming dynasty. Lime and
sticky rice flour were used to make mortar to act as cement for the bricks.
30
Kilns were used on the construction site to make bricks, lime and tiles. To
do this, the clay is fired up in the kilns until it is vitrified (Luo et al. 1981:132).
Vitrification is when the clay melts into the glass stage and the glass
will eventually act as adhesive for the bricks, holding them together. This
process is known as a chemical change, meaning the brick will not go
back to its original state of clay. This vitrification makes the brick stronger
than the mud bricks or sun dried bricks or any bricks made from physical
changes (Ojovan, Michael & Lee, William (Bill) E. 2010:pp. 2534-2540).
Bricks, tiles, and lime must be transported from nearby areas if the
materials were not obtainable in the local area. This similar idea applied
to timbers if there was no forest close by. Lastly, large stones were
excavated to build walls in the terrains, while the rammed earth walls
were erected on the level areas, just like the previous dynasties (Luo et al.
1981:132).
Once again, white marble (metamorphic rock), granite (igneous
rock) and white stones (sedimentary rock) were the three types of stone
that were used to put up the Great Wall. Local materials were utilized in
different area of the Great Wall. Therefore, the Great Wall looked diverse
from one city to another (Luo et al. 1981:132). There is logic behind this
theory, similar to the previous dynasties. First, the Great Wall looked
different from one area to another. There is Chinese writing on the bricks
and stones describing the material. Finally, many of the materials listed
31
above can be seen today on the Great Wall of China. See figure 5 for the
Jinshanling Tower showing all the material needed to construct the Great
Wall of China.
Figure 5: Jinshanling Tower showing all the material needed to construct
the structure (Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Jinshangli
ng2.jpg/640px-Jinshangling2.jpg. Permission is granted under the GNU
Free Documentation License)
Transportation of the Material:
During the Ming dynasty, there were several ways of moving the
material to the construction location, including manpower, tools (more
superior to the Warring States era), and animals. Stones, timbers and other
32
building materials were put on laborers backs for transportation. It was
also normal to use carrying poles. To take construction materials to the top
of the mountain, the labor force formed an assembly line to pass the
materials on from hand to hand until it arrived at its destination. The
method was used to avoid collisions and long walks to the mountain.
More advanced tools were incorporated as well. Handcarts were needed
to carry materials on flat surfaces. Furthermore, wooden rods and ropes
were used to lift the materials. Wheelbarrows, levers, and windlasses were
used in the Ming dynasty period. Wheelbarrows are class 2 lever, which is
where the load (rocks, stones or other materials) rests in the middle while
the effort (the worker’s force) is applied on one end of the load and the
fulcrum is located on the opposite side of the effort (Davidovits 2008:10).
See Figure 6 for clarification on the Chinese wheelbarrow.
33
Figure 6: Chinese Wheelbarrow (Anna Frodesiak 2012)
The logic behind this theory is based on modern research showing
that a class 2 lever was used during Ming dynasty. Some scholars even
argued that the wheelbarrows were used as far back as the 2nd century
during the Han dynasty (Needham 1971: pp. 263-267).
Finally, bricks and stones were carried by animals, such as goats
and donkeys. Donkeys used their backs to carry baskets of bricks and
stones while construction materials were tied to goats’ horns for
transportation (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 132-133).
34
Since there were no advanced construction machines, such as
tractors, it was obvious that they followed the transportation methods
from the previous dynasties.
Construction Technique:
Bricks and lime were available to use in the construction during the
Ming dynasty. They improved on constructing the wall from the previous
dynasty by adding two layers of wall together. The previous dynasties only
used a single layer. The Great Wall’s outer and inner layers were stacked
with stone slabs, and then filled with stones, cobbles, lime, and earth in
between. When they reach a right height set by the plan, bricks were laid
on top with it. There were two methods for using the brick work. Bricks
were loaded up diagonally to cover the ramp. Bricks were placed
together in the form of a stairway if the gradient was greater forty five
degrees (Luo et al. 1981:pp. 134).
The Ming’s construction technique was unchanged from the
previous dynasty, such as rammed earth technique. As stated before,
rammed earth was a method for building walls using local raw materials
of earth, chalk, lime and gravel. They also used rice flour to mix the
material. The construction of the wall started with formwork which was
most likely made out of wood. The formwork was used to act as a mould
for the shape and dimensions of the wall. The form was well braced and
the two opposing wall faced clamped together. It would prevent
35
deformation from the compression forces once the material was packed
into it. The laborers would pour moist earth and gravel material inside the
formwork. Then, the workers would tamp it down one layer at a time and
repeat the procedure until the desirable height was reached. Tamping
was done by hand during that time period using a long ramming pole.
Each layer was poured to seven inches before pushed down to five
inches. Once the finished section of the wall was strong enough to stand
on its own, the formwork would be removed and use it again for the next
section of the Great Wall. The difference between the Ming dynasty and
the previous dynasty is that layers of rammed earth were much larger
than in the previous dynasty. For instance, the layer of rammed earth was
five in the Qin and Han dynasties, while it was eight inches in the Ming
dynasty (Hanbury-Tenison 1987:pp. 45-46) (Luo et al. 1981:134). The logic
behind this theory is that many of the Ming structures still exist today, and
we can tell by examining them that it was built using the rammed earth
techniques mentioned above.
Planning and Design:
The towers were built at the peak of the mountain so military
communication could be seen. As previously stated, the designers and
planners of the Great Wall used the idea of “following the terrain” to save
labor, material, and cost. See figure 7 for clarification. The logical reason
to support the theory is that a civil engineering expert could see the Great
36
Wall in the narrow edges of the mountains and they would deduced that
these ideas were used to save labor, material, and cost.
Figure 7: 3D Structure of the Great Wall at Coordinate 40.350449,
116.003181 (Google Earth 2012)
3.4 Conclusion
Please see the two tables (Table 1 and Table 2) below. It is data
collected from the literature review and the author’s research. It
summarized everything described above in this chapter. The data is used
in fuzzy logic, the intelligent system and the multi-media system in the next
few chapters.
37
Pre Ming dynasty
Labor Force
38
Beijing
Gansu
Hebei
Badaling
Dunhuang
Laiyuan County
guards, farmers, and prisoners
guards, farmers, and prisoners
separate and divide up tasks
between city and city
sand and pebbles and tamarisk
twigs and reeds
man, simple tools and animals
separate and divide up tasks
from city to city
rocks and mortar and dried
mud and rice flour
man, simple tools and animals
sand and pebbles sandwiched
with twigs and reeds
unknown
rammed earth (inside layer)
stones (outside)
form a line to carry materials
built on flat surfaces
tower built top of mountain
guards, farmers, and
prisoners
Construction
separate and divide up
Management tasks from city to city
Material
mud bricks, rice flour for
mortar
Transportation man, simple tools and
animals
Construction
rammed earth (inside
Techniques
layer) bricks (outside)
form a line to carry
materials
Planning and tower built top of
Design
mountain
Table 1: Data of Pre Ming dynasty
38
Ming dynasty
Labor Force
39
Beijing
Gansu
Hebei
Badaling
Near Dunhuang
Laiyuan County
guards, farmers, and prisoners
guards, farmers, and prisoners
separate and divide up tasks from
city to city
sand and pebbles and tamarisk
twigs and reeds
wheelbarrows, man, simple tools
and animals
Rammed earth (inside layer)
bricks(outside)
unknown
separate and divide up tasks
from city to city
rocks and mortar and dried
mud and rice flour
wheelbarrows, man, simple
tools and animals
rammed earth (inside layer)
stones (outside)
form a line to carry materials
built on flat surfaces
tower built top of mountain
guards, farmers, and
prisoners
Construction
separate and divide up
Management tasks from city to city
Material
fire kiln bricks, rice flour for
mortar
Transportation wheelbarrows, man,
simple tools and animals
Construction
rammed earth (inside
Techniques
layer) bricks (outside)
form a line to carry
materials
Planning and tower built top of
Design
mountain
Table 2: Data of Ming dynasty
39
CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW OF THE COMPUTER PROGRAMS
4.1 Introduction
The computer programs developed by the author of this report are
to provide information on the time period of constructing the Great Wall
of China using fuzzy logic, and Knowledge-Based Expert System. There are
three C# programs in this report. They are “Evaluation of the Great Wall
Using Fuzzy Set”, “Fuzzy Modus Ponens Deduction (MPD) on the
Construction Method of the Great Wall Of China” and “The Great Wall
Intelligent Multi-Media System”. The specific details and results on the
Great Wall are presented by the programs as long as the end user can
answer specific question asked by the program. However, if the end user
provides an inaccurate response, then the program will present a
meaningless result to the end user.
4.2 Program Usage and Limitation
The Knowledge-Based Expert System (KBES) system is used for the
heuristic part of this research. The two fuzzy systems are used for the
linguistic part of this research. The second part of the fuzzy system, “Fuzzy
MPD on the Construction Method of the Great Wall Of China”, acts like a
piggyback to the first fuzzy system, “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using
Fuzzy Set” when the first system experiences difficulties or the results are
40
unclear. For instance, if two extreme ends overlap each other in the
“Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set”, then the results are
indeterminate or ambiguous. The MPD system may be used in this case
because MPD is a rotational model so it would remove ambiguity from the
overlapping problem (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan,
2012). Like the limitation section of this report, the programs created by
the author are limited to the time period from the Warring States era to
the Ming Dynasty. The programs do not evaluate any renovation of the
Great Wall after the Ming Dynasty except for a small part in the intelligent
system “The Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System”. Furthermore, all
programs created by the author are limited to Beijing, Hebei and Gansu
province.
4.3 End User’s Knowledge
Since the computer programs do not evaluate the Great Wall after
the Ming Dynasty except for the KBES system, the end user must have a
clear understanding of the structure for the post Ming Dynasty era. For
example, since concrete was not available from the Warring States era to
the Ming Dynasty and if concrete is found in the Great Wall, then it is
obvious that the renovation was done after the Ming Dynasty ended.
Also, some programs use fuzzy logic. While the end user is not required to
understand the concept of fuzzy logic (fuzzy logic is explained in this
41
report), he or she must have clear knowledge of the construction used for
the Great Wall. Much of this knowledge is provided throughout the
literature search section of the report and it is needed to answer questions
asked by the computer programs.
4.4 Conclusion
The computer programs created by the author are used to help
answer questions on the timeline of the construction of the Great Wall of
China. The programs do have limitation; just like the limitations of this
research. With the end user’s proper knowledge, the program would
provide an accurate answer on many aspects of the Great Wall. After
using these programs, the end user should be able to distinguish the
differences between the pre-Ming Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty
construction of the Great Wall.
42
CHAPTER: 5 DECISION TREE
5.1 Introduction to the Decision Tree
A decision tree is a decision support tool that employs a tree-like
chart or model of decisions and their possible outcomes (Schreiber 1982:
pp. 115-120). In this research, the end user starts off by selecting which
aspects of construction of the Great Wall of China are interesting to them.
After a few decisions, the outcomes are Ming, pre-Ming and post-Ming.
These outcomes are the approximate timeline for the Great Wall of China
and is built based on the user’s inputs.
The decision tree is chosen for this research because it is very easy
to comprehend and the results are easy to interpret. It also explains how
the author of this report came up with the results in his multi-media system
program. Lastly, the decision tree is needed for debugging the author’s
knowledge.
The intended audience for the decision tree is any end user who
wants to know how the author of this report came up with the results in his
program.
The decision tree is used when there are many facts and the author
wants to separate them to make them simpler to understand.
43
The author of this report created the decision tree using several
programs. They are Microsoft Excel® and Microsoft Paint®. The end user
can view the decision tree using Microsoft Words®, Microsoft Paint®, or
Microsoft Visual C#. The requirements for Microsoft Visual C# are 600 MHz
processor, 192 RAM of memory, 1 GB of space and 800 X 600, 256 colors
of graphic . It could operate on Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows
Server 2003, or Windows Vista. (http://msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/4c26cc39(v=vs.80).aspx).
5.2 The Decision Tree for this Research
The decision tree for this research is shown on figure 8.
44
Figure 8: Decision Tree from Excel
In this research, there are three possible outcomes with seven
different paths. Some paths share the same outcomes.
All paths begin when the system asks which aspect of construction
the user is interested in. If the user picks construction method, then the
system asks if rammed earth was used. If the end user picks yes, saying
that rammed earth was used, then the system would ask if the layer of the
45
rammed earth is eight inches. If the user selects yes, then the outcome is
that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty era.
For the second path, if the user picks construction method, then the
system asks if rammed earth was used. If the end user picks yes, saying
that rammed earth was used, then the system would ask if the layer of the
rammed earth is eight inches. If the user selects no, then the outcome is
that the structure is from the pre Ming Dynasty era.
The third path branches out when the user picks construction
method, then answers that rammed earth was not used. For this case the
outcome is that the structure is post Ming Dynasty.
For the fourth path when the system asks which aspect of
construction the user is interested in, if the user picks transportation then
the system asks if wheelbarrows were used. If the end user picks yes,
saying that wheelbarrows were used, then the outcome is that the
structure is from the Ming Dynasty era.
The fifth path is when the user picks transportation and the system
asks if wheelbarrows were used. If the end user picks no, wheelbarrows
were not used, then the outcome is that the structure is from the pre Ming
Dynasty era.
The sixth path has the user picking material and the system asks if
fire bricks were used. If the end user picks yes, saying that fire bricks were
used, then the outcome is that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty era.
46
The last path is when the system asks which aspect of construction
that the user is interested in. If the user picks material, then the system asks
if fire bricks were used. If the end user picks no saying that fire bricks were
not used, then the outcome is that the structure is from the pre Ming
Dynasty era. Refer back to figure 8 for the completed diagram.
5.3 Conclusion to the Decision Tree
The decision Tree is a great tool for the end user to understand how
the author came up with the results in his program. This tool is simple and
very easy to understand, following brief instructions on how to use it. The
end user would get a clearer understanding of the research. Lastly, the
decision tree is needed for debugging the author’s knowledge. Therefore,
decision tree is helpful for both the user and the author. The author of this
report acquired the decision tree knowledge from “Using Event Trees and
Fault Trees” (Schreiber 1982: pp. 115-120) and used the knowledge for the
research in this chapter.
47
CHAPTER 6: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
6.1 Introduction to the Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of technology and the
branch of computer science that intends to create a program or
machine that can think like a human. It attempts to represent the
knowledge, reasoning, and decision making process of a human. There
are many parts of AI. The main ones are knowledge –based expert system
(KBES), neural network, fuzzy system, pattern recognition, voice
recognition and others. The author of this report uses only the knowledge –
based expert system (KBES) and the fuzzy system to make his Artificial
Intelligence program (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2011)
(Turban et al. 2005: pp. 540-541).
The Artificial Intelligence is chosen for this research because it is
used in the absence of an expert for the end user. Because the expert
may not always be there, the Artificial Intelligence program would act as
the expert for the end user who wants to acquire knowledge about a
certain subject, in this case the Great Wall of China.
The Artificial Intelligence program is intended for any end user who
wants to acquire the knowledge of a certain subject. This could be a
novice engineer.
48
The Artificial Intelligence program can be used when users could
answer some of the basic questions asked by the Artificial Intelligence. All
the questions are binary, meaning its answer is either a YES or a No.
The author used Microsoft Visual C# 2008 for his Artificial Intelligence
program. The requirements for the Microsoft Visual C# are for 600 MHz
processor, 192 RAM of memory, 1 GB of space and 800 X 600, 256 colors of
graphic. It could operate on Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server
2003, or Windows Vista. (http://msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/4c26cc39(v=vs.80).aspx). He also used Microsoft Words®,
Microsoft Excel® and Microsoft PowerPoint® as well for his AI program.
6.2 Knowledge–Based Expert System (KBES)
The knowledge–based expert system (KBES) is a concept with the
purpose of utilizing a developed computer program to attempt to
represent the knowledge, reasoning, and decision making of an expert.
This program is heuristic-based programming meaning that it makes its
decisions and acquire its knowledge based on experience, rule-ofthumbs, educated guesses, expert judgment and other methods. For
example, the knowledge-based expert system (KBES) uses IF-THEN
statements such as IF the layer of the rammed earth is eight inches, THEN
the structure is from the Ming Dynasty time era. The heuristic-based
program is different from traditional programs, they are numerical-based.
A numeral based program is programming that uses mathematic or
49
statistical analyses. The advantage of the knowledge–based expert
system (KBES) over the traditional programs is that an answer may be
produced without complete data, while with a traditional program it
cannot. The disadvantage of the knowledge–based expert system (KBES)
is that an answer may not always be correct. The knowledge–based
expert system (KBES) can clarify its answer by giving the reasoning and
logic behind the response while traditional programs cannot clarify using
logic. The knowledge–based expert system (KBES) provides ability to
inspect the knowledge base without any problems, while with traditional
programs, it may be difficult to examine the enclosed knowledge. Lastly,
the development team includes domain experts in knowledge–based
expert system (KBES) while traditional programs are often programmed in
separation from domain experts and users (Personal Communication with
Dr. Fabian Tan, 2011)(Turban et al. 2005: pp. 541-549).
6.2.1 Architecture of the KBES
There are ten components in the KBES system. They are User, User
Interface, Explanation Facility, Inference Mechanism, Knowledge
Base/Production Rule, Video, Audio and Pictures Interface, Knowledge
Acquisition, Update Facility, Short-Term Memory and Expert. See the
diagram (figure 9) for a complete breakdown. The explanation of each
working component is explained below (Turban et al. 2005: pp. 554-555).
6.2.2 The Knowledge Base
50
The purpose of the knowledge base is a component of a KBES is to
serve as a storeroom for the facts and the rules (Turban et al. 2005: 556).
The facts are statements that the relation of a set of objects is true. Some
examples of facts in this research are:

Because a construction method is needed when building the
structure, the structure may come from pre Ming, Ming or post Ming
Dynasty.

Because rammed earth was used, the structure may come from
either pre Ming or Ming dynasty.

Since rammed earth is being used and the layer of the rammed
earth is eight inches, the structure is from the Ming Dynasty era.
Production rules are statements that some facts are true provided that
another set of facts is true. Production rules use IF-THEN statements (Turban
et al. 2005: 604). Some examples of production rules in this research are:

IF the method is always presented when building the structure, THEN
the structure may come from pre Ming, Ming or post Ming Dynasty
(preliminary conclusion).

IF rammed earth was used, THEN the structure may come from
either pre Ming or Ming dynasty (preliminary conclusion).

IF rammed earth is being used and the layer of the rammed earth is
eight inches, THEN the structure is come from the Ming Dynasty era
(final conclusion).
51
6.2.3 The Inference Engine
The inference engine is a component of KBES that uses known
knowledge in the Knowledge Base to come up with a conclusion from the
known facts (Turban et al. 2005: 558). These known facts come from the
Expert, the author of this report. The inference engine is the “brain” of the
system. The inference engine performs the several major tasks. First, it
would select the rules from matching the input of the users. Then, it would
assess the rules. Next, it would come up with new facts based on the rules.
It also recovers the facts from the Knowledge Base and User Input. Finally,
it would generate the answer to the user’s input regardless of whether the
data is complete or not.
6.2.3.1 The ‘How’ of the Inference Engine
The inference engine can perform the major tasks listed above, just like
a human, by using forward chaining and backward chaining. Forward
chaining repeatedly evaluates the presented facts with rules and outputs
rules whose premises are reliable and based on facts. For example:

IF c THEN d

IF d THEN e

IF a THEN b

IF b then c
So given the rules above, if the user inputs ‘a’, then the solution would be
‘e’. If the user inputs ‘c’, the answer would be ‘e’.
52
Backward chaining repeatedly evaluates rules assuming that the THEN
statement is true and working backwards to determine if the IF statement
is true. This is opposite of the forward chaining. In same example above, if
the user inputs ‘c’, then the solution would be ‘a’. However, if the user
selects ‘a’, then no answer will be provided because no rules are
available to define ‘a’ (Turban et al. 2005: pp. 558-559).
6.2.4 The Short Term Memory
The short term memory is a component of the KBES that stores facts
from the end users. It stores active or problem specific knowledge. It also
holds user’s inputs to the questions asked by the program. Lastly, the Short
Term Memory holds other temporary data produced by the program
(Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2011).
6.2.5 The Explanation Facility
The explanation facility is a component of the KBES that explains the
“why” of the conclusion. The explanation facility performs several tasks.
First, it recovers the available rules. After, it gives the knowledge structure
and hierarchy frames. For instance, this research is inductive (prognostic)
based, and thus it uses the decision true. The explanation facility then
allows the expert to check the system’s explanation for coming up with
the conclusion. Lastly, it has the capability to translate Abbreviated Rule
Language and Production Rule Language (IF-THEN rules) to Basic English
language (Turban et al. 2005: 557).
53
6.2.6 The User Interface
The user interface is a component of the KBES that gives a way for
the end users to interact with the computer program more effectively. This
can be done by making the input more user friendly, more efficient by not
having redundancy, and more simple and helpful options on the
computer program. The computer program should output the same
criteria listed above for the input plus the correct, complete, and
expandable conclusion (Turban et al. 2005: 556).
6.2.7 The Knowledge Acquisition
The knowledge acquisition is a component of the KBES that is a
subset of the knowledge base. It assists the expansion and maintenance
of the knowledge base. The knowledge acquisition completes several
tasks. It obtains knowledge from the expert, builds knowledge structure,
and develops knowledge representation and the knowledge base
(Turban et al. 2005: pp. 555-556).
6.2.8 Video, Audio, and Pictures Interface
Video, Audio, and Pictures Interface is an optional component of
the KBES that makes it more user friendly for the end user. The component
also makes the computer program more artificially intelligent, more
human, by making the computer system able to talk to the end user.
There are sound files embedded in the program that contain a voice that
speaks whatever conclusions and explanations the system draws out.
54
There are pictures and videos in this system to help the end user get a
better understanding of the topic.
6.2.9 The Stages of Developing the KBES
1. Perform feasibility study to see why KBES is superior to other
quantitative or qualitative simulations such as traditional
programming. It is also needed to see what the scope and
limitations of effort are (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian
Tan, 2011).
2. Select an expert who is well-known in his field, recognized by their
peers or organization, and experienced in the domain subject area
(Turban et al. 2005: pp. 549-550). It is better to be specialized in one
area than have general knowledge as a whole. For instance, it is
better to find an expert who specialized in construction
management than a general civil engineering expert if the problem
is construction related, even though the general civil engineering
expert has some background in construction. Individuals may assess
the expert based on the self evaluation, number of years in the
field, and peer or well known organization recognition. In civil
engineering, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) is a
good example of a well-known organization.
55
3. Develop the architecture of a KBES by changing the interview
language to natural language. Then translate the natural language
to symbolic language (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian
Tan, 2011).
4. Acquire knowledge from the experts and/or reliable literature. There
are three types of knowledge engineers. They are Knowledge
Elicitors who are experts in communication, have strong
interpersonal skills, and a high cognitive ability. The second type of
knowledge engineers is the knowledge modelers. They are very
logical, and specialize in system, network, and data structure. The
last type of knowledge engineers is the knowledge programmers.
They typically have an advanced degree in computer science
engineering and are proficient in software development, software
documentation and software maintenance. These three types of
engineers are needed to acquire knowledge from for the KBES
program. Interviews may be conducted to acquire knowledge from
the expert. There are two types of interviews, unstructured and
structured (Turban et al. 2005: pp. 587-588). The unstructured
interviews are general in nature. For instance, the interviewer would
ask questions like; when, what, why, and how something might
occur. A presentation is shown by both the experts and Knowledge
Engineers. A general question-and-answer session may occur after
56
the presentation. The structured interview is an interview where the
interviewer asks more specific questions. The answers to the
questions are used to determine primary variables and secondary
variables. For example, the primary variable in this research are
platforms of the Great Wall, characteristics of Great Wall structure
from the Ming Dynasty, causes for construction of the Great Wall
and a few others. The secondary variables are to determine what
the players, politics, cultural stories and other influences were. The
answers would also determine the relationship between the
variables. Questionnaires may be used to reduce the risk of a
misunderstanding. It also adds knowledge in a different way. The
questionnaires check with experts and literature and remember
answers from the experience (Personal Communication with Dr.
Fabian Tan, 2011).
5. Construct knowledge structure. The four major knowledge structures
are the fault trees, event trees, table look-up and knowledge trees.
The fault trees are used for deductive and diagnostic reasoning. The
event trees are used for inductive reasoning and design projects.
The table look-up is used for inductive and design projects, just like
the event trees. The knowledge trees are for both inductive and
deductive reasoning (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan,
2011).
57
6. Represent knowledge by using IF-THEN statement. Knowledge
Representation (KR) is also recognized as the “heart” of KBES. IF is
the “condition”, and this condition contains facts that may, or may
not be true. THEN is the “action”. When IF and THEN combined
together, it progresses from IF (condition is true) to THEN (perform
action X). In the research example, IF wheelbarrows were used in
the construction, THEN the structure is from the Ming Dynasty. One
may also use frame-based to represent knowledge. It acts like
object oriented programming in computer science. There is a
parent frame and a child frame. The child inherits common
properties from the parent. This is used to reduce programming
code and reduce error (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian
Tan, 2011).
7. Develop the Knowledge Base by using Production Rule Language
(PRL). PRL are languages using IF-THEN statements (Personal
Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2011). For instance, IF firebricks
were not used in the construction, THEN the structure came from the
pre Ming Dynasty (final conclusion).
8. Test the knowledge base by seeing if the computer program was
built correctly. This can be done by asking if the design achieved its
requirements. One may also see if the detailed design
58
accomplishes design goals. Next, the developer of the program
should check if the code reaches detailed design. Furthermore, he
should make any corrections in the code to match the language
syntax. One also needs to validate the knowledge base by asking if
it is the right system. This can be done by comparing inferences with
historic data. Also, one should check if the system can reproduce
parts of the historic or empirical data (incomplete data). Lastly, test
the knowledge base by evaluating the KB to see if the system is
valuable. One can evaluate the system by checking if it is user
friendly. It would also be necessary to check if the results produced
from the system are correct and logical. Lastly, check to see if other
developers can maintain the problem for future uses (Personal
Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2011).
9. Perform Test Run procedures on the system by testing every possible
outcome produced by the system. It is similar to the video game
developers who test a video game (final product) before they
release it to the public. This also known as the Operational and
Testing (O/T) (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2011).
59
Figure 9: AI Architecture
6.3 “The Great Wall of China EXpert”
“The Great Wall of China EXpert” is created by the author using Artificial
Intelligence knowledge from above section. It is embedded in the MultiMedia System.
Architecture of the Intelligent System:
The architecture of “The Great Wall of China EXpert” is shown on figure 10.
60
Figure 10: Architecture of the Author's Intelligent System
The user interface is for users to communicate with the intelligent
system. The input criteria are very user friendly. It uses Basic English and
short sentences. When the user inputs his or her answer, the system will
evaluate and come up with either a preliminary conclusion or a final
conclusion using the knowledge base (IF-THEN rule) and the inference
engine. The system has a knowledge base of facts and rules. For instance,
the structure is from the Ming Dynasty era when each layer of the
61
rammed earth is eight inches. The knowledge base would change the
knowledge into production rules (i.e. if the layer of the rammed earth is
eight inches, then the structure is from the Ming Dynasty). The inference
engine uses the known knowledge in the knowledge base and comes up
with a conclusion. The system mainly uses forward chaining (series of
MPDS). The system also has video, audio and pictures interface to make it
see, more human. It has update facility and knowledge acquisition. Lastly,
the system has the explanation facility where it explains to users “why” the
system comes up with the conclusion, for instance, in the case of IF the
layer of the rammed earth is eight inches, THEN the structure is from the
Ming Dynasty; the explanation for the rule is that workers in Ming Dynasty
make the rammed earth layer taller than the pre-Ming dynasty (the layer
of the rammed earth is 5 inches during Qin and Han) because there is an
advancement of technology, better protection from invaders and other
factors.
6.3.1 Knowledge Structure of “The Great Wall of China EXpert”
The knowledge structure starts out with a welcome screen. It will
then go to Question One by clicking a button. The system will come up
with a preliminary conclusion and Question Two based on the user’s
answer for the first questions. If the user picks the wheelbarrows or the fire
bricks in Question One, the answer to Question Two will lead to a final
conclusion. If the user picks rammed earth in Question One, the answer to
62
Question Two will lead to a preliminary or a final conclusion based on the
answer of Question Two. If the user picks YES in Question Two of the
rammed earth, then he will be asked Question Three and the answer to
Question Three will lead to a final conclusion. Please see the diagram
below (figure 11) for complete details. Also, see chapter 9 of the
multimedia system for completed detail of the knowledge structure of
“The Great Wall of China EXpert”.
Figure 11: Test Path from Intelligent System
63
6.3.2 Knowledge Base

Because a construction method is needed when building the
structure, the structure may come from pre Ming, Ming or post Ming
Dynasty.

Because rammed earth was used, the structure may come from
either pre Ming or Ming dynasty.

Since rammed earth is being used and the layer of the rammed
earth is eight inches, the structure is from the Ming Dynasty.

Since rammed earth is being used and the layer of the rammed
earth is not eight inches, the structure came from pre Ming Dynasty.

The structure is post Ming Dynasty when rammed earth was not
used.

Because the workers transported material during construction, it
could come from pre Ming or Ming Dynasty.

For the structure using wheelbarrows as a means of transportation of
material, one concludes that the structure came from the Ming
Dynasty.

Since wheelbarrows were not used as means of transporting the
material, it proves that the structure came from the pre Ming
Dynasty.

Since material was used in the construction, so the structure may
come from the Ming or pre Ming Dynasty.
64

If firebricks were used, it proves that the structure came from the
Ming Dynasty.

Because firebricks were not used in the construction, the structure
came from the pre Ming Dynasty.
The intelligent system has knowledge from the Knowledge Base and
turns them into Production Rule using indicators like since, therefore,
because and others. For example, in case 1 above, BECAUSE means IF
and THEREFORE means THEN. So the translation of case 1 is IF a method is
always presented when building the structure, THEN the structure may
come from pre Ming, Ming or post Ming Dynasty.
Production Rule:

IF a method is always presented when building the structure, THEN
the structure may come from pre Ming, Ming or post Ming Dynasty
(preliminary conclusion).

IF rammed earth was used, THEN the structure may come from
either pre Ming or Ming dynasty (preliminary conclusion).

IF rammed earth is being used and the layer of the rammed earth is
eight inches, THEN the structure came from the Ming Dynasty (final
conclusion).

IF rammed earth is being used and the layer of the rammed earth is
not eight inches, THEN the structure came from the pre Ming
Dynasty era (final conclusion).
65

IF rammed earth was not used, THEN the structure came from the
post Ming Dynasty era (final conclusion).

IF transporting material was done when constructing a structure,
THEN it could come from pre Ming or the Ming Dynasty (preliminary
conclusion).

IF the structure used wheelbarrows as a means of transportation of
material, THEN the structure came from the Ming Dynasty (final
conclusion).

IF wheelbarrows were not used as a means of transporting the
material, THEN the structure came from pre Ming Dynasty (final
conclusion).

IF certain materials were used in the construction, THEN the structure
may come from the Ming or pre Ming Dynasty (preliminary
conclusion).

IF firebricks were used, THEN the structure came from the Ming
Dynasty (final conclusion).

IF firebricks were not used in the construction, THEN the structure
came from the pre Ming Dynasty (final conclusion).
6.4 Conclusion to Artificial Intelligence and “The Great Wall of China
EXpert”
Artificial Intelligence is an excellent tool that is for the end user to
use when an expert is not present. Because the expert may not always be
66
there, the Artificial Intelligence program would act as the expert for the
end user who wants to acquire knowledge about a certain subject, in this
case the Great Wall of China. “The Great Wall of China EXpert” was
created by the author of this report using Artificial Intelligence. “The Great
Wall of China EXpert” is embedded in the Multi-Media System. See
Chapter 9 of this report for the Multi-Media program. The author of this
report learned about Artificial Intelligence from Dr. Fabian C. Hadipriono
“Toward the Development of an Expert System for erecting Concrete
Bridge (Experect)” (Sekii & Hadipriono 1993: pp. 157-170) and used the
knowledge for the research in this chapter. The author also acquired AI
knowledge from “Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems” by
Turban, Aronson and Liang (Turban et al. 2005: pp. 538-569). Lastly, the
author had personal communication with Dr. Fabian Tan to acquire some
of the information presented in this chapter (Personal Communication
with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2012).
67
CHAPTER 7 FUZZY SET CONCEPTS
7.1 Introduction to the “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set”
program
“Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set” is a 2008 Microsoft
Visual C# program developed by the author of this report for his research
as the first part of the fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is used as a part of the
Artificial Intelligence program.
The program, “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set”, is
developed for this research because the author of this report uses fuzzy
set concepts to compensate for the fact that researching the history of
the Great Wall was not binary logic, meaning it is not completely black
and white, or true or not true (Turban et al. 2005: 548). There is fuzzy logic
and probability because many of the historical records were destroyed
during this time period. There is no absolute meaning of “somewhat true”
or “very likely”, unless one puts values to those statements. With a fuzzy set
concept, the author is able to describe what it means by “somewhat
true” by assigning a numeric value to it, similar to probability, to measure
the statement. The program is developed to focus on the three variables
of the Great Wall, the quality of the material, the performance and the
likelihood that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty time period. Further
68
explanation of the use of fuzzy logic may be found in chapter 12 of
“Decision Support System s and Intelligent System” by Turban, Aronson
and Liang (Turban et al. 2005: pp. 685-693).
The “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set” program is
intended for any end user who would like to know the relative strength of
the material found in the Great Wall and how it relates to the likelihood of
that the material being from the Ming Dynasty, using a probability-like
value. Based on the end user’s rating of the material and performance,
the program will evaluate and display the material membership values
and the graph based off the material versus the likelihood that the
structure is from the Ming Dynasty.
The “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set” program is used
when the end user knows the rating of the material found in the Great
Wall. He must be able to distinguish between Very High, High, Medium,
Low and Very Low for the material. The end user also needs to know the
rating of the performance of the Great Wall. He must be able to
distinguish between Very Good, Good, Fair, Poor and Very Poor for the
performance.
The Fuzzy Set Concept Program can be used on any Mac or PC
computer that supports Microsoft Visual C# 2008. The requirements for PC
are 600 MHz processor, 192 RAM of memory, 1 GB of space and 800 X 600,
256 colors of graphic . It could operate on Windows 2000, Windows XP,
69
Windows Server 2003, or Windows Vista. (http://msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/4c26cc39(v=vs.80).aspx) Please search online for Mac
requirements.
7.2 Introduction to the Fuzzy Set Concept
The fuzzy set is based on the matrix concepts in mathematics. The
matrix is 11 by 11, starting with 0 to 1.0 f values. There are two parts to the f
values. These first f value (x) corresponds with the location of material,
performance, and likelihood of Ming Dynasty in the matrix, while the
second values (f(x)) is assigned to correspond with the rating of the
material, the performance, and the likelihood of Ming Dynasty in the
matrix. The f(x) value is assigned based on the expert’s opinion (the author
of this report) using logic, such as “the stronger the brick the more likely it is
from the Ming Dynasty”. See table 3 and figure 12 below for the location
and assigned value (f(x)).
70
71
Material
Performance
From Ming Dynasty
Values (f)
Very High
Very Good
Very Likely
.8/.42 .9/.90 1/1
High
Good
Likely
.8/.65 .9/.95 1/1
Medium
Fair
Somewhat Likely
.3/.65 .4/.95 .5/1 .6/.95 .7/.65
Low
Poor
Unlikely
0/1 .1/.95 .2/.65
Very Low
Very Poor
Very Unlikely
0/1 .1/.90 .2/.42
Table 3: Location and Assigned Value f(x)
71
72
Figure 12: C# version (from Intelligent System) of the Location and Assigned Value f(x)
72
Once the end user selects his or her rating of the material and
performance, the program will first compare those assigned values (f(x))
to its location. The program will take the minimum values of those values
and save it internally. Next, those values are placed in the matrix if the
user asks the program to do so. If they overlap, then the program will take
the maximum of the overlap values. The program will do it for both
matrices (material vs. performance and performance vs. Ming Dynasty).
Once the two matrices are completed (material vs. performance and
performance vs. Ming Dynasty), the program will combine those two
matrices by multiplication just like in mathematics, for a final matrix
(material vs. Ming Dynasty). In this case the programs will multiply the two
matrices by taking the maximum of all of the minimum values (taking
minimum values between the compared assigned row and the assigned
column), just like multiplying matrix in mathematics. For example,
multiplying a matrix in math means taking the minimum values in fuzzy
logic, while adding a matrix in math means taking the maximum value.
The author will go over mathematics matrix later in this report, please refer
to below section. Finally, the membership values to the material (T(x)) are
found by taking the maximum of each column from the final matrix
(material versus Ming Dynasty). The final graph will be produce based on
the membership values (T(x)) to show the rating of the strength of the
73
material based on the likelihood that the structure is from the Ming
Dynasty time period.
7.2.1 The Fuzzy Set Variables
As the author stated above, there are three variables to compare
from the author’s research topic for this program. They are Material,
Performance and From Ming Dynasty. The first two relations are examined
with three independent events. The events are “Strength of bricks” (E1),
“Strength of mortar” (E2) and “Presence of large rocks” (E3). For each of
the events in Material, the end user will select the rating of Very High, High,
Medium, Low or Very Low. Based the table (figure 13) below, it will show
how the event in Material relates to the Performance.
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Figure 13: Table 1 & 2 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
For example, if the end user selects Very High for the strength of the
bricks (E1), strength of the mortar (E2) or present of large rocks (E3), then
the Performance is Very Good.
After the first two relations are examined, the program will examine
the last two relations (Performance and From Ming Dynasty) with three
independent events. The events are “Technology in tools” (E4), “Skill of
workers” (E5) and “Skill of engineers” (E6). For each of the event in
Performance, the end user will select the rating of Very Good, Good, Fair,
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Poor or Very Poor. Based the table (see figure 14) below, it will show how
the event in Performance relates to the likelihood that the structure is from
the Ming Dynasty time period.
Figure 14: Table 1 & 2 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
If the end user selects Very Good for “Technology in tools” (E4), “Skill
of workers” (E5) or “Skill of engineers” (E6), then it is very likely the structure
is from the Ming Dynasty.
7.3 Instruction on using “Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set”
Program
To begin, the user may review the Table 1, 2 and 3 switch tabs for
fuzzy relations and its assigned values as described above. The user must
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then select the Table 4 & 5 switch tab on top of the program. The user
then has to select the rating for Material and Performance in the screen
below. The user has the choice of Very High, High, Medium, Low and Very
Low for Material and the choice of Very Good, Good, Fair, Poor and Very
Poor for Performance. After the user makes his or her choice, he or she
must push the “Execute” button to see the relationship for Performance
(based on Material) and the likelihood that the structure is from the Ming
Dynasty (based on Performance). Please see figure 15 below.
Figure 15: Table 4 & 5 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
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Next, the end user needs to click on the “Eq. 1” switch tab to see
the empty matrix for Material vs. Performance. The user then has to click
on the “Calculate” button to see the result. The result came from the
ratings in “Table 4 & 5” previous section. Please note that an empty
textbox in the matrix after clicking on the “Calculate” button means it is
zero (please see figure 16).
Figure 16: Equation 1 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
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The end user should continue onto the next section by clicking the
“Eq.2” switch tab. The “Eq.2” displays the empty matrix for Performance
vs. From Ming Dynasty. Once again, the end user must click on
“Calculate” to see the results. The results came from the rating in “Table 4
and 5” that the user made earlier. Please note that an empty textbox in
the matrix after clicking on the “Calculate” button means it is zero (please
see figure 17).
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Figure 17: Equation 2 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
The end user should proceed to “Eq. 3” by clicking on the switch
tab. “Eq. 3” is the empty matrix on Material vs. From Ming Dynasty. The
user has to click on “Calculate” to see the results in the matrix. Please note
that an empty textbox in the matrix after clicking on the “Calculate”
button means it is zero (please see figure 18).
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Figure 18: Equation 3 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
Next, the end user has to click on “Eq. 4” switch tab for the
membership values T(x). The end user needs to click the “Calculate”
button to show the final output T(x) (please see figure 19).
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Figure 19: Equation 4 of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
The end user needs to click on the “Graph” switch tab to see an
empty graph. Once the user clicks the “Draw Graph” button, the final
graph will appear based on the rating that the user selected in “Table 4 &
5” (please see figure 20).
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Figure 20: Graph of the Evaluation of the Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set
The user may always go back and start the program over by
clicking the “Clear Graph” and “Clear” buttons on each of the switch
tabs. Extra examples of different inputs and outputs of this program are in
the Appendix A: Fuzzy Set, MPD and AI Program Images.
7.4 How to Interpret the Results
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Once the Tx and a final graph are provided, one can interpret the
result by examining and matching with the Table 3 tab. For example, if the
Tx and the graph match the two figures below, then it is a “Very Low” to
“Fair” strength material (please see figure 21 and figure 22).
Figure 21: Tx of "Very Low" to "Fair" Strength Material
Figure 22: Graph of "Very Low" to "Fair" Strength Material
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If the Tx and the graph match the two figures below, then it is a
“Fair” strength material (please see figure 23 and figure 24).
Figure 23: "Fair" Strength Material
Figure 24: Graph of "Fair" Strength Material
If the Tx and the graph match the two figures below, then it is a
“Fair” to “Very High” strength material (please see figure 25 and figure 26).
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Figure 25: "Fair" to "Very High" Strength Material
Figure 26: Graph of "Fair" to "Very High" Strength Material
Also, to make known the results, without comparing the graphs, one can
interpret the results by the using the following rules:

If the plot is in the middle, then it is “Fair” Strength Material.

If the plot is to the left, then it is "Very Low" to "Fair" Strength Material.

If the plot is to the right, then it is "Fair" to "Very High" Strength
Material.
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7.5 Multiplication Operation in Matrix (Mathematic)
The rule for multiplying between two matrices--let’s assign them A
and B- to get a final matrix (C) is
Cij = Ai1* B1j + Ai2* B2j + Ai3* B3j + ... Aim* Bnj
For example:
The equation works as long as the number of columns in matrix A is
equal to the number of row in matrix B. For example, a matrix of [3 x 5]
multiplied by a matrix of [5 x 7] would get a matrix of [3 x 7]. The 5 columns
in the first matrix match with the 5 rows in the second matrix. If the number
of columns in matrix A does not match to the number of rows in matrix B,
then multiplying the two matrices cannot be done.
The Explanation of ‘why’ use Multiplication Operation in the Matrix
Multiplying the two matrices is needed is because the end user can
cancel the middle variable. Performance is the middle variable that
needs to be canceled in this case. Please see figure below (please see
figure 27). M stands for Material, P stands for Performance and Ming
stands for the likelihood that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty time
period.
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Figure 27: Cancellation of Variable in Multiplication of Matrix
7.6 Conclusion to the Fuzzy Set Concept Program
The “Evaluation Of The Great Wall Using Fuzzy Set” program is an
excellent tool to determine the relationship between the material and the
likelihood that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty. The program does
require that the end user have knowledge of six events. The user must be
able to rate these events in order to get an accurate result. The author of
this report learned the fuzzy set concepts knowledge from Dr. Fabian C.
Hadipriono’s “Assessment of Falsework Performance Using Fuzzy Set
Concepts” (Hadipriono 1985: pp. 47-57) and used the knowledge for the
research in this chapter. The author also had personal communication
with Dr. Fabian Tan to acquire some of the information presented in this
chapter (Personal Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2012).
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CHAPTER 8 FUZZY MODUS PONENS DEDUCTION
8.1 Introduction to the “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” Program
The program, “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the Great
Wall of China”, is a 2008 Microsoft Visual C# program created by the
author of this report for his research, and acts as the second part of the
fuzzy logic process. Fuzzy logic is used as a part of the Artificial Intelligence
program. For further review of the use of fuzzy logic, please refer to
chapter 12 of “Decision Support System s and Intelligent System” by
Turban, Aronson and Liang (Turban et al. 2005: pp. 685-693).
The “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the Great Wall of
China” program is developed in this research because the author of this
report uses fuzzy modus ponens deduction to balance for the fact that
researching the history of the Great Wall was not done with binary logic. It
is not true, or false, or an IF-THEN situation (Turban et al. 2005: 548). There is
fuzzy logic behind it because many of the historical records were
destroyed. One’s interpretation of “somewhat true” or “very likely” might
be different from someone else’s; however, if a numeric value or other
measurement is put into the statement, then people will come to an
agreement on the meaning. With fuzzy modus ponens deduction, the
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author is able to calculate the statement by using descriptions such as
“somewhat true” or “very likely”. It is also acts as a piggyback to the first
fuzzy system in case the first fuzzy system shows an ambiguous or
indeterminate answer, i.e. the two extremes overlapping in the graphs.
The “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the Great Wall Of
China” program is intended for any end user who would like to know how
likely it is that a material is from the Ming Dynasty era, based on the rule
(IF-THEN statement) ‘if the quality of the rammed earth is good then it’s
likely from Ming Dynasty’ and the fact itself (quality of the rammed earth).
Based on the end user’s rating for the quality of the rammed earth for
both the rule and the fact, the program will evaluate and display several
graphs to show how likely it is that the material is from the Ming Dynasty.
The “Evaluation Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” program is used when the end user knows the rating
of the quality of the rammed earth. He must be able to distinguish the
difference between Fairly Good, Good or Very Good for the quality of the
rammed earth.
The Fuzzy Set Concept Program can be used in any Mac or PC
computer that supports 2008 Microsoft Visual C#. The minimum
requirements for PC are 600 MHz processor, 192 RAM of memory, 1 GB of
space and 800 X 600, 256 colors of graphic . It could operate on Windows
2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, or Windows Vista.
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(http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/4c26cc39(v=vs.80).aspx) Please
search online for Mac requirements.
8.2 The MPD in Logic Equations
The MPD formula is
E⊃S
E’
________________
(E is T’) ⊃ (S is T)
∴ S’
Step one of the MPD (refer to figure 28 for the plot of ITFM):
ITFM [E|E’] = T’
X value of T = fT(ω) = fE’(x)
Y value of T = ω = fE(x)
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Figure 28: Graph of ITFM
Step two of the MPD (refer to figure 29 for the plot of LIR):
LIR[(E is T’) ⊃ (S is T)]
fT(ω) = ∨ {[1 ∧ (1- δ + ω)] ∧ fT’(δ)} ∀ δ
for ω = 0 → fI(δ, ω) = 1 ∧ (1- δ + 0)
for ω = 0.2 → fI(δ, ω) = 1 ∧ (1- δ + 0.2)
for ω = 0.4 → fI(δ, ω) = 1 ∧ (1- δ + 0.4)
for ω = 0.6 → fI(δ, ω) = 1 ∧ (1- δ + 0.6)
for ω = 0.8 → fI(δ, ω) = 1 ∧ (1- δ + 0.8)
for ω = 1.0 → fI(δ, ω) = 1 ∧ (1- δ + 1.0)
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
Please note that (δ, ω) is the y axis of
the graph and fT is the x axis of the
graph.
Figure 29: Graph of LIR
Step three of the MPD (refer to figure 30 for the plot of TFM):
TFM[S is T] = S’
Y value for S’ = fS’(x) = fT(ω) = fT[fS(x)]
X value for S’ = ω = fS(x)
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Figure 30: Graph of TFM
8.2.1 The Meaning of the Logic Equations
In Modus Ponens Deduction, there is a rule and a fact to be
evaluated. For example, the rule is E → S (meaning if E then S) and the
fact is ‘E’. Modus Ponens Deduction is fuzzy logic to conclude how true
the rule ‘S’ is based on what fact ‘E’ really is. It measures its trueness using
the Baldwin Model. Baldwin’s Model is made from using truth values
based on the fuzzy set expression (refer to figure 31 for the plot of
Baldwin’s Model). For example, the fuzzy set expressions are at (x = 0, y =
0), at (x = .2, y = .2), at (x =.4, y = .4) and so on for the truth value “True” on
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the figure below. Please see the completed fuzzy set expression in the
Appendix A: Fuzzy Set, MPD and AI Program Images.
Figure 31: Graph of Baldwin's Model
There are three steps/graphs in order to get the final answer of how
true is the last part of the rule S based on the rule is E → S and the fact E’.
The three steps are the Inverse Truth Function Modification (ITFM),
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Lukasiewicz Implication Relation (LIR) and the Truth Function Modification
(TFM).
In Inverse Truth Function Modification (ITFM), one can find the
inverse truth value (T’) using the given rule E and the fact ‘E’. For example,
the vertical distance (d) between the x-axis and the fact ‘E’ is the
horizontal distance (d) between the y axis and the T’ value (the x value
for the graph of T’). The height of the ‘T’ (the y value for the graph of ‘T’) is
the y value of the rule E of the localized point. Repeat the procedure until
a completed ‘T’ function is established.
In the Lukasiewicz Implication Relation (LIR), one can find the T value using
the ‘T’ value and I (ω) equations. There are six I (ω) equations, from I (ω =
0), I (ω = 0.2), I (ω = 0.4)… I (ω = 1.0). I (ω = 0) = 1 – X, I (ω = 0.2) = 1.2 – X, I
(ω = 0.4) = 1.4 – X and so forth. These equations would intercept with the
‘T’ to form the T equation. The x value for the T is the x value of the
interception between the ‘T’ and the I (ω) equation. The y value for the T
is the value of ω that the ‘T’ and the I (ω) intercepts.
Once the T equation is found, one can use it to form ‘S’ (the final
answer) using the Truth Function Modification (TFM). In the Truth Function
Modification (TFM), localizes a point in S (S is given), then draws a dotted
horizontal line until it touches the equation T. The horizontal distance
between the y axis and the point where the dotted horizontal line
touches the T is known as (d1), which is the y value of the ‘S’. The x value
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of ‘S’ is the x value of the localized point in S. Repeat the procedure until
a completed ‘S’ function is established.
Once the graph of ‘S’ is established, the ‘S’ is compared with the
Baldwin’s Model to see how true the rule is. The author will explain further
in the “How to Interpret the Result” section.
8.3 The Rule and the Fact
The rule is E → S; where E is the quality of the rammed earth and S is
the likelihood that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty.
The fact is ‘E’; where ‘E’ is the quality of the rammed earth.
The end user must have the knowledge to rate the quality of the
rammed earth by choosing Fairly Good, Good, or Very Good.
8.4 Instruction on using “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” program (How to Use It)
To begin, the end user should select the rating for the quality of the
rammed earth for both the rule and the fact. The user has the choice of
Fairly Good, Good or Very Good. After the user makes his or her choice,
he or she must push the “Execute RULE and FACT” button to see the
relationship for the likelihood that the structure is from the Ming Dynasty
time period (refer to figure 32).
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Figure 32: Fuzzy MPD Program
Next, the end user needs to click on the “ITFM” button to display the
graph (see figure 33).
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Figure 33: ITFM of Fuzzy MPD Program
Then, the end user should click on the “LIR” button to display the
graph (see figure 34).
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Figure 34: LIR of Fuzzy MPD Program
The end user should continue by clicking on the “TFM” button to display
the graph (see figure 35).
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Figure 35: TFM of Fuzzy MPD Program
Finally, the end user has to click on the “Baldwin Model” button to
compare the final answer to Baldwin’s Model (see figure 36 below).
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Figure 36: Baldwin's Model of Fuzzy MPD Program
Please note that the end user may always go back and start the
program over by clicking the “Clear” button below the “Baldwin Model”
button.
8.5 How to Interpret the Result
Once the user clicks on the Baldwin Model button, the ‘S’ is
compared to the Baldwin Model. One can interpret the trueness of ‘S’
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based on where the ‘S’ lies in the Model. In the example above, the ‘S’
lies near the Fairly True line on the Baldwin Model, so one can conclude
that the ‘S’ is fairly true (see figure 36 and figure 37).
Figure 37: Comparison between the Result and Baldwin's Model
8.6 Conclusion to the “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the
Great Wall of China” Program
103
The “Fuzzy MPD on the Construction Method of the Great Wall of
China” program is a great tool to determine the trueness of the second
part of the rule ‘S’, given the rule E → S and the fact E’. The program does
require the end user to have to knowledge to rate the quality of the
rammed earth by choosing Fairly Good, Good, or Very Good. Once that
is completed, the program is able to show how likely it is that the structure
is from the Ming Dynasty using several graphs, and these graphs/results
can easily be interpreted by the end user. The author of this report
acquired the fuzzy set concepts knowledge from Dr. Fabian C.
Hadipriono’s “Fuzzy Sets in Probabilistic Structural Mechanics” (Hadipriono
1995: pp. 280-307) and “Mobile Crane Safe Operation Approach to
Prevent Electrocution Using Fuzzy Set Logic Models” (Al-Humaidi &
Hadipriono 2009: pp. 1-27) and used the knowledge for the research in this
chapter. The author also had personal communication with Dr. Fabian
Tan to acquire some of the information presented in this chapter (Personal
Communication with Dr. Fabian Tan, 2012).
104
CHAPTER 9 RESEARCH RESULTS
9.1 Multimedia System
The author created a multi-media system called “The Great Wall
Intelligent Multi-Media System” to show all the research results provided
from previous chapters. This system includes decision tree analysis, results
from the intelligent system and the fuzzy system. However, the end user
will not see any tools used from the KBES system or the fuzzy system. This
multi-media program also consists of a video showing the Great Wall of
China (figure 39). Also, the multi-media would show many photos of the
Great Wall. Furthermore, the multi-media can speak to the user because
of the audio files embedded in the system. This feature makes the system
seem more human. Lastly, the system would show the results based on the
user’s input. The system would explain how it came up with the
conclusion. See figures below.
9.2 Artificial Intelligence Integrated in the “The Great Wall Intelligent MultiMedia System”
The screenshots below show the Artificial Intelligence in the
multimedia system. It has all the components listed in the previous
chapters. As mentioned above in the previous chapter, the welcome
screen (figure 38) has the knowledge structure from AI. The program will
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then proceed to Question One by clicking the “Click To Begin” button.
Once the end user input the selection for Question One, the system will
come up with a preliminary conclusion and a Question Two (figure 40).
The selection made by the user to Question Two will lead to a final
conclusion if the user selects “Transportation” or “Material” in Question
One. If the user picks “Construction” in Question One and “No” in
Question Two, then the user’s selections will lead to a final conclusion.
However, if the user selects “YES” in Question Two of the rammed earth
section, then he will be asked Question Three and the answer Question
Three will lead to a final conclusion (see figure 41 and figure 42).
106
107
Figure 38: Welcome Screen of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System (Beijing)
107
108
Figure 39: Video in the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System
108
109
Figure 40: Question 1 of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System (Background Photo By: Jakub Hałun
Location: Jinshanling)
109
110
Figure 41: Question 2 of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System (Background Photo By: Craig Nagy
Location: near Jinshanling)
110
111
Figure 42: Question 3 of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System (Background Photo By: Bill Price III
배문일 Location: Shimatai)
111
9.2.1 Decision Tree and Research Results
The screenshot below (figure 43) shows the Decision Tree and
research results in the multimedia system. It has all the components listed
in the previous chapter.
112
113
Figure 43: Test Path of the Great Wall Intelligent Multi-Media System
113
CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION
10.1 Summary
The author of this report has completed the following:
1. Literature Review
a. Searched and reviewed history of the Great Wall of China,
including who, when, where and why the Great Wall of China
was built.
b. Determined methods used to construct the Great Wall of
China based on legendary, historical, and factual data.
c. Gathered photos of the wall and specifications as well as
getting permission to publish those pictures.
2. Research Methods
a. Created a Decision Tree System using IF-THEN paths based on
the knowledge from the research of the Great Wall of China.
b. Created an Intelligent System using KBES developed based
on the knowledge of the factual ‘how’ to determine what
transportation, construction method and material belongs to
the Ming Dynasty.
114
c. Created two fuzzy logic systems using fuzzy set concepts and
modus ponens deduction to determine the accuracy of the
time period that a structure is from the Ming Dynasty era.
d. Created a Multi-Media System using C# that consists of
pictures, audio, videos, and research results of the Great Wall
of China.
10.2 Conclusion
The research produced evidence that the Ming Dynasty’s Great
Wall is superior to the previous dynasty, with the term superior referring to
the level of the strength of the rammed earth, standing of the structure,
improvement of the technology, and other factors. The author learned
that even though rammed earth’s strength is weaker than concrete, it still
lasts for hundreds of years, if not thousands. However; Pre-Ming Dynasty
does incorporate more green construction techniques than Ming Dynasty.
Therefore, the author concludes that the structure is durable when it is
from the Ming dynasty. The structure is greener when it is from the PreMing dynasty. However, both Ming and Pre-Ming Dynasty’s construction
methods are greener than modern practices. With these conclusions, the
author recommends using both construction methods from the Ming and
the Pre-Ming dynasties to build green yet durable structures for the future.
10.3 Recommendations
115
The following recommendations are made by the author for future
expansion of this research, the Great Wall of China:

Create Graphic Representation of
the Great Wall of China

Develop Computer Animation of
different stages of construction in the
Great Wall of China

Create “Virtual Reality” version of the
Great Wall of China
These recommendations are made so that one should not be a ‘slave’ to
the construction; meaning one can see how the Great Wall of China was
constructed without actually building it again.
116
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Cambridge [England: Cambridge UP, 1990. Print.
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Appendix A: Fuzzy Set, MPD and AI Program Images
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Figure 44: Table 4 & 5 of Fuzzy Set Example One
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Figure 45: Equation 1 of Fuzzy Set Example One
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Figure 46: Equation 2 of Fuzzy Set Example One
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Figure 47: Equation 3 of Fuzzy Set Example One
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Figure 48: Equation 4 of Fuzzy Set Example One
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Figure 49: Graph of Fuzzy Set Example One
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Figure 50: Table 4 & 5 of Fuzzy Set Example Two
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Figure 51: Equation 1 of Fuzzy Set Example Two
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Figure 52: Equation 2 of Fuzzy Set Example Two
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Figure 53: Equation 3 of Fuzzy Set Example Two
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Figure 54: Equation 4 of Fuzzy Set Example Two
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Figure 55: Graph of Fuzzy Set Example Two
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Figure 56: Inputs and Outputs of Fuzzy MPD Example One
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Figure 57: Inputs and Outputs of Fuzzy MPD Example Two
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Figure 58: Welcome Screen of Multi-Media System Example One
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Figure 59: Brief Video of Multi-Media System Example One
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Figure 60: Question 1 of Multi-Media System Example One (Background Photo By: Jakub Hałun Location:
Jinshanling)
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Figure 61: Question 2 of Multi-Media System Example One (Background Photo By: Craig Nagy Location:
Near Jinshanling)
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Figure 62: Test Path of Multi-Media System Example One
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Figure 63: Question 1 of Multi-Media System Example Two (Background Photo By: Jakub Hałun Location:
Jinshanling)
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Figure 64: Question 2 of Multi-Media System Example Two (Background Photo By: Craig Nagy Location:
Near Jinshanling)
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Figure 65: Question 3 of Multi-Media System Where It Is Not Applicable Example Two (Background Photo
By: Bill Price III 배문일 Location: Shimatai)
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