Imperialistic Entertainment:
Circus and Wild West Shows During the Spanish American War
Samantha Alves
US History
Mr. Jankey
March 11, 2016
Alves 1
Introduction
December 12th, 1898 was a day of jubilation for America. The Spanish
American war was over; the Treaty of Paris officially awarded Guam and Puerto Rico to
the United States and gave Cuba its independence. There were celebrations across
the country, but perhaps the most enthusiastic could be found under the flaps of a
circus tent. On that momentous day, the ​Forepaugh and Sells Brothers Circus​ paused
their show for the ringleader to parade onstage and read the telegram declaring the
United States’ victory. According to their route book, the cast saw, “the entire audience
rising to their feet and cheering the stars and stripes.”1 With an American flag waving
above the crowd, the band striking up the “Star Spangled Banner,” and the patrons
applauding thunderously, the tent incubated a monstrous wave of patriotic vigor and
military support.2 Although media and government both fought to sway public opinion,
some of the most effective propaganda of the age was fostered in America’s circus
tents and Wild West arenas.
Circus has been an integral part of American culture since the eighteenth
century. From Rickett’s first immigrant horse shows to modern ​Cirque du Soleil​, circus
has been an influential American art form for almost 150 years. Although circus can be
defined as any show performed inside a ring, it has branched into many different,
distinctly American forms. Most notable is the Wild West arena show which gained
popularity in the late 1800s by demonstrating American Indian culture and displaying
1
Janet M. Davis. ​The Circus Age: Culture & Society under the American Big Top.​ (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 2002).
2
Ibid., ​The Circus Age, ​20
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frontier battles.3 The pinnacle, or ‘golden age’ of circus and Wild West shows occurred
between 1850 and 1950, when troops used railroads, steamboats, trucks, and tents to
reach American audiences from coast to coast. Between the featured shows,
ubiquitous posters, and free parades, they impacted thousands of citizens. Therefore,
when the Spanish American War erupted, these shows had the perfect platform to
manipulate and fuel the prevailing public sentiments.
Circus and Wild West shows used their extensive influence to support the United
States’ dubitably imperialist endeavors in Cuba and the Philippines. Some proprietors
even attempted direct military involvement in the war. Immediately recognizing the
conflict as possible show material, entertainment managers used reenactments
supported by evidence in objects, animals and people to present the war through a
lense of patriotic glory. These performances, known as spectacles, or ‘specs,’ quickly
linked American frontier fervor and nationalism to the war with Spain. They received
enthusiastic and almost uniquely positive reviews; generally the glitz and glamour of
circus allowed these shows to circumvent the criticism most other pro-imperialist
operations suffered. Circus and Wild West shows used their influence to rally support
for the Spanish-American War by weaving imperialistic values into the American
identity.
Forming Opinions
From its conception, circus and Wild West proprietors recognized the Spanish
American War as a positive, patriotic event and possible subject matter for their shows.
3
Antony Coxe​. Encyclopædia Britannica Online​, s. v. "circus", accessed January 24. 2016.
http://www.britannica.com/art/circus-theatrical-entertainment/Preserving-the-art-form​.
Alves 3
The example of the ​Forepaugh and Sells Brothers Circus​ performance is only one of
many in which proprietors changed their regular productions to reference the United
States’ military campaign. Adam Forepaugh, a prominent ringmaster, notably remarked
to his audience, “We have placed an object lesson before the world. We have taken our
place at the very head in front rank of nations.”4 This assertive opinion may seem
customary for a politician to share, but for a circus owner dedicated to providing
lighthearted and inclusive entertainment, such a comment was very powerful. Wild
West manager Buffalo Bill Cody also expressed his overt support for the war in a 1898
gramophone recording entitled ​Sentiments on the Cuba Question​. Cody claimed that
the war was fought for “peace and safety, its (America’s) honor and self-respect.”5
These examples demonstrate the complete dedication and support some entertainment
managers expressed for the war against Spain.
Circus and Wild West proprietors became so invested in the war effort that some
even attempted direct military support. Buffalo Bill Cody immediately announced his
intention to enlist. In an interview with sensationalist newspaper ​The World​, in 1898, he
claimed he could, “​drive Spaniards from Cuba with 30,000 Indian braves.”6 Although
Cody never made it to the front, ​Theodore Roosevelt led a crew of soldiers to Cuba
called the “rough riders,” named after the iconic performers in the Buffalo Bill show. The
4
5
6
“Official Route Book, Adam Forepaugh and Sells Brothers Combined Circuses, Season
1898” (Columbus, Ohio: Landon, 1898). Route Book Collection. Robert L. Parkinson
Library and Research Center.
William F. Cody. "Sentiments on the Cuban Question." ​The William F Cody Archive.​
(Berliner's Gramophone Company, 20 Apr. 1898). Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
​“How I Could ​Drive Spaniards from Cuba​ with 30,000 ​Indian Braves​,'” New York ​World​, April
3, ​1898​, 27. Quoted in, ​Nancy McClure. "Points West: Col. Cody, Rough Riders,
Spanish American War." Buffalo Bill Center of the West. August 06, 2014. Accessed
February 28, 2016.
http://centerofthewest.org/2014/08/06/cody-rough-riders-spanish-american-war/.
Alves 4
fame and heroism of Roosevelt and his rough riders helped him to gain popularity, and,
arguably, his eventual presidency.7
Circus owners also expressed military support for the war effort. ​The Ringling
Brother Circus​, one of the most popular of the age, notably offered to send its show
elephants to go and fight.8 An 1898 article in the ​Baltimore Sun​ reported that, “one of
the most prominent circus managers in the country has offered ... 25 of his finest
elephants for war service.”9 Although the gesture was widely supported, the government
cordially declined the offer. The military support of circus and Wild West proprietors
indicated their strong personal views on the war, but their patriotic shows were not just
engineered to express their individual beliefs; they also exploited the growing general
pro-imperialistic opinions.
Since almost a decade before the Spanish American war, public sentiment had
begun to shift in support of imperialism and the search for a new frontier. These
growing imperialistic views can be traced back to the World's Columbian Exposition of
Chicago in 1893. During the fair, historian Frederick Jackson Turner presented his
thesis: “The Significance of the Frontier in American History.” He declared in his essay
that:
American social development has been continually beginning over again on the
7
8
9
Christine Bold. "Rough Riders at Home and Abroad." ​University of Toronto Press Journal
18, no. 3 September 1987: 321-50. Accessed February 8, 2016.
Linda Simon. ​The Greatest Shows on Earth: A History of the Circus.​ (London: Reaktion
Books 2014).
"An Elephant Brigade." ​The Sun​ Baltimore, Maryland. April 15, 1898. Accessed February
15, 2016. http://www.infoweb.newsbank.com.
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frontier. This perennial rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion
westward with its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of
primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character.10
By crediting the frontier with the formation and definition of American identity, Turner
heroized expansionism, conjuring the same sentiments that would eventually provoke
U.S. entry into the Spanish American war. Turner’s thesis was so popular, in fact, that it
inspired a wave of similar publications with likewise positive responses.11 Circus and
Wild West shows were directly tied to this influential thesis. Buffalo Bill Cody not only
listened to Turner’s speech, but also set up a show directly across from the World Fair
to draw an audience.12 Turner’s thesis captured the swelling public anxiety over the
closing of the western frontier, which, combined with other anxieties over immigration
and industrialization, resulted in hyper-patriotism. As this patriotic public sentiment
shifted to favor American imperialism, shows were ready to capitalize on it.
Transitioning the Shows
The traditional educational facet of the circus easily transitioned to cover war
materials. Since the first American circus, owned by John Ricketts, performances
contained ‘specs’ depicting historical battles and myths.13 In 1894, Barnum and Bailey’s
show program even claimed to, “instruct the minds of all classes.”14 The public
Frederick Jackson Turner. ​The Significance of the Frontier in American History​. 1893.
National Humanities Center. Accessed March 1, 2016.
11
Walter Havighurst. "Restless Frontier Surveyed." ​Chicago Daily Tribune​. 1. Jan
09 1955. ​ProQuest. ​Web. 16 Feb. 2016 .
12
Bold, “Rough RIders at Home and Abroad​,” ​ 324.
13
Coxe, “circus.”
14
“The Barnum and Bailey Greatest Show on Earth Program.” Madison Square Garden
edition. Mar. 26-Apr. 23, 1894. (New York: JH Mayer, 1894.) Quoted in, Janet Davis,
The Circus Age,​ 193.
10
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generally took the information presented by circuses as definite fact and trusted the
shows to supply accurate representations of current events. The historical specs
essential to circus’ educational reputation quickly transitioned at the turn of the 20th
century to present current foreign relations and stress U.S. world leadership, while
maintaining their trustworthy ethos. A 1900 ​Charlotte Observer​ article reviewing the
Forepaugh and Sells Circus​ described it as an, “amusing and instructive performance,”
and “an educational agency.”15 Wild West shows, however, arguably had even less
dfficulty justifying their wartime subject matter.
Wild West shows transitioned to Spanish American War coverage by translating
the idea of a frontier overseas. These performances were always famous for displaying
acts of American valor at the western frontier, so they simply switched to displaying
bravery at the frontiers in Cuba and the Philippines. American Indian actors even
initially played the parts of the Spaniards and Filipinos in new war spectacles.16 Right
after Turner’s frontier thesis, Buffalo Bill changed the title of his show from “Buffalo Bill’s
Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders” to “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and Congress of
Rough Riders ​of the World​.”17 This nominal shift mirrored the shift in performances from
domestic to international battle reenactments. To explain this transition, a Buffalo Bill
1900 press release declared, “The Military features have risen into greater prominence
because they illustrate the things which are now in everybody’s mind.”18 By adapting to
"The Great Circus Coming." ​Charlotte Observer​ Charlotte, North Carolina. October 16,
1900. Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.infoweb.newsbank.com.
16
Simon, ​The Greatest Shows on Earth​.
17
Bold, “Rough Riders at Home and Abroad,” 324.
18
“The Rough Riders Return.” ​New York Daily Tribune.​ Apr. 24. 1900. Quoted in, Janet Davis,
The Circus Age​, 193.
15
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the new public opinion of the late 1800s, Wild West shows succeeded in equating the
prior enthusiasm toward westward expansion to the new colonial efforts in the Pacific.
The New Shows
Wild West war presentations served to desensitize citizens to the idea of
imperialism by presenting it as heroic and patriotic. Reenactments of Spanish
American War battles inundated Wild West arenas between 1895 and 1900, displaying
for thousands of viewers a biased take on the altercation.
One ‘spec’ that
epitomized these performances
was entitled “The Battle of San
Juan Hill.” The show’s poster
depicted a “squad of genuine
Cuban insurgents,” described
as, “battle scarred heroes.”19 By
heroizing the fighting in Cuba,
these advertisements helped support a positive public response to the war.
The reenactment itself expressed the same themes as its poster, portraying the
momentous battle with exaggerated violence and victory all under a giant American flag.
In 1898, ​The New York Times ​described the audiences attending the show as, “wild for
Old Glory,” and recalled that, at one particularly poignant performance, Buffalo Bill Cody
ordered the band to play “Yankee Doodle Dandy,” and rode onstage during the final
19
"​Buffalo Bill's wild west and congress of rough riders of the world. A squad of genuine Cuban insurgents.​"
1898. Digital image. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs. Accessed February 15, 2016.
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3g02943/.
Alves 8
battle scene, causing a peak in audience enthusiasm.20 Shows like this one rallied
massive patriotism and support. Sensationalist newspaper, ​The World​, even praised
Cody for performing, “​a distinct national service in bringing these Cuban heroes to the
United States.”21
By weaving national symbols like the American flag and “Yankee Doodle Dandy”
to the war in Cuba, spectacles tied imperialistic fighting to the United States’ innate
character. Historian Christine Bold even commented that Wild West reenactments of
the Spanish American war turned imperialism into immediate tradition.22 Wild West
specs like “the Battle of San Juan Hill,” rallied public support for the war by presenting
dubious conquests with nationalistic enthusiasm.
Like Wild West reenactments, circus specs served as cheerleaders to
imperialism by feeding on patriotic sentiments in gigantic, exaggerated proportions.
Circus performances like Barnum and Bailey’s the, “America’s Great Naval Victory at
Santiago,” and Ringling Brothers’ “Under the Stars and Stripes,” caricaturized battle into
glorious American entertainment.
Barnum and Bailey’s 1999 naval spectacle toured in Europe, demonstrating
American military power to world powers such as Britain, France and Germany. The
circus allegedly traveled with a miniature ocean and model warships with real bombs,
20
21
“Buffalo Bill’s Show.” ​The New York Times. A
​ pril 3, 1898. Quoted in, Joshua E. Polster.
Stages of Engagement: U.S. Theatre and Performance from 1898-1949.​
(Routledge, 2015).
Nancy McClure. "Points West: Col. Cody, Rough Riders,
Spanish American War." Buffalo Bill Center of the West. August 06, 2014. Accessed
February 28, 2016.
http://centerofthewest.org/2014/08/06/cody-rough-riders-spanish-american-war/.
22
Bold, “Rough Riders at Home and Abroad,” 330.
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as indicated by their poster.23 The poster was also littered with American flags, instantly
associating the national identity with the militaristic
ventures in Cuba. The show itself ended with the
fiery explosion of the entire Spanish fleet as the
“Star Spangled Banner” played in the background.
24
Like the Wild West shows, this performance
tied American symbols to the war effort, while also
captivating attention and impressing the audience
with the power of a literal explosion.
The Ringling Brothers’ spec, “Under the Stars and Stripes,” and its patriotism
also received positive reviews. The ​Dallas Morning News​ praised the show in October,
1898, as meeting, “the popular demand for war displays … in colossal proportions” and
appealing, “to the patriotic side of all who love … Old Glory.”25 The emotional appeal of
these shows, along with their dramatic scale, evoked mass enthusiasm. Two weeks
later, The ​Dallas Morning News​ released an accompanying review of the show,
describing it as, “The big amusement event of the season,” and “nothing short of
marvelous.”26 These reviews demonstrated the positive response elicited by the show.
23
"Total Destruction of the Spanish Fleet on the Cuban Coast." Strobridge Litho. Co. 1898. Digital image.
Robert L. Parkinson Library and Research Center. Accessed February 15, 2016.
http://circus.pastperfectonline.com/media/A6381CF4-2D71-41EC-AA9A-15133935741​.
24
Davis, ​The Circus Age,​ 218.
25
"Successful Circus Managers." ​Dallas Morning News​ October 16, 1898.
Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.infoweb.newsbank.com.
26
"Tomorrow Is Circus Day." ​Dallas Morning News​ October 30, 1898.
Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.infoweb.newsbank.com.
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Audiences’ applause, however, praised not only entertainment engineering and
actors’ skill, but also the imperialistic campaign. “By cheering on the show,” argues one
expert, John Springhall, “America applauds their nation and the gladiatorial approach to
manifest destiny.”27 The positive public response to war spectacles was often
misplaced; people clapping for dazzling lights, costumes, and choreography rarely
realized the implications of their applause. None the less, these shows manipulated
public opinion in favor of imperialism.
Evidence
Evidence of war-related objects, people and animals not only improved the
credibility of circus and Wild West ‘specs,’ but also presented their own independent
influences in support of expansionism.
The messages of circus and Wild West spectacles were bolstered by military
artifacts and exhibits. Displays of everything from model war vehicles to
army-sanctioned uniforms helped establish credibility for performances. Buffalo Bill
Cody, for example, used legitimate military uniforms, expressions, movements, and
even bugle calls to seem authentic.28 These helped the audience to suspend their
disbelief and gave the show reputability.
Another example of military artifact displays was the Barnum and Bailey
collection of battleship models based on the warships fighting in Cuba and the
Philippines. Tody Hamilton, the show’s press agent, declared in 1903 that, “It will be a
27
John Springhall. ​The Genesis of Mass Culture: Show Business Live in America, 1840 to
1940​. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
28
Polster, ​Stages of Engagement, ​26.
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pleasure to give their first sight of the ships that defend them,” and that the ships were
built, “as an expression of appreciation … (to) the power and glory of the American
navy.”29 Not only did the display gain people’s trust by showing them their, “first sight” of
battleships, but it also supported the message of American “glory” fighting the Spanish.
These ships brought quite a crowd to see the show; they were described by the
Augusta Chronicle​ in 1903 as, “one of the most remarkable and interesting exhibits.”30
By drawing a crowd, gaining the audience’s trust, and stressing the power of the United
States’ military, war artifacts were a crucial element in circus’ and Wild West’s success
in shifting the public opinion.
Human exhibits also supported imperialistic messages by appealing to
racism and social darwinism. By displaying “human zoos” of internationally kidnapped
people of color, circuses emphasized the racial
prejudice that contributed to U.S. entry into the
Spanish American War. As a 1898 poster for
The Great Wallace Shows​ demonstrated,
citizens would pay to see foreign men and
women dressed in ethnic garb and bound in
cages.31 Newspaper advertisements would entice crowds to come and see the “wild
“Barnum and Bailey Circus Next Week.” Mar. 14, 1903. Quoted in, Janet Davis, ​The Circus
Age, ​194.
30
"The Three Threes in Barnum Circus." ​Augusta Chronicle​ October 9,
1903. Accessed February 15, 2016. http://www.infoweb.newsbank.com.
31
"Physical Prodigies." Courier Litho. Co. 1898. Digital image. Robert L. Parkinson Library
and Research Center Accessed February 15, 2016.
http://circus.pastperfectonline.com/media/F1B00020-1AB2-47FF-9FB5-526570559707.
29
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man,” and, despite the illegalization of slavery in America, people went.32 Some of these
displays were even more directly tied to the Spanish American War. Buffalo Bill, for
example, in 1899, presented “Strange People from our New Possessions:” an
assortment of kidnapped humans from the American conquests of Puerto Rico, the
Phillipines and Guam.33 By displaying these people as “strange” and “possessions,” or
even by displaying people at all, shows justified imperialism by affirming white racial
superiority and the dependence of other races.
Animal displays also gave circus and Wild West shows credibility and supported
their expansionist directive. Although animals had been a part of nearly every American
circus, wild animal acts and menageries both gained popularity in the late 1800s.34
Circuses were known for the “multitude of wild animals” advertised in posters and
newspapers.35 By bringing in animals from Cuba and the Philippines, circuses proved
their connections with the regions and more fully presented a window into the world.
The Forepaugh combined shows, for example, displayed Philippine “Midget Cattle”
during the war and the Ringling Brothers a Philippine Boa Constrictor.36 The Ringling
Brothers also displayed Aguinaldo, a vaguely described “big monkey from the
Philippines” that incited intense audience enthusiasm, especially from soldiers.37 The
monkey shared a name with Emilio Aguinaldo, the president of the Philippines. By
presenting him as a monkey, the circus stressed his inferiority and belittled him,
32
"The Great Circus Coming."
Polster, ​Stages of Engagement, ​26.
34
Coxe, “circus.”
35
“The Great Circus Coming.”
36
Susan Weber. ​The American Circus​. (New York: Bard Graduate Center, 2012).
37
​Ringling Brothers Route Book 1899​. (Central Printings and Engravings, 1899).
Circus Historical Society.
33
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legitimizing the United States’ possession of his islands. Overall, the evidence of
objects, animals, and people by circus and Wild West shows helped them gain
audiences’ trust while also supporting and legitimizing American imperialism.
Anti-Imperialism
Although many pro-imperialistic industries were attacked after the Spanish
American war, circus’ unique presentation gave it a reprieve from criticism. The
Anti-Imperialist League led a new cultural movement by protesting the annexation of
Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines and attacking figures or operations they claimed
to be imperialistic. Circus and Wild West however, although actively promoting
imperialism, were never met with its opposition. Some argue that critics never
denounced performances because Spanish American battle reenactments were always
acted out like games, and stayed just beyond the line of realism.38 Also, some
anti-imperialists, like the vice president of the Anti-Imperialist League, Ben Tillman,
feared the racial mixing imperialism would cause. For them, circus performances, with
their emphasis on dehumanizing people of color, helped them maintain a sense of racial
superiority.39 The most important reason, however, according to historian John
Springhall, that circus performances were never questioned was their existence as, “a
mass medium that blurs the lines between fact and fiction, history and melodrama, truth
and entertainment.”40 By blurring the lines between current events and pure
entertainment, performing arts had a unique and unchecked freedom to express their
views.
38
Bold, “Rough Riders at Home and Abroad,” 322.
David, ​The Circus Age, ​221.
40
Springhall, ​The Genesis of Mass Culture, ​124.
39
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Conclusion
Circus and Wild West shows were brazen proponents of imperialism during the
Spanish American War. Performance proprietors immediately recognized its battles as
popular show material, feeding on the expansionist public sentiment characterized by
Turner’s frontier thesis to present exaggerated reenactments saturated with patriotism.
‘Specs’ soon equated violent imperialism to glory and categorized it with core national
values, firmly implanting it into the American identity. Evidence of objects, people and
animals helped shows gain reputability and supported their messages by appealing to
racism. The influence of circus shows helps explain the deep prejudice of the era.
Equivalent in effectiveness to any modern propaganda, these shows were able to
manipulate the minds of thousands while remaining safe behind a facade of bright lights
and spectacle. Their success however, was short-lived.
Before the Spanish American War had ended, tent and arena reenactments were
already being antiquated by more advanced technology. Circus and Wild West
proprietors were not the only ones to recognize an opportunity to exploit wartime
patriotism. Thomas Edison, brilliant inventor of the motion picture, also decided to
recreate key battles of Cuba and Philippines; Edison, however, filmed his productions.
Between 1898 and 1901, the Edison Company filmed over 60 short silent reenactments.
This was the first time battles had ever been captured on film.41 They featured, like
circus and Wild West ‘specs,’ the most poignant and iconic moments of the war,
including “Wreck of ​the Maine​” and “Raising Old Glory over Morro Castle.”42 Circus
41
“The Spanish American War in Motion Pictures.” The Library of Congress. Accessed March
2, 2016. https://www.loc.gov/collections/spanish-american-war-in-motion-pictures/.
42
ibid.
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reenactments could not compete with the novelty, immersion and unlimited potential of
film. In subsequent wars the prominence of circus ‘specs’ faded, but movies continued
to gain power and popularity. Circus and Wild West spectacles were a brief but intense
form of propaganda, filling the niche that was soon taken over by the motion picture.