BEFORE THE AUCKLAND UNITARY PLAN INDEPENDENT HEARINGS PANEL
IN THE MATTER
of the Resource Management Act 1991 and the Local Government (Auckland
Transitional Provisions) Act 2010
AND
IN THE MATTER
of Topic 010 – RPS Heritage and Special Character B4.3.3: Trees and
vegetation
AND
IN THE MATTER
of the submissions and further submissions set out in the Parties and Issues
Report
STATEMENT OF PRIMARY EVIDENCE OF DR ANDREA JULIAN
ON BEHALF OF AUCKLAND COUNCIL
(ECOLOGY – REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT – B4.3.3 PROTECTING OUR HISTORIC
HERITAGE, HISTORIC CHARACTER AND NATURAL HERITAGE: TREES AND VEGETATION)
12 NOVEMBER 2014
1.
SUMMARY
1.1
My name is Dr Andrea Julian and I am a consultant ecologist.
1.2
I am presenting evidence on behalf of Auckland Council regarding the ecological aspects of
the Regional Policy Statement (RPS) Section B4.3.3: Protecting our historic heritage, special
character and natural heritage: Trees and vegetation (Section B4.3.3).
1.3
My evidence concentrates on Objective 2 and Policy 3 of Section B4.3.3. These provisions
centre on the ecosystem services and indigenous biodiversity values of trees and vegetation.
1.4
Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems.
1.5
Ecosystem services provided by trees and vegetation include: erosion regulation, water
quality, water regulation, nutrient cycling, natural hazard regulation, air quality regulation,
climate regulation, fresh water provision, photosynthesis, and aesthetic values.
1.6
Many of the ecosystem services provided by trees and vegetation in Auckland help fulfil the
regional functions of the Auckland Council required under the Resource Management Act
1991 (RMA).
1.7
Objective 2 and Policy 3 are appropriate for recognising and providing for the contribution of
trees and vegetation to the ecosystem services that help fulfil these regional functions.
1.8
Auckland Council’s regional function relating to indigenous biodiversity is also contributed to
by Objective 2 and Policy 3. These provisions are not in conflict with those in RPS Section
B4.3.4 Biodiversity.
2.
INTRODUCTION
2.1
My name is Dr Andrea Julian.
I am a consultant ecologist and have been employed
throughout the Auckland region for over 20 years.
2.2
I hold the degrees of Bachelor of Science in Biology from the University of Waikato (1981),
with Honours from Victoria University of Wellington, and a PhD in Botany from the University
of Auckland (1992). My PhD thesis was in the field of vegetation ecology. It was entitled
‘The vegetation pattern of Rangitoto’ and was an investigation of the interactions of
vegetation with the substrate in which it grows and with the pests that impact upon it.
2.3
I have carried out extensive work on the assessment of the significance and sustainable
management of natural areas for both landowners and councils. My work has been in urban,
periurban and rural settings throughout the Auckland region.
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2.4
I worked as a Senior Heritage Analyst – Ecology for 11 years. I managed the ecological
surveys and developed the maps and schedules of significant natural areas for the isthmus
and inner Gulf Islands of Auckland City.
2.5
I identified the Coastal Protection Areas for the Auckland Regional Plan: Coastal 1995.
2.6
I was one of the team involved in developing the Ministry for the Environment's Indigenous
Biodiversity Guidance Note for the Quality Planning website.
2.7
I wrote the planting guide in Auckland Regional Council’s 2001 Technical Publication #148
(Riparian Zone Management: Strategy: Guideline: Planting Guide).
2.8
I was a member of the panel that allocates the grants for the national Biodiversity Condition
and Advice funds for seven years.
3.
CODE OF CONDUCT
3.1
I confirm that I have read the Code of Conduct for Expert Witness contained in the
Environment Court Practice Note and that I agree to comply with it. I confirm that I have
considered all the material facts that I am aware of that might alter or detract from the
opinions that I express, and that this evidence is within my area of expertise, except where I
state that I am relying on the evidence of another person.
4.
SCOPE
4.1
I have been engaged by Auckland Council to provide evidence in relation to Section B4.3.3
of the RPS and specifically to provide information regarding the ecological aspects of the
objectives and policies in this section of the Proposed Auckland Unitary Plan (PAUP). More
specifically, this evidence concentrates on the recognition of ecosystem services and
indigenous biodiversity as described in Objective 2 and Policy 3 of Section B4.3.3.
4.2
Documents on which I have relied in forming my views have been referenced and footnoted
throughout this evidence.
4.3
This evidence should be read together with the evidence of Ms Rebecca Sanders relating to
planning matters.
5.
EXPERT EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT
5.1
The objectives relating to trees and vegetation in Section B4.3.3 seek to provide outcomes
for:
-
Cultural and natural heritage [Objective 1]
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5.2
-
Maintenance of indigenous biodiversity1 [Objective 2]
-
Provision of ecosystem services [Objective 2]
-
Urban neighbourhood amenity and character [Objective 3]
This evidence concentrates on the second and third of these outcomes: maintenance of
indigenous biodiversity and provision of ecosystem services. Both of these are included in
Objective 2.
5.3
Policy 3 focuses on the identification and protection of areas where trees and vegetation
contribute significantly to the maintenance of indigenous biodiversity and to ecosystems
services.
This is the policy in Section B4.3.3 that most directly provides for ecological
matters.
Policies 2, 4 and 5 do not focus on these matters, but do not preclude their
consideration.
5.4
Notable trees, in contrast, are not assessed using ecological criteria. Neither ecosystem
service provision nor indigenous biodiversity are considered, with a single exception. The
exception is Policy 1(a)(iii) under which any tree that provides critical habitat for a threatened
indigenous species is considered to be notable. This is a high test and would only be met in
particular circumstances for the specific range of species that have been formally determined
to be threatened species2. For example, a tree that provides roosting habitat for native bats,
or is a host for threatened mistletoes, or is a nesting site for threatened birds would meet this
test. However, trees that are nesting sites for non-threatened species, such as tui or kereru
(native woodpigeon), or ‘at risk’ species, such as North Island saddleback, would not.
5.5
Other policies through the plan help to give effect to the objectives in Section B4.3.3. The
policies of Section B4.3.4 Biodiversity are particularly relevant.
Ecosystem Services
5.6
Ecosystem Services is a people-centred concept.
It is not analogous to Indigenous
Biodiversity. Trees and areas of vegetation that provide important ecosystem services may
or may not themselves be indigenous: they may or may not serve as significant habitat for
indigenous biodiversity.
5.7
Ecosystem services have been defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment3
1
‘Indigenous biodiversity’ is a synonym for ‘Indigenous biological diversity’ and ‘Indigenous’ is a synonym for ‘Native’.
Threatened species classification and categories are explained on the Department of Conservation website
http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/difference-between-endangered-and-threatened/
3
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was called for by the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 2000. Initiated
in 2001, the objective of the MA was to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being and the scientific
basis for action needed to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those systems and their contribution to human wellbeing. The MA has involved the work of more than 1,360 experts worldwide and has involved many organisations including the four
initial exploratory exercise partners; the World Resource Institute, the United Nations Environment Programme, the World Bank and
the United Nations Development Programme.
2
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‘Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include;
5.8
-
Provisioning services such as food and water;
-
Regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease;
-
Supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and
-
Cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other nonmaterial benefits.’
Trees and vegetation provide a range of ecosystem services in the urban and rural areas, in
stream valleys and on the coast. The major ecosystem services provided by trees and
vegetation in Auckland are:
-
Erosion regulation – soil retention and the prevention of landslides.
-
Water quality – assimilation and detoxification of compounds through soil and subsoil
processes. Reduction of heat pollution of water bodies.
-
Water regulation – timing and magnitude of runoff, flooding, and aquifer recharge.
-
Nutrient cycling – cycling of nutrients essential for life and preventing toxic
concentrations of these nutrients from building up.
-
Natural hazard regulation – reduction or prevention of damage caused by natural
hazards, such as floods or slips.
-
Air quality regulation – extraction of chemicals and particulates from the air.
-
Climate regulation – influence temperature including in and around urban areas.
-
Fresh water provision – supply of fresh water to people.
-
Photosynthesis – supply of oxygen.
-
Aesthetic values – natural character enjoyed by communities in urban, rural and coastal
settings.
5.9
Many of the ecosystem services provided by trees and vegetation in Auckland help fulfil the
regional functions of the Auckland Council under the Resource Management Act 1991
(RMA). Specifically, the retention, maintenance and, potentially, enhancement of trees and
vegetation can provide ecosystem services that directly contribute to the following regional
functions as described in section 30 of the RMA: [The ecosystem service or services I
consider most relevant for each regional function are shown underlined in square brackets].
30(1)(c) the control of the use of land for the purpose of—
(i)
soil conservation: [erosion regulation]
(ii)
the maintenance and enhancement of the quality of water in water bodies and
coastal water: [water quality; nutrient cycling; erosion regulation; fresh water
provision]
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(iii)
the maintenance of the quantity of water in water bodies and coastal water:
[water regulation]
(iiia)
the maintenance and enhancement of ecosystems in water bodies and coastal
water: [water quality; erosion regulation; nutrient cycling]
(iv)
the avoidance or mitigation of natural hazards: [natural hazard regulation; erosion
regulation; water regulation; climate regulation]
30(1)(f) the control of discharges of contaminants into or onto land, air, or water and discharges
of water into water: [air quality regulation; water quality; climate regulation]
30(1)(fa) if appropriate, the establishment of rules in a regional plan to allocate any of the
following:
(i)
the taking or use of water (other than open coastal water): [water quality; fresh
water provision]
(iv)
the capacity of air or water to assimilate a discharge of a contaminant: [air
quality; water quality; climate regulation; photosynthesis]
5.10
The following paragraphs explain how trees and vegetation provide specific ecosystem
services. Figure 1 summarises these services.
Erosion Regulation
5.11
Vegetative cover plays an important role in soil retention and the prevention of slips. Root
systems of trees hold together soil and rock on steep slopes and cliffs. Soil is protected from
being blown or washed away by substantial vegetation and leaf litter cover on the soil
surface. Trees are particularly important on steep slopes and cliffs as erosion rates can be
very high in these sites. Pohutukawa trees are very important for the stability and retention
of coastal cliffs. They send out extremely strong roots considerable distances from the trunk
of the tree and these serve as ‘cables’ holding rock and soil in place.
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5.12
Pohutukawa trees on steep cliffs are often blamed for causing cliff collapses. For example,
there have been a number of major cliff slips involving pohutukawa in the Bay of Plenty,
some of which have caused fatalities. Press coverage and local opinion has been that
heavy pohutukawa trees were to blame.
However, Environment Bay of Plenty and
Whakatane District Council commissioned a Tonkin and Taylor study that found that the
major cause was stormwater runoff and wastewater seepage from the properties at the top
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of the cliffs. These contributed significantly to the ground saturation levels and increased the
extent and scale of the slips4.
5.13
Botanical information supports this conclusion of the engineering study5. Vegetation on and
adjacent to sixty three slips was assessed along 150km of cliff in the Eastern Bay of Plenty
following the 2004 storm during which 400mm of rain fell in 48 hours on already-sodden
ground. Predominantly the slips were on land vegetated with grass, gorse, pampas and
willow. The vegetation on adjacent undisturbed areas was mainly pohutukawa. Cliffs with a
wide band of pohutukawa forest stretching inland from the cliff top were least affected. Major
slips originating from the cliff tops were invariably in areas where vegetation had been
cleared or disturbed at the cliff top.
Water Quality
5.14
Riparian vegetation stabilises stream banks and, along with wetland vegetation, improves
water quality. The soil and litter layers beneath the vegetation canopy soak up water and
slowly release it into the groundwater. Soil and leaf litter filter a proportion of nutrients and
contaminants out of the water before it enters the stream system. As an ecosystem service
for people, this is particularly important in streams that flow to water reservoirs or to fresh
and coastal waters used by people for recreation or food gathering.
5.15
Plant cover in catchments helps to prevent streams being heated up to unnaturally high
levels. Such modified water temperature regimes can alter physical habitat conditions in
streams, causing algal blooms and adversely affecting, even killing, aquatic species6.
Riparian vegetation, particularly along the smaller streams further up the catchments, shade
water and keep it cool. It also keeps bright light away from the stream, slowing the growth of
algae, which means water stays clearer and algal blooms are prevented.
Water Regulation
5.16
Trees and vegetation reduce the intensity of flooding and increase aquifer recharge. They
soak up water through leaf litter and soil and slowly release it rather than allowing it to flow
immediately and rapidly overland into the nearest watercourse. Some of the water ‘captured’
in this manner is taken up by the trees and other plants and released back into the
atmosphere as water vapour. The remainder seeps slowly into the ground water table and in
some areas recharges aquifers.
4
Improved Hazard Mitigation in Whakatane District - Environment Bay of Plenty & Whakatane District Council - Oct 2007.
5
Pohutukawa – David Bergin & Gordon Hosking – New Zealand Indigenous Tree Bulletin Series 4. New Zealand Forest Research
Institute Ltd – 2006.
6
Temperature as a contaminant in streams in the Auckland region, stormwater issues and management options. Auckland Council
Technical Report 2013/004. October 2013.
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Nutrient Cycling
5.17
Trees and vegetation on riparian and coastal margins, along with wetlands, provide
biological buffers that limit the transfers of deleterious additional nutrient inputs from
fertilisers, livestock waste, human wastes and burned matter. Freshwater areas and coastal
systems have been increasingly affected by eutrophication, causing water to become cloudy
and sometimes odorous and starved of oxygen.
Natural Hazard Regulation
5.18
Trees and vegetation help to regulate or ameliorate natural hazards, such as major slips, cliff
erosion, flooding and heat waves.
5.19
Tree root systems form a very strong network that helps to hold soil and rocks together. This
is important on steep soils, where major slips are more likely. It is also very important on
cliffs, which in Auckland are predominantly along the coastal margins. As mentioned earlier,
pohutukawa is a very important tree for maintaining cliffs, with research suggesting that cliffs
with pohutukawa are less likely to slip than those without7.
5.20
Trees and vegetation also play a part in regulating flooding. They moderate flooding by
slowing overland flow, soaking up a proportion of the runoff and releasing it slowly into the
atmosphere and the groundwater. This is particularly important in urban areas where the
high proportion of impervious surfaces, such as roads and roofs, cause water to run off
rapidly, bringing about sudden, high flooding.
5.21
Trees and vegetation are important for regulating the climate, particularly in urban areas.
They bring temperatures down, which is most important during heatwaves. This function is
discussed in detail in the Climate Regulation section below.
Air Quality Regulation
5.22
Trees are particularly important for air quality regulation within urban areas. They absorb
carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and release oxygen.
They also intercept and trap
airborne pollutants carried by the wind, including ozone, nitrogen dioxide and particulate
pollutants.
5.23
Research in the West Midlands in Great Britain has shown that trees remove airborne
pollutants at three times the rate of grassland8. This can have considerable benefits for
human health. Using epidemiological studies, it was calculated that around 140 fewer people
would die unnecessarily each year from particulate air-borne pollutants, small enough to
enter lungs, if tree numbers were doubled across the West Midlands. For context, the West
7
Pohutukawa – David Bergin & Gordon Hosking – New Zealand Indigenous Tree Bulletin Series 4. New Zealand Forest Research
Institute Ltd – 2006.
8
Trees and Sustainable Air Quality, Using Trees to Improve Air Quality in Cities. Lancaster University and The Centre for Ecology
& Hydrology, Natural Environment Research Council.
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Midlands is an area similar in extent to urban Auckland, but with about twice the population
and about 8.1 million trees.
Climate Regulation
5.24
Trees and vegetation cool the air. This is particularly important in the urban environment
where urban heat island effects can develop. An urban heat island is a city area that is
significantly hotter than the surrounding rural areas due to human activity. Concrete and
asphalt and other construction materials absorb heat during the day and release it slowly
during the night, leading to raised night time temperatures and increased levels of some
pollutants, such as surface ozone. This can cause problems during any period of warm
weather, but can be a significant natural hazard during heatwaves, particularly for the very
young, the elderly and the infirm living in urban areas.
The World Meteorological
Organization9 reported that the heatwave across Western Europe in 2003 caused 43,000
deaths.
5.25
Along with using white concrete and white roofs, trees significantly reduce urban heat island
effects. They do this by shading surfaces that would otherwise soak up heat and also by
transpiration. Trees convert water into water vapour in their leaves and release it into the
atmosphere. In the same way that sweating cools people, transpiration cools the trees and
their environs. The magnitude and intensity of any urban heat islands in Auckland are
unknown, although a postgraduate study on this topic is planned at the University of
Auckland. However, Auckland Council is already anticipating health problems may be a
possible consequence of increased temperatures due to climate change10.
Any such
problems can only be exacerbated should tree cover significantly diminish.
Fresh water provision
5.26
Trees and vegetation help to filter sediment, nutrients and other contaminants from water.
This is already well-recognised in Auckland, in which native bush and plantation forests
clothe the water supply catchments that serve most of Auckland’s demand for fresh water.
These catchments are protected, with no housing, farming or industry allowed in the
catchments. It is recognised that retention of vegetation, particularly indigenous bush, is
important for maintaining high water quality for Auckland’s fresh water supply. The current
water treatment plants would not be able to maintain this standard without the assistance of
the vegetation in the water supply catchments, with the indigenous bush performing better
than plantation forests. During a 1 in 10 year rain storm on 29 January 2011, the water
draining from a fully indigenous bush-clad catchment was only 4 times more turbid than
9
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It is the UN system's authoritative
voice on the state and behaviour of the Earth's atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting
distribution of water resources.
10
http://www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/en/environmentwaste/naturalhazardsemergencies/hazards/pages/climatechangehazards.aspx
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normal, whereas the water from a catchment with two thirds plantation forestry was 46 times
more turbid than normal – exceeding the treatment plant’s capacity11.
Photosynthesis
5.27
The oxygen in the air we breathe is entirely supplied by photosynthesis carried out by living
organisms. Photosynthesis is the process used by plants and algae to capture the energy in
sunshine by using it to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars and other
carbohydrates. Oxygen is, in effect, the waste product of this process: plants and algae
‘exhale’ it. Marine algae produce the most oxygen, but trees and other terrestrial vegetation
are also important. Two fully grown, mature trees can in one year produce the equivalent
amount of oxygen to support a family of four.
5.28
Oxygen levels in the air decrease when we breathe and when organic matter decomposes or
burns. This includes fuel combustion. At present we use more oxygen than is produced and
oxygen levels are decreasing globally every year. Levels may also be locally reduced below
the global level in large cities where there are more people, more fuel used and fewer trees.
It is possible to influence oxygen levels by facilitating oxygen production and reducing
oxygen consumption.
The two obvious methods are reducing fuel combustion and
maintaining and enhancing trees and vegetation.
Aesthetic values
5.29
Trees and vegetation are one of the elements that contribute to natural character and to
landscape value. The demand for aesthetically pleasing natural landscapes has increased
in accordance with increased urbanisation. The United Nations’ Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment has reported a global decline in quantity and quality of areas to meet this
demand and concludes that a reduction in the availability of and access to natural areas for
urban residents may have important detrimental effects on public health and economies.
The aesthetic value ecosystem service relates to a RMA Part 2 matter, section 7(c) the
maintenance and enhancement of amenity values.
Provision of ecosystem services in Section B4.3.3
5.30
Ecosystem services are specifically provided for in Section B4.3.3. Objective 2 of Section
B4.3.3 states that the contribution of trees and vegetation to the provision of ecosystem
services is recognised and enhanced. Policy 3 states that areas where trees and vegetation
contribute significantly to the provision of ecosystem services are to be identified and
protected. This policy particularly mentions the areas that have to date been identified,
namely, the coast, riparian margins, wetlands and areas prone to natural hazards. I consider
Objective 2 and Policy 3 to be appropriate for recognising and providing for the contribution
11
Watercare Services Ltd, 13 June 2011. Submission on the second round of consultation for the proposed National Environmental
Standard for Plantation Forestry.
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of trees and vegetation to the ecosystem services that help fulfil a diverse range of regional
functions.
5.31
Those ecosystem services that are provided by indigenous biodiversity are also specifically
recognised and provided for in Section B4.3.4 Biodiversity. Policy 312 recognises the need to
identify other areas that do or can make a significant contribution to providing ecosystem
services. Policy 1013 recognises that adverse effects on indigenous biodiversity can include
loss of ecosystem services. These policies overlap with and complement those in Section
B4.3.3, but do not duplicate them.
Indigenous Biodiversity
5.32
Auckland Council has a regional function relating to indigenous biodiversity under section
30 of the RMA:
30(1)(ga) the establishment, implementation, and review of objectives, policies, and methods
for maintaining indigenous biological diversity:
5.33
Trees and vegetation can contribute to the maintenance of indigenous biodiversity in a
number of ways:
-
Intrinsic value – Trees and vegetation themselves may be part of the indigenous biological
diversity of Auckland.
-
Habitat provision – Trees and vegetation, both indigenous and exotic, offer habitat for
indigenous species.
-
Aquatic habitat quality – Trees and vegetation shade watercourses and cool runoff, slowing
algal growth and keeping water cooler and clearer, providing conditions suitable for healthy
indigenous freshwater communities. They also assimilate and detoxify compounds through
soil and subsoil processes, reducing the amount of contaminants entering water bodies.
5.34
The maintenance of indigenous biodiversity is provided for in Section B4.3.3. Objective 2 of
Section B4.3.3 is, in part, that the contribution of trees and vegetation to the maintenance of
indigenous biodiversity is recognised and enhanced. Policy 3 is, in part, that areas where
trees and vegetation contribute significantly to the maintenance of indigenous biodiversity be
identified and protected.
I consider Objective 2 and Policy 3 to be appropriate for
recognising and providing for the contribution of trees and vegetation to the maintenance of
indigenous biodiversity in partial fulfilment of the relevant regional function.
12
Was Policy 2 in the notified version of the Unitary Plan – amended to Policy 3 in the track changes version of B4.3.4 as attached
to the Evidence of Jarette Wickham.
13
Was Policy 8 in the notified version of the Unitary Plan – amended to Policy 10 in the track changes version of B4.3.4 as attached
to the Evidence of Jarette Wickham.
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5.35
Indigenous biodiversity is specifically recognised and provided for in Section B4.3.4
Biodiversity. Policy 314 is, in part, to identify other areas that do or can enhance indigenous
biodiversity values. Policy 815 outlines the approach to taken when managing the effects of
activities on biodiversity outside the Significant Ecological Area overlay. These policies are
not in conflict with the provisions in Section B4.3.3.
6.
CONCLUSION
6.1
Objective 2 and Policy 3 of Section B4.3.3 of the Proposed Auckland Unitary Plan RPS help
fulfil Auckland Council’s regional functions under section 30 the RMA, and in particular
section 30(1)(c). They are appropriate for recognising and providing for the contribution of
trees and vegetation to the maintenance of indigenous biodiversity and to the provision of
ecosystem services.
14
Was Policy 2 in the notified version of the Unitary Plan – amended to Policy 3 in the track changes version of B4.3.4 as attached
to the Evidence of Jarette Wickham.
15
Was Policy 7 in the notified version of the Unitary Plan – amended to Policy 8 in the track changes version of B4.3.4 as attached
to the Evidence of Jarette Wickham.
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ATTACHMENT A
Career Summary
1994 – present Natural Heritage Consulting Ltd
Ecological Consultant
1996 – 2007
Auckland City Council
Senior Specialist Ecologist/Planner - Heritage
1993 – 1995
Auckland Regional Council
Ecologist
1993
Department of Conservation
Conservation Officer (Habitat Protection)
Qualifications
University of Auckland
Auckland
[1996]
Certificate of Proficiency in Third Year Environmental Economics (Grade A-)
University of Auckland
Auckland
[1985 – 1992]
PhD Botany
(Ecology thesis ‘The vegetation pattern of Rangitoto’ including;
- review of geological, dating, historical and Maori evidence regarding eruption date(s).
- lava flow pattern, including previously undescribed high viscosity transition sequence from
pahoehoe to a’a lava;
- vegetation pattern and the effects of lava flow type on vegetation establishment and
development;
- structure and distribution of the dominant Metrosideros hybrid population and its
relationship to current hybrid zone and speciation theory;
- distribution of possums and wallabies in the vegetation and the effects of excluding
browsers over a five year period.)
Victoria University of Wellington
Wellington
[1983]
Bachelor of Science with Honours
(Ecology project topic ‘Pine invasion of gorse scrub’)
University of Waikato
Hamilton
Bachelor of Science in Biology
[1979 – 1981]
Affiliations
Member of New Zealand Plant Conservation Network
Member of Auckland Botanical Society
Member of Royal New Zealand Forest and Bird Society
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