TEACHER RESOURCE GUIDE
RECOMMENDED PRE-VISIT ACTIVITIES
Complete Teacher Guide available at www.nhm.org/skymobile
Also available on Skymobile Resources USB
Education Outreach
With Generous Support from the
Maxwell H. Gluck Foundation
Postcard From Mars
PROCEDURE
1 Introduce the activity by asking students if they’ve ever
sent or received a postcard.What can you learn from a
postcard (what a place looks like, what people did, what
the weather was like) From that discussion, ask students
what a postcard from Mars might show you. Tell students
that they will be creating a postcard that describes their
experiences from a fictional research trip to the planet
Mars. They will be using what they have learned about the
planet to create the picture on the front of the postcard.
M AT E R I A L S
Each student will need a 4” x 6” piece of cardstock,
2 Distribute one blank card to each student. There are
paper or index card, and drawing/painting materials
several postcard design options. If the students are going
to mail these, they will want to first draw a line down the
ACTIVITY TIME
center of what will be the back of the postcard. The
30-45 minutes
mailing address will be written (later) to the right of the
line. Their message will be written on the left side.
NEW WORDS
Solar System 3 For the front of the postcard, students can draw a picture
or cartoon about Mars, based on what they’ve learned.
They might even wish to write a poem. The message (on
the back, left side) of the postcard should be written as if
they have experienced Mars for themselves. Although the
“visit” isn’t real, the factual content included in the
w sh
message
should be.
y
Students will create a Mars e-mail and write
a message to a friend or family member as if
they had been there. This activity can be used to
assess students’ knowledge of Mars following
the Skymobile program. This activity is enhanced
by using the book Postcards from Pluto
by Loreen Leedy, to introduce the idea of
“planetary postcards.”
ou w er e
her e !
4 If students are not sure what to include in their postcard,
you might discuss what they know about Mars and what
makes Mars different than Earth. This may include size
compared to Earth, temperature, atmosphere, terrain or
surface features, number of moons, number of days in a
year, evidence of water or life, etc.
5 You may choose to mail the postcards. If you plan to mail
them, letter-rate (not postcard-rate) postage will be
necessary because of their larger size. Ask students to
address their postcard to a friend or family member,
reminding them to clearly write the name and address on
the right-hand side of the back of the postcard.
6 If you plan to use this activity after students have
participated in the Skymobile, keep in mind that different
student teams will encounter different information about
Mars. Some will be introduced to volcanoes on Mars;
others will be looking at impact craters or learning more
about erosion. Another prompt that may be useful for
The highest resolution photo of the surface of Mars
assessment
purposes would be to ask students to label
taken by the Spirit MER rover
their pictures or cartoons drawn on the front of the
postcard. This may help clarify the student’s level of
understanding.
22
EXTENSIONS
This activity can be extended to include a comprehensive
study of the Solar System. Students should work in teams
of 3 or 4 to study the eight planets. Assign a planet to each
team and have them research that planet. They may want
to look for information in your school library or on the
Internet. After the team has learned a few facts about their
planet, have them design a postcard, following the same
directions as in the activity above. You can decide how
much information each team should record.
You might even consider asking student teams to design a
travel poster, which would allow them to incorporate more
information. After each team has completed the
assignment, have them share their findings with the class.
Would they want to live on their planet? Could life
potentially exist on their planet?
Sending a postcard from the planet Mars may seem a little
far-fetched. What would be the best way to communicate
from one planet to the next? You may want to discuss with
your class the various current methods of communication
in space.
To...
Artist’s rendition of the Spirit Rover
[email protected]
Subject:
my awesome trip to mars
Attachments:
no viruses - download complete
Dear Friend,
How are you? I’m having a great time here on Mars!!! I’ve learned that the atmosphere is 90 percent carbon dioxide... That means I always have to
wear a space suit and helmet... Mars has lots of cool rocks too... I have found red hematite, basalt, halite (which proves there was once water on the
planet) and sandstone... Yesterday I visited the largest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons... It is three times taller than Mount Everest!!!
Today, I’m visiting the largest canyon in the Solar System, The Mariner Valley... It’s close to 2600 miles long!!! Check out the cool picture I took... I’m
having a fun time but I miss home... I’m leaving in a couple of days, so I should see you in about seven months...
Hope you’re well!!!
Space
Science
Mars
Exploration
Mars has fascinated astronomers and space scientists for
thousands of years; the following is a list of significant events
in the exploration of Mars.
EXPLORING MARS FROM EARTH
400 B.C. to 1500s A.D.: The First Look at Mars
Ancient civilizations such as the Babylonians, Egyptians,
Greeks and Romans, observed Mars in the night sky without
the benefit of telescopes. These civilizations called this
object by many different names, but only one has lasted
through the ages: Mars, named after the Roman god of war.
Ancient astronomers knew that this strange red object
wandered across the sky in a predictable pattern against a
backdrop of stars.
1600s to 1700s: The Telescope Era
The invention of the telescope brought much clearer
images of the planet to scientists. Galileo Galilei was the
first scientist to view Mars through the telescope in 1609.
With more advanced telescopes, scientists noticed that
Mars spins or rotates and has a rotational period of just over
24 hours. They also found that Mars is much smaller than
Earth and appears to have ice at its north and south poles,
just like Earth.
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1964 to 1972 The Mariner Missions
Mariner 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 were missions designed to give
us a closer look at the Martian surface. Although the
solar-powered Mariner 3 spacecraft made it to Mars, the
instruments failed upon entering the atmosphere. The
launch of Mariner 4 in November 1964 shortly afterward
proved much more successful. The first close-up
photographs taken by Mariner 4 revealed a desolate planet
pocketed by craters, disproving Lowell’s belief of
civilizations on Mars.
Viking I on the surface of Mars
1800s: The Canal Craze and Life on Mars?
In 1877, Giovanni Schiaparelli described streaks on the
surface of Mars using the Italian term “canali.” His
description of “channels” was misinterpreted as “canals,”
thus beginning a detour in Mars exploration. American
astronomer Percival Lowell drew intricate maps of the canals,
which he believed were built by intelligent life to bring water
from the poles to the barren desert areas near the equator
.
Lowell published his “findings” and detailed maps of the
Martian canals in 1895 in his book, Mars, as well as in many
popular newspapers and magazines.
The early 1900s: The Search Continues
By the 1900s, most people had heard of Lowell’s ideas of
intelligent Martians and their intricate system of canals.
Some feared that these Martians from the blood-red planet
were war-like creatures. This idea of life on Mars was
perpetuated in 1938 when Orson Welles’ radio broadcast of
“War of the Worlds” scared millions of people into believing
that Martians were attacking Earth. Luckily, few scientists
shared Lowell’s view of intelligent life on Mars. The desire to
learn more about this mysterious planet paved the way for
spacecraft exploration of Mars.
N A S A E X P L O R AT I O N
I N T H E L AT E 2 0 T H C E N T U R Y
During the last 40 years of the twentieth century, both
Russian and American scientists have made attempts to
explore Mars. Although the Russians were the first to lead
the world with attempted flyby missions, their initiative drove
the Americans to begin their own exploration of the red
planet. The race was on! A summary follows of some of the
recent NASA Missions to Mars.
Mariners 6 and 7 were launched in 1969 with the objective
of providing a more complete picture of Mars, as well
as measuring atmospheric composition, pressure, density
and temperature. The atmospheric experiments indicated
the presence of dust in the atmosphere, as well as carbon
dioxide ice and water ice clouds. Pressure was found to be
between 3.8 to 7.0 millibars (Earth’s is 1013 millibars) and
temperatures were recorded as high as 63° F.
Mariners 8 and 9 were launched in 1971. Although Mariner
8 failed shortly after launch, this was overlooked by the
success of Mariner 9, one of NASA’s first Mars orbiters.
After orbiting Mars for 349 days, the spacecraft provided
7,329 images of Mars, showing us nearly 80% of the planet,
as well as Mars’s two moons, Phobos and Deimos. These
images confirmed the notion of Martian dust storms and
revealed detailed surface features such as extinct
volcanoes, ancient riverbeds, canyons, and wind-driven
deposits of sediment. With these new images came the
first pieces of evidence of liquid water on Mars sometime
in the past.
1975: The Viking Missions
Viking 1 and Viking 2 were the first spacecraft from Earth to
successfully land on the Martian surface. Each mission
consisted of an orbiter and a lander. The orbiters
photographed the entire surface and the landers took soil
samples and analyzed them for composition and signs of life.
The landers also examined the composition of the
atmosphere and deployed seismometers. Although iron-rich
soil did not yield any conclusive evidence for signs of life, the
meteorology experiments informed scientists that there are
variable temperatures on Mars throughout the day, seasonal
dust storms, and changes in pressure. In addition, the
images sent back from the orbiters confirmed that water had
once flowed on the surface.
C O N T I N U E D O N N E X T PA G E >
25
Space
Science
Clouds covering volcano on Mars
Surface of Mars taken by Pathfinder
26
Sojourner on Mars
Mars Exploration
( C O N T I N U E D F R O M P R E V I O U S PA G E )
1996 to 2006: Mars Global Surveyor
After the failure of the costly ($980 million) Observer mission
in 1992, scientists wanted to test the feasibility of low-cost
landings and explorations on Mars. The Global Surveyor,
launched in November 1996, successfully set out to perform
the Observer’s tasks, while keeping development costs at
$154 million. It had six main objectives, including obtaining
high-resolution images and laser beam-transmitted
topography of the surface, testing for the existence of a
magnetic field, modeling its gravitational force, understanding
the role of water and dust on the surface, and determining the
composition of rocks, dust, ice and clouds. In January 2001,
Surveyor completed its mapping phase on schedule (within a
full Martian year of 687 days). Global Surveyor continued to orbit
Mars, sending useful information to Earth about seasonal
changes, atmospheric composition and topographic photos
where future rovers can land. Global Surveyor died in 2006 after
the batteries were accidentally exposed to the sun for too long.
1996 to 1997 Mars Pathfinder
Mars Pathfi nder consisted of a lander and a rover that would
be used to test communications, imaging systems, and the
maneuverability of a rover on the surface. It launched on
December 4, 1996 and entered the Martian atmosphere on
July 4, 1997. The lander bounced on the surface of Mars,
cushioned by large balloon-like airbags, before opening to
reveal the rover Sojourner, the first-ever robot on Mars
controlled by an Earth-based operator. The two-foot long
Sojourner studied the Martian soil as a geologist would,
analyzing the composition and comparing it to Earth’s.
It determined that the soil was composed of the same minerals
as the rocks and soil on Earth, but in different propor tions. The
rover’s performance exceeded its designers’ expectations and
was able to survive in the hostile environment due to its ability
to detect and react to unfavorable conditions.
While Sojourner rolled around the landing site, the solarpowered lander’s task was to support the Sojourner and relay
its data to Earth. Additionally, the lander was equipped with a
camera and weather station to detect possible dust storms
among other tasks. Communication with the rover and lander
was lost for unknown reasons on September 27, 1997, having
surpassed its intended lifetime by almost 2 months. The Mars
Pathfinder mission cost approximately $265 million including
launch and operations. Development and construction of the
lander cost $150 million and the rover about $25 million.
2004 to 2009: MER Rovers Spirit and Opportunity
On June 10th, 2003, the first of the MER (Mars
Exploration Rovers), Spirit, was launched. A few weeks
later on July 7th, 2003, the twin rover Opportunity was
launched. On January 4th, 2004, Spirit landed on Mars
near the Gusev crater. Opportunity landed on Mars
January 25th, 2004 inside the Eagle crater, which is now
referred to as the planetary “hole-in-one.” The main
objectives of the rovers are to search for and characterize
a variety of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water
activity. In particular, samples sought will include those that
have minerals deposited by water-related processes such
as precipitation, evaporation, sedimentary cementation or
hydrothermal activity. Determine the distribution and
composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding the
landing sites. Determine what geologic processes have
shaped the local terrain and influenced the chemistry.
Such processes could include water or wind erosion,
sedimentation, hydrothermal mechanisms, volcanism,
and cratering. Perform calibration and validation of
surface observations made by Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter instruments. This will help determine the accuracy
and effectiveness of various instruments that survey
Martian geology from orbit. Search for iron-containing
minerals, identify and quantify relative amounts of specific
mineral types that contain water or were formed in water,
such as iron-bearing carbonates. Characterize the mineralogy
and textures of rocks and soils and determine the processes
that created them. Search for geological clues to the
environmental conditions that existed when liquid water was
present. Assess whether those environments were conducive
to life. The rovers have been quite successful in these objectives.
Within a few months of landing, Opportunity had discovered the
possibility of water flowing through the Meridiani Planum when
it found small spheres of hematite called “blueberries.”
Hematite is a rock that is predominantly formed in water,
(although it can be formed in volcanoes) and these small
spheres suggest that water flowed through the outcropping of
the Eagle crater. A few weeks later, Spirit drove upon the “Mimi”
rock, a flaky rock that probably formed its structure after water
flowed over it. There has also been evidence that the rovers
have discovered opals and halite, two rocks formed when water
evaporates. The rovers have also been a marvel of endurance
while exploring the Martian surface. Spirit has traveled over 10km
on Mars and has scaled Husband Hill. Opportunity, despite getting
its wheels caught in the sand, has entered and left numerous craters
and is currently heading forEndeavour crater the largest crater to ever
be explored. The initial cost for the 90 day mission was roughly 809
million dollars, but because of the rover’s endurance and continued
success, scientists estimate that the cost per year is only 20 million!
Heat Shield Meteorite on Mars
“Blueberries” (Hematite) on Mars
Mimi Rock - Did water form this rock?
To Learn More About MSL - Curiosity
Please go to page 90.
27
Mars Exploration
TIMELINE
For thousands of years astronomers have
observed the red planet. It wasn’t until recent
history that humans developed technology
capable of giving us an up-close view of Mars.
This activity will spark your students’ interest in
Mars Exploration while learning about the
challenges of exploring Mars through the ages.
M AT E R I A L S :
Students will need access to resources
(the Internet, books, magazines), paper or
poster board, and writing utensils.
Optional: String or clothesline, paper clips
ACTIVITY TIME
2 – 4 days/varies; may take several
hours over several days
TEACHER TIPS
Refer to reputable websites for up-to-date
accurate information on recent missions to Mars.
NASA and JPL’s websites have a wealth of
information on Mars Exploration.
PROCEDURE
1 Begin by asking students how scientists can learn about
objects in the Solar System (i.e. Mars). What did the early
astronomers do without any tools to help them see the
objects? What technology do we use today to learn about
the planet Mars and other features of the Solar System?
Guide the student discussion to include telescopes,
satellites, orbiters, landers, and rovers.
2 Group students into teams of two to four. Ask them to
generate 1 or 2 questions about the history of Mars
exploration. Possible questions include:
1 • When was Mars first discovered?
1 • When did the first spacecraft land on Mars?
1 • When did scientists get the first color pictures of Mars?
1 As an alternative to generating questions in small groups,
you may want to have a classroom discussion that
generates these questions.
3 Once the class has generated questions, ask each team to
choose one that they would like to investigate as a group.
You might also choose to assign questions from the
question list to groups. These questions may be used as a
starting point for research on each topic. Invite students
to use their library or the Internet to gather information.
A sample timeline precedes this activity.
4 Inform students that their research will be used to create a
Mars timeline. To help students better understand histor y
and time, ask students to make some guesses as to
whether their Mars events occurred before or after some
more well-known events such as:
1 • Their birthday
1 • Their parent’s birthday
1 • The signing of the Declaration of Independence (1776)
1 • The first airplane flight (1903)
Artist’s rendering of the Mars Science Laboratory
which is expected to land on the surface of Mars
August, 2012
28
5 Once research is complete, students will create a card
based on their research. The card is a visual display that
shows how their topic or mission fits chronologically within
the timeline of Mars Exploration. Each card should include
an image of some kind (drawing or internet print), and the
format as follows:
1 • The original Mars question chosen by the group
1 • Name of topic or mission
1 • Year(s) or time span of topic
1 • What happened? (This is basically the answer to the
question.)
1 • What we learned about Mars. (This describes what new
information about Mars was discovered during this
event.)
5 The card can be made of any material (cardboard, paper,
etc.). These “Mars cards” will be hung for display, and
should have a place where string can be attached for
hanging.
6 To complete the project, student teams will present their
findings to the class before hanging their card on the Mars
Exploration Timeline. The timeline can be a string or
clothesline that you’ve hung across the room. When
finished, the timeline will provide a unique reference and
display of group investigations. It may be difficult to make a
scale timeline, since it will depend on which questions
students choose. (Remember, people have known about
Mars for a very long time.)
EXTENSION
Each team can also create their own timeline, using the
Mars discovery that they researched, as well as the non-Mars
events described earlier (birthday, first airplane, etc.)
Students could use adding machine tape or several pieces
of paper taped together to create their timeline.
Question List
Here is a list of questions that might be used to help
generate research questions for the student groups.
Many of the answers are found within the
background sections in this guide.
• Before there were telescopes, ancient astronomers
observed Mars with their naked eyes. What were
some of the features they noticed about Mars? Why
did the Greeks name Mars after their god of war?
• Who was the first astronomer to view Mars
through a telescope and in what year? What new
information did we learn by observing Mars with
the telescope?
• What was the “Canal Craze” and how did it
affect the public’s view of Mars? Which Italian
astronomer described the canals?
• What was the importance of the Mariner 4 mission?
What did the photographs reveal?
• What was the importance of the Mariner 9 mission?
The images revealed evidence of what substance
on Mars’s surface?
• What was the importance of Viking 1 and Viking 2 ?
Why were soil tests performed?
• What was the importance of Mars Global Surveyor ?
• What were the two components of the Mars
Pathfinder mission? What did each part do?
• What was the importance of Mars Odyssey?
What does it continue to do today (2009)?
• What is the goal of the Mars Exploration Rovers?
How are the rovers different than the Sojourner
(part of Mars Pathfinder )?
• What was the goal of the Phoenix Lander ?
• What is the goal of the Mars Science
Laboratory? (Curiosity)
In the distance the Apollo mountains named after Gus Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White who died in the cockpit of Apollo 1
29
Earth
Science
Rocks and the
Red Planet
Olympus Mons
Satellites and probes have provided much information about
Mars and its geology. Our understanding of Mars is also
based on what we already know about geologic processes
on Earth. For instance, understanding how volcanoes behave
on Earth helps scientists better understand the effects of
volcanoes on the Martian landscape.
While working on the Skymobile, students will examine
“Mars rocks” which are actually Earth analogues of rocks
scientists would expect to find on Mars. (Although rovers
have landed on Mars, no rocks have been brought to Earth.)
These rocks point to three different types of geologic
phenomena: volcanoes, impact craters, and erosion.
VOLCANOES AND IGNEOUS ROCKS
Deep within the Earth, it is hot enough for rock to melt! That
melted rock, called magma, rises due to underground heat
and pressure. The magma might reach the surface, where it
explodes out, forming a volcano. Magma is called lava after
it reaches the sur face. Whenever melted rock cools, inside or
outside the Earth, it forms igneous rock.
There is a wide variety in appearance of igneous rocks, due
to volcano type, lava composition and the speed of cooling.
Basalt is formed by dark-colored lava hardening on the
surface. Some basalt is filled with holes, made by trapped
gas bubbles. Granite is formed from magma that rose only
partway and cooled slowly, underground. Obsidian is black
volcanic glass, formed when lava cooled very quickly. Early
civilizations used obsidian to make sharp tools and blade
points. Pumice forms when magma is mixed with water,
which becomes steam during eruption, making the new lava
look frothy. As the lava cools quickly, the escaping steam
leaves many tiny air pockets in the rock, which makes pumice
so light that it can float on water!
The largest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons, is
found on Mars. Many scientists suspect that Olympus Mons
and the other large volcanoes near it are extinct, meaning that
they are no longer able to erupt. Scientists are interested in
finding volcanoes on Mars that could still erupt. This would
suggest that there is still hot magma beneath the
planet’s surface, which could make things warm.
They believe that warmer temperatures might
allow some living things to survive.
40
M E T E O R I T E S A N D C R AT E R S
When we see a shooting star, we are watching a meteoroid
enter the atmosphere, causing a streak of light, or a meteor.
Meteoroids are small stone and metal debris fragments,
formed when comets or asteroids disintegrate. Many of the
meteoroids that cross paths with Earth’s orbit burn up on
their trip through our atmosphere because of intense friction
(showing us the meteor streaks). Those meteoroids that are
large enough to survive the trip are called meteorites.
About fifty plum-sized meteorites hit the Earth every day!
These impacts leave us with samples of outer space rock—
sometimes even materials identified as being from the Moon
or Mars. Meteorites that scientists suspect came from Mars,
dating back to an origin of 1,300 million years ago, have been
The Whale Tail Dune on the surface of Mars
found in Antarctica.
Large meteorites can
E R O S I O N A N D S E D I M E N TA R Y R O C K S
hit a planet’s surface
Rocks at the Earth’s surface are continually undergoing
with such force that
erosion by water, wind and ice. The worn-off particles, usually
they blast out a large
the size of sand grains or smaller, are called sediments.
impact crater. Mercury
Rivers eventually carry the sediments to lakes or oceans,
and our Moon are
where they are deposited in layers on the bottom. Imagine
covered with craters
the weight of all the water in the ocean, pressing down on
because they have no
the bottom! That pressure consolidates and cements the
atmosphere. Mars has
layers into sedimentary rocks. Dissolved minerals in the water
lots of craters as well,
also help glue the sediments into rock.
Victoria Crater
but not as many as our
Sedimentary rocks are really re-formed solids, composed of
Moon. The thin
bits of previously existing rocks. Sandstone is a great example
atmosphere on Mars probably causes some of the space
of a sedimentary rock. You can usually see the sand grains,
rocks to burn up before they hit the ground. Earth has even
exposed in their layers, and imagine how it was compressed.
fewer meteorite craters, due in part to an atmosphere that is
Mudstone is very similar to sandstone, but the grains are
even thicker than Mars’.
much smaller and are usually not distinguishable. Mudstone
often feels dustier than the grainy sandstone. Conglomerate
Certain rocks show us the effects of meteorite impacts.
is a sedimentary rock that was made of particles much bigger
Tektites are small, pitted, glassy rocks, usually of a dark
than
sand, silt or mud. Pebbles or fragments of rocks were
color. They are created when a large meteorite melts a
cemented together, within a surrounding matrix. The rock
sandy area, sending molten globules flying into the air.
pieces within a conglomerate are usually rounded, indicating
Shattercones have a rippled, fan-like pattern on their
surface that formed as a result of the extreme force of the their previous re-shaping by erosion.
meteorite crashing into the planet. Impact breccia is
Erosion also changes the surface of the Earth, by forming
formed from fragments of rocks that were smashed from
channels, re-locating soil, and re-shaping coastlines. The
the meteorite impact. Over ages of time, the debris was
Grand Canyon on Earth is an excellent example of water
compacted and glued together to form this impact breccia. erosion. So on the Earth, we see that water is necessary for
Breccia has angular fragments, as compared to the
sedimentary rocks to form, and that water causes many of
rounded debris that forms conglomerates.
our surface features. We know that Mars is very dry today,
with no rivers, lakes or oceans. But some places on Mars
look like the dry riverbeds or old flood plains that we find
on Earth. Scientists believe that these areas on Mars may
have been formed by water erosion long, long ago. In
these areas, we would expect to find different kinds of
sedimentary rocks.
Could this be a riverbed on Mars?
41
Create - a -Crater
What happens when a meteorite hits?
What evidence does it leave behind? Impact
craters can tell us a lot about a planet’s history.
Try this activity with your students to simulate a
crater formation and predict how craters form
under different circumstances.
M AT E R I A L S
Each team of students will need:
a wide, shallow box or pan (pie pans, foil roasting
pans, or pizza boxes work well), simulated surface
(cocoa powder or chocolate pudding mix), simulated
bedrock (white flour), meteorites (small rocks,
marbles or other small items), newspaper, ruler.
ACTIVITY TIME
20 minute set-up, 30 minute activity
NEW WORDS
crater floor, crater rim, crater wall, ejecta, meteor,
meteorites, meteoroids, rays
PROCEDURE
Before Class:
1 Cover the floor with newspaper. Place pans or boxes on top
of paper. You’ll need one pan/box for every 3–4 students.
2 Fill pans or boxes with a thick layer (1”) of flour. Smooth
out the layer so that it has a flat surface. You can use a
ruler to skim the surface. Cover the top of the flour with a
thin layer of cocoa or pudding mix—should be enough so
the surface is uniformly brown. A flour sifter or strainer
makes this step much easier.
During Class:
1 Find out what students know about meteors, meteoroids
and meteorites.
2 Ask students what they think will happen when something
is dropped into the flour (You might even want to
demonstrate to see if their prediction is correct). Then ask
students to predict what happens if the object is dropped
from a different height. Inform students that they will be
testing their predictions.
3 Students will work in teams of 3–4 over the pan or box.
Distribute several different objects to each team, or
alternatively, allow teams to choose several different
objects to use as their meteorites. Students will also need
a ruler, pencil, and a copy of the student worksheet.
4 Have teams begin by dropping one of the “meteorites”
from a height of 40–50 cm. Before they drop, each team
member should record the height of the object above the
surface. A sample data table has been included in the
student worksheet at the end of this activity.
5 After each drop, ask students to record the diameter of the
resulting crater and the distance of the farthest ejecta
(material that flies out from crater) measured from the
center of the crater outward. Then have students draw,
label, and describe their craters. The vocabulary listed
above may be useful in describing the craters. See Glossary
for definitions.
Wolf Creek Crater in Australia
42
6 Allow each team member to drop at least one object.
Students should try a variety of different objects.
RIM
WALL
FLOOR
Barringer Crater in Arizona - photo courtesy of Mike Williams
7 Ask students to use their findings (distances,
crater descriptions, diameters) to try to see if their
prediction was right. Discuss how looking at a
crater might tell you about the meteorite that
created it.
8 Discuss with students how scientists answer
questions. In this case, students used a model to
gather data that would support their answer.
Scientists often use this same method.
EJECTA
EXTENSIONS
• Ask students to create graphs that compare drop
height to diameter or drop height to ejecta
distance. What do these graphs tell us about the
relationship between height, diameter & ejecta
distance?
• Consider asking students to think about other
questions that they would like to answer. For
example, does the shape or size of the object
affect the shape of the crater? What information
would they need to collect in order to answer the
question? Ask them how they might organize that
data. Based on that discussion, students should
design their own data table for this activity.
Smiley Face crater on
surface of Mars
43
C R E AT E - A - C R AT E R
NAME
STUDENT WORKSHEET
1 Make a prediction about what will happen when the object is dropped from a different height
What do you think will happen to the crater diameter?
What do you think will happen to the ejecta ?
2 DATA BOX
Starting Height (cm)
object dropped:
Crater Diameter (cm)
weight (g) :
Ejecta Distance (cm)
(from center to most
distant mark)
Observations :
Describe your findings. How did changing the drop height affect the size of the crater?
How did it affect the ejecta distance?
3 Draw, label and describe a crater on the back of this paper.
Marshmallow Rocks
A rock is a rock, right? Not quite. In this quick
and tasty activity students will better understand
the basic differences between igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks using
marshmallows to model geologic processes.
M AT E R I A L S
Each student will need three marshmallows and
some napkins or paper towels
ACTIVITY TIME
15-20 minutes
NEW WORDS
igneous rock, metamorphic rock, sedimentary rock
PROCEDURE
1 Modeling Metamorphic Rocks
Ask students to squish one of the marshmallows between
their palms (hard!) for 1 minute. Take a look at the result.
Has the marshmallow changed? Is it going back to its
original shape? What changed it? (Heat and pressure have
changed this marshmallow, like a metamorphic rock.)
2 Modeling Igneous Rocks
Have students place a marshmallow in their mouth, but
instruct them not to chew or swallow. After about 1
minute, have the students remove what’s left of their
marshmallow and place it on a napkin or paper towel.
Look at the ‘rock’. Is it the same as it was? What
happened to it? Is it getting harder as it sits on the paper
towel and cools off? ( Igneous rocks are formed from
melted rock that has cooled.)
3 Modeling Sedimentary Rocks
Ask the students to break the last marshmallow up into
at least 5 pieces. Have students put their pieces back
together again. Is it the same shape or size as it was
before it was broken? (Small bits and pieces of rock make
up the whole in sedimentary rocks.)
45
Do - it - Yourself Crystals
Crystals come in different shapes and sizes.
One way to make crystals is to allow dissolved
minerals or salts to cool. As water cools, it is not
able to dissolve solids as well, so the minerals
will recrystallize.
M AT E R I A L S
Each student will need: a pint or quart sized glass
jar, pipe cleaner, long plastic spoon, pencil or
wooden craft stick, a 1/2 cup of Borax laundry
booster (found in the laundry soap aisle),
and hot water.
CAUTION!
This activity requires students to work with hot
water. It is recommended that the teacher provide
the hot water for the students, and that safety
procedures for working with hot water be discussed
with students prior to start. Electric kettles are an
inexpensive and relatively safe way to heat and
dispense water. Alternatively, you might choose to
use a large coffee pot (with spigot) as a way of
dispensing the hot water.
ACTIVITY TIME
30 minutes, plus 30 minutes for observation
and discussion time the next
. day
NEW WORDS
crystal, minerals
PROCEDURE
1 Students should wrap one end of the pipe cleaner around
the stick or pencil. Place the pipe cleaner in the empty jar,
making sure the “unwrapped” end of the pipe cleaner
hangs down into the jar, but does not touch the sides or
bottom. The stick should rest on the rim of the jar to keep
the pipe cleaner from falling in. Students can bend a
shape into the pipe cleaner wire if they wish.
2 Remove the pipe cleaner/stick assembly from the jar.
Add hot (boiling) water, filled to about 3/4.
(See caution note.)
3 Students should then add 5 spoonfuls of borax powder to
each jar, stirring until the solution becomes clear. Instruct
them to continue adding borax one spoon at a time and
stirring until they see bits of borax powder on the bottom
of the container that won’t dissolve. (The solution is now
saturated, meaning that it holds as much borax as it can at
that temperature.)
4 Place the pipe cleaner into the solution. Again, be sure the
pipe cleaner doesn’ t touch the bottom or the sides.
5 Allow the jar to sit undisturbed overnight.
6 On the following day, carefully remove the pipe cleaner.
You should be able to see crystal clusters that have grown
on the pipe cleaner. Consider using the following
questions to promote discussion:
1 • Where did the crystals come from?
1 • Do all of the crystals have the same shapes? (All of the
borax crystals should have basically the same shape—
this is a characteristic of the borax.)
1 • Why are some bigger? (Possibly more borax dissolved,
but hard to say. There are many variables that affect
crystal growth.)
1 • What would happen if the jars were placed in the
refrigerator? (Lower temperatures would force more
borax to “come out” of the solution and crystallize.)
EXTENSION
Challenge students to use the library or Internet to find out
how other crystals like ice, diamond and quartz are formed.
46
Sweet Rocks
(Adapted from Exploring Meteorite Mysteries
,
NASA document EG-1997-08-104-HQ)
Scientists identify specimens by observing and
describing their physical characteristics.
In this activity, students draw and describe “rock
samples,” first in everyday language, then with
scientific terms. They will then attempt to match
geologic descriptions to other “rock samples.”
Did we mention that the rocks are actually edible?
M AT E R I A L S
Sliced candy bar or snack samples, snack size
plastic bags, copies of Student Worksheet
(one sheet per team of two)
Note: The “rock samples” used for Part 1 can be
any variety of candy bars, cookies or
other foods that might resemble rocks.
Part 2 requires 2 to 4 samples of the following:
Marshmallow Crispies bars (you can make or
buy these), Butterfingers,® Kit Kats ®and Twix.®
TIME
40–50 min
PROCEDURE
Before Class
1 Cut the candy bars into cross-section pieces so that flat
interior surfaces are exposed. You might reserve extra
pieces for students to eat after the activity is over or during
lunchtime. Beware of students with peanut allergies!
2 Place each sample in a small plastic bag. Each team of two
students can work with one bag containing one sample.
For a class of 30 working in teams of 2, you’ll need at least
45 sample baggies (15 for part 1, 30–60 for part 2). An
easier, but potentially messier preparation would involve
giving each team a paper plate, and then simply placing
the samples on their plate.
3 Copy Student Worksheets—one for each team of two.
Part 1
1 Divide students into teams of two. Pass out a “rock”
sample and worksheet to each team. For this part,
consider using a variety of candy samples. However, it will
still work if all students study the same type of candy.
2 Begin by discussing with students how scientists classify
and identify specimens by observing and describing their
physical characteristics. Explain that each team should
closely observe their sample, then draw and describe it on
their worksheet. Students can write this first description
using familiar, everyday words, but WITHOUT using any
food terms like sweet, crispy or chocolate-coated.
3 When the sketch and first description are complete,
introduce the new vocabulary terms listed on the next page.
Explain that scientists often use these words to more
accurately describe what it is that they see.
4 The teams can now write a geologic description of their
“rock,” using the new geology terms.
5 If appropriate, students can (when finished) eat their rock
specimens!
C O N T I N U E D O N N E X T PA G E >
47
Sweet Rocks
Vocabulary
Dense
Friable
Inclusions
packed tightly together
Matrix
the main part (inside)of a rock;
other pieces or inclusions may
be found within the matrix
Platy
flaky, flat material
Porous
Texture
has small holes (pores)
Unconsolidated
Uniform
Vesicles
crumbly
pieces of rock that have been
fused into (included in)
another rock
(CONTINUED)
PROCEDURE (CONTINUED)
Part 2
1 Distribute two to four more rock samples to each team,
as well as Part 2 of the worksheet. As mentioned,
these should be Twix,® Kit Kat,® Butterfinger, ® or
Marshmallow Crispies.
2 Students should begin by drawing a sketch of their new
“rocks.” Once they have completed recording this data,
they should examine the rock descriptions on their
worksheet. Challenge students to identify their samples,
based on the geologic descriptions given.
3 When students have completed, ask teams to explain how
they were able to identify their rock samples.
EXTENSIONS
the look or feel of a surface
You can extend Part 1 by asking students to share their rock
(e.g. a rough or smooth texture) descriptions with other teams. You can then challenge teams
to identify the rock/candy bar.
not packed together,
Consider bringing in real rock samples for students to identify.
loose pieces
They should begin by sketching their rock and writing a
the same all the way through
description using their new geology vocabulary. They can then
attempt to identify their rocks based on descriptions from rock
air pockets (larger than pores) and mineral guides or electronic resources.
Answer Key
SWEET ROCKS STUDENT WORKSHEET
48
Browenite
Kit Kat ®
Kuriosite
Butterfinger ®
Mallowstone
Marshmallow Krispies
Carmelite
Twix ®
SWEET ROCKS
NAME
S T U D E N T W O R K S H E E T PA R T 1
PA G E 1
Look at your rock sample closely. Draw a detailed sketch of the sample. Be sure to show the
flat, cut, inside surface, and any important details of the outside surface.
SKETCH
Write 1-2 sentences describing what you see. Use familiar, everyday words, but do not use any
food terms (like chocolate or peanuts) or any words relating to taste (sweet) or smell (nutty).
DESCRIPTION
SWEET ROCKS
S T U D E N T W O R K S H E E T PA R T 1
PA G E 2
Your teacher will introduce a list of words that geologists might use to describe rock samples.
Scientists often use vocabulary that is more specific or detailed in order to communicate exactly
what they see or understand. Now try to describe your rock again, this time using some of the
geology words. These words are listed again here. Be sure to only use terms that help describe
your particular rock.
VOCABULARY
dense
packed tightly together
friable
crumbly
inclusions
pieces of rock that have been fused into (included in) another rock
matrix
the main part (inside) of a rock; other pieces or inclusions may be found
within the matrix
platy
flaky, flat material
porous
has small holes (pores)
texture
the look or feel of a surface (e.g. a rough or smooth texture)
unconsolidated
not packed together, loose pieces
uniform
the same all the way through
vesicles
air pockets (larger than pores)
DESCRIPTION
SWEET ROCKS
NAME
S T U D E N T W O R K S H E E T PA R T 2
Look at the “rock” samples provided by your teacher and carefully sketch them in the space below.
Be sure to show important details.
SKETCH
Read the rock descriptions below and see if any of these descriptions match your samples.
If they do, write the rock name next to your sketch.
Browenite
Alternate layers of a thin, dense brown solid and a light tan, porous solid. Another
dense, brown layer surrounds the interior.
Kuriosite
Loosely packed, friable, shiny to dull golden pieces, surrounded by a thin
medium-brown layer.
Mallowstone
This rock is made of rounded, light brown pieces with many empty spaces.
The edges of the rock are quite angular.
Carmelite
Outside: thin, medium brown layer with wavy ripples on one side. Inside: shiny,
smooth tan layer on top of a loosely packed, light tan porous matrix.