SMALL SCALE BEAUTIES
\t first the netsuke was an object of utility, worn proudly
by its owner. Today it has become a fascinating collector's
item, prized for its beauty, craft, complexity, and-in an
age of less and less room for storage-small scale.
Netsuke have been worn in Japan for centuries. Many of
the older ones are fabulously expensive, out of reach of
most collectors' means, bought up by museums all over the
world. Fortunately, artists have continued to do marvelous
work in making netsuke, though netsuke are now seldom
worn even with traditional Japanese dress.
This study examines old styles and new. It gives a complete
history; artists' names; materials used; and the subject mat­
ter of netsuke. Points of special interest are illustrated­
with hundreds of photographs. This is a thorough and com­
pact guide for collector, connoisseur, or novice.
Titles Now in mE COLLECI'ORS UBRARY
FURNITURE by Renate Dolz
HANDBOOK OF BRITISH POTTERY
AND PORCELAIN MARKS by Geoffrey Godden
NETSUKE by F. Aichele and G. Nagel
PORCELAIN by Renate Dolz
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UKE
by Frieder Aichele & Gert Nagel
Translated by Catherine Hutter
POPULAR LIBRARY
•
NEW YORK
Published by Popular Library, CBS Public:atioDS,
CBS Consumer Publishing, a Division of CBS Inc., by
arrangement with Wilhelm Heyne Verlag
September, 1977
Copyright© 1975 by Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich, Germany
English Translation Copyright© 1977
by Popular Library Publishers
ISBN: 0-445-04096-3
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All Rights Reserved
TABLE OF CONTENTS
In Japan-An Article of Utility,
in Europe--A Collector's Item .................
9
THE TOKUGAWA ERA-THE AGE OF NETSUKE.
13
THE FUNCTION OF THE NETSUKE .............
17
THE ORIGIN OF NETSUKE .....................
21
EXAMPLES OF NETSUKE ......................
23
M anju Netsuke .............................
25
Kagamibuta Netsuke .........................,
28
Katabori Netsuke ...........................
30
MATERIALS ..................................
33
TECHNIQUES .................................
47
HISTORY .....................................
49
SIGNATURES AND IMPORTANT SCHOOLS ......
53
COPIES, FORGERIES AND REPRODUCTIONS ....
59
COLLECTORS AND COLLECTIONS .............
63
VALUE AND PRICE ...........................
65
LITERATURE ON NETSUKE ...................
67
REPRESENTATION AND MOTIF ................
69
THE SEVEN GODS OF GOOD LUCK
(SHICHI-FUKUJIN) ........................
71
Hotei .....................................
71
Daikoku
..................................
75
Ebisu .....................................
77
Fukurokuju ................................
78
Jurojin ....................................
79
Benzaiten ..................................
79
Bishamon
81
DARUMA ....................................
81
OKAME
84
v
.
THE SENNIN . ........................ ........
84
Gama.....................................
86
Ikkaku . ...................................
88
Tekkai . ............................ .......
89
Chokwaro .................................
89
Kinko . .......................... ........ .
90
Chinnan...................................
91
Seibo . ............................. .......
91
OTHER MYTHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS . . ......
95
Rakan . ...................................
95
Kwannon..................................
96
Tennin ...... .
96
Ni-0 . ....... . ............................
97
Emma-0 . .................................
97
Oni . ................................ .....
97
Shoki . ............................... ....
99
Raiden and Futen . . . ..... . .................. I 00
MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS ................... 101
Shishi ... . ................................ 101
.
Baku
... .... .
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. .................. ....... 103
Kirin .. .. .... .. .. ............... ...... ...
Tatsu,
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103
Ryu .. ....... .................. ..... 103
Ho-o .... ................ ...... .... ....... 104
Junishi . .............. ... .. ..... .. . ...... 105
.
.
OTHER ANIMALS . ............................ 117
Tanuki ................... ...... .. ......... 120
LEGENDARY
Kappa
CREATURES ..... .............. 121
.............. ..... .......... .... .. 121
Tengu ....... ........................ . ... 121
.
Shojo
............................ ... .... 121
.
Ningyo ................ .... .. ...... ....... 127
Ashinaga and Tenaga . ................ ...... 127
Fukusuke ................................. 127
VI
FAIRY TALES . .
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Shitakiri Suzume
Momotaro .
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Hanasaka Jiji ..................... . ........ 131
Bumbuku Chagama ...
Urashima Taro
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EPICS
JAPANESE
Benkei
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Yoshitsune
Kiyohime
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Watanabe no Tsuna ......................... 139
CHINESE EPICS ............................... 141
Kwan Yu and Chohi
Kikujido
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Shiba Onko
Yoko
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Enshi
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Saishi
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SCENES FROM DAILY LIFE .
Amma
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150
Sarumawashi ............................... 151
The Unsuccessful Rat Catcher
Medicine
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Games . .. ....
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Karako
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................................ 152
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158
Europeans and Other Foreigners ........... .... 160
PLANTS AND FRUIT
Lotos
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MASKS
............. .. ................... 163
NETSUKE
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.................................... 163
Hotzuki
EROTIC
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IN CONCLUSION
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171
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Vll
ILLUSTRATIONS
Bibliography
GLOSSARY
Index
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viii
177
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187
IN JAPAN,
AN ARTICLE OF UTILITY;
IN EUROPE,
A COLLECTORS' ITEM
Is there anyone who hasn't noticed them in antique
shops or at auctions? But even if you have seen them,
and know what they are called-"netsuke (pronounced
nets'key)"-you may have no idea what these tiny carved
pieces of ivory or wood really are. They were devised
centuries ago as counterweights to prevent the objects to
�Vhich they were attached by a cord from slipping through
a belt or sash. Since they are so small, anyone who has
not made an intensive study of these Japanese toggles
may give them only a cursory glance. And with that,
something in life has been overlooked,
an experience
missed that could have given much pleasure and amuse­
ment. How often in life we pass the small thing by because
it seems unimportant!
But it is in miniature that the
netsuke artists captured and immortalized fabulous stories,
fantastic fairy tales and legendary gods, as well as the
minutiae of everyday life. In the finer pieces all these are
represented in such a masterly fashion, it seems incon­
prehensible that man could have produced anything so
delicate and enchanting without technical help. It is not
surprising, therefore, that the netsuke carvers, or netsuke­
shi, required many months to produce one of their master­
pieces. Not only their tenacity has to be admired, but
above all their imagination and the artistry with which
they succeeded in creating miniatures that tell a story,
out of scraps of raw material such as staghorn, nuts or
semiprecious stones, some with the natural form left intact.
9
Photography and the possibility of enlargement give us
the opportunity to make these tiny objects more accessible
to the human eye. They can be photographed from various
angles, even the underside, which is often meticulously
carved, and hopefully the interest of the layman can be
stimulated. That is why in this book we have endeavored
to include as many illustrations as possible, since they tell
more about this miniature art than words possibly could
And once interest is aroused, the next step should be to
hold one of these netsuke in one's hand. Only then does
the magic Of this little art form become manifest. For one
of their qualities is their appeal to the tactile senses­
they "feel good" in the hand.
There is something extraordinarily soothing about let­
ting a netsuke move between your fingers. No wonder
that, together with the prayer beads of the oriental or the
gambler's dice, the netsuke has been added to the rubrik
of Handschmeichler, or objects that give tactile pleasure.
Whoever has felt the worn surface and experienced that
specific gentle warmth of exotic wood or smooth ivory,
will understand. A certain physical sensitivity is probably
necessary for the appreciation of and the urge to collect
these Japanese objets d'art. There is probably no difference
between the loving touch of its earlier wearer in Japan and
the feeling aroused in today's Western collector. Both are
related in feeling to the caress of a lover.
At first the netsuke was an object of everyday use,
worn proudly by its owner; today it has become a fasci­
nating collectors' item. Because of their small size, the
collector of netsuke is rarely limited as to the number he
can find room for. There are famous collections which
have several thousand netsuke. (See Chapter 63: Collectors
and Collections.) The collector who from time to time
acquires a beautiful piece has at the same time made a
good capital investment. As far as the worth of the netsuke
is concerned, he is running no greater risk of a decrease
in value than the investor in stocks, and, unlike the latter,
he can enjoy his asset every day of his life. The person
10
who does not collect, however, cannot imagine the re­
warding evenings which can be spent in the enjoyment
of these little treasures. The opportunity to acquire a new
piece is a thrill no collector forgets.
It is advisable, although not absolutely necessary, that
the novice gain a basic knowledge of netsuke before he
starts collecting them. The concern of this .book is to serve
as an introduction to the history and artistry of these
precious productions of Japanese craftsmanship.
II
THE TOKUGA W A ERA­
THE AGE OF NETSUKE
To attain a better understanding of netsuke it seems
advisable to become acquainted to some extent with the
cultural epoch in which they were rooted. The Tokugawa
era
1603-1867) was the golden age of the art of netsuke.
Since the tenth century in Japan, ambitious and power­
ful tribes and clans had been vying for influence in the
royal household. The shogun (overlord) had developed
into a powerful dictator. In the sea battle of Dan-no-ura,
the Taira clan was devastatingly defeated, and in
1183
the Minamato tribe entered Kyoto as the triumphant vic­
tors. The emperor appointed Yoritomo, head of the tribe,
as shogun for life. From here on the country's leadership,
political, military and economic, lay in the hands of the
shogunate. The country was in effect ruled by a genera­
lissimo or military dictatorship. The office of the shogun
(daimyo)
(samurai). The emperor was
depended for its power on the provincial lords
and the lesser aristocracy
revered only in his role as godhead. Side by side with the
imperial dynasty there ran the dynasties of the shoguns.
The shogunate of the Minamato family was followed by
the overlordship of other tribes. Although these quasi
rulers and their residences changed, the political system
itself remained in effect until
1867. Naturally there were
feuds and wars between the tribes desiring power and
the temporarily ruling shogunate.
The time between
1480 and the end of the sixteenth
sengoku
century was exceptionally restless and was called
13
jidai, "time of the fighting lands," because of its continual
strife. This period was brought to a close by Tokugawa
Ieyasu, Prince of Mikawa, in the bloody battle of Sekiga­
hara (1600). In 1603, the tenno, or emperor-sometimes
imprecisely called the Mikado--rewarded leyasu by mak­
ing him shogun. He became the founder of the powerful
Tokugawa dynasty, which remained in command unti
the Restoration of 1868.
The Tokugawa clan managed cleverly to secure its
claim to total power and eliminate any influences that
might have disturbed the peace. Toward this end certain
precautions were taken. Whereas Hideyoshi, Ieyasu's pred­
ecessor, had encouraged foreign trade, leyasu thought
differently. In 1624 the country was closed off against
most foreign influences; only the Chinese and Dutch were
permitted to trade in specific cities, and the scope of their
activities was limited. The Japanese were forbidden to
travel outside the country. At the same time all national
aspects of life were encouraged. Side by side with writin�
based on Chinese studies, there developed a comprehen­
sive popular literature. As a result, the printing of books
and, above all, the art of woodcutting, flourished. The
Noh plays, with their traditional subject matter, could be
appreciated only by the intellectual; now they were joined
by the Kabuki, a folk theater, the popularity of which
was soon mirrored in innumerable woodcuts by masters
of that art. Although Zen-Buddhism (introduced as early
as the sixth century), continued to play an important role,
Confucianism, with its command to love children and the
subjects of the land, was also encouraged.
Hidetada, leyasu's successor, issued an edict that there
had to be a statue of Buddha in every household. This
command was directed primarily against the Christians,
who now suffered merciless persecution.
During the tribal wars of the sixteenth century Chris­
tianity had come to Japan, along with other manifestations
of European culture. Outstanding was the influence of
the Jesuit, Francis Xavier, who began his missionary work
14
in Japan in 1549. By 1582, probably one hundred and
fifty thousand Japanese had been converted to Christian­
ity. As a result of the poverty following a hundred years
of continuous strife and war, the Christian message of
salvation was welcomed, especially by the poor. During
Hideyoshi's campaign against Korea in 1598, half of his
army is presumed to have been Christian. The aristocracy's
attitude toward the missionaries was also friendly, since
the latter had taught them how to cast cannons and how
to use them, and instructed them in the building of stone
fortresses. Now, however, the Tokugawa rulers feared the
influence of the missionaries and their religion. This re­
sulted in the killing of numerous missionaries and baptized
Japanese.
In a few decades Christianity in Japan had
ceased to exist.
The new Tokugawa residence was built in Edo, today's
Tokyo. This period is accordingly known as the Edo era.
The daimyo (lords) had to own palaces in Edo, besides
their residences in their home towns, and had to put in an
appearance in Edo every other year. Those princes who
had been rendered politically powerless began to lavish
their attention on the decor of their residences, and sur­
rounded themselves with art and luxury. This had a highly
salutary effect on all craftsmanship. Not only were enam­
elers, sculptors, carvers and potters suddenly in great
favor with the aristocracy, but the affluent middle class
also began to play a role as art patrons. The Genroku
period (1688-1703) was especially magnificent and may
be rightly compared to the European rococo era. But with
the end of the shogunate and the opening up of Japan to
outside influences, the deterioration of the traditional
netsuke art may be said to have begun. Just the same, to
this day one finds highly esteemed and capable netsuke
carvers in Japan.
Just as a Japanese did not have European style furniture
in his house and furnished it sparsely, he also did not
carry on his person the many things that fill our pockets
and purses. Not until the sixteenth century, with its West-
15
ern influences, did such a need enter his life.
In the
seventeenth century a samurai carried with him, besides
his two swords, an inro (medicine case); a merchant car­
ried a purse; and, after the introduction of tobacco, the
necessary material for smoking was hung from the belt.
The netsuke was used as a counterweight to secure these
things to belt or sash. As the need for netsuke grew, so did
the form and refinement with which they were executed.
Netsuke became objects to be proud of, and we have the
luxury of the period to thank for the innumerable exquisite
examples of this miniature art form we find today.
16
THE FUNCTION
OF THE NETSUKE
Japanese dress has changed little since the seventeenth
century, when men as well as women wore long wide robe­
like garments called kimonos. These had no buttons, and
the robe was held together at the waist with a broad, artisti­
cally woven belt or obi. Kimonos had no pockets or fas­
teners of any kind; therefore, to carry the few things one
needed, other means had to be found. The women carried
their cosmetic cases (etuis) or purses in their sashes (obi),
which were approximately thirty-four centimeters or thir­
teen inches wide and four meters or sixteen feet long,
whereas the men, as already mentioned, suspended what
they needed from their belts. The object suspended was
called a sagemono or "hanging thing." Among the sagemono
used by practically every man there was the tobacco pouch
or tabakoire; the pipe etui or kiseruzutsu; the medicine jar
or inro; and the purse or kinchaku; on occasion also a
receptacle for writing utensils, the yatate. A toggle or
counterweight was used to attach these objects. It was
called a netsuke-'ne' equaling wood, or root-wood,
'tsuke' meaning hanging, or hanging by a thread or cord.
17
18
Two
brocade purses
with richly figured
ornamentation.
Such
small purses were worn inside the obi (sash), with the figure
protruding as an ornament. The statuette is elaborately inlaid,
with metal joints and thighs; the breast and head are carved in
ivory.
Left: A tobacco pouch in the form of a sake jar. Wood, with inta11.ia,
showing a dancing shojo (legendary tippler) in mother-of-pearl
and tinted ivory. On the back, a ladle. Signed: Jugyoku, with red
lacquered seal. Wood ojime (slide bead on an inro cord) with gold
inlay. Ivory netsuke in manju form: large straw hat; on it, two rats.
Right: Pipe etui (kiseruzutsu). Bamboo. On the front a relief of
Ashinaga (legendary "long legs") and Tenaga (legendary "long
arms"). Engraved on the back, a poem. Signed: Koichi. 21 em.
long. With metal and bamboo pipe.
19
Left: lnro (medicine case) with three compartments, depicting two
rats and a wooden cudgel, a requisite of Daiko, the God of Good
Luck. Black and gold on a gold lacquer base. Small ivory netsuke:
female mask.
Right: lnro with four compartments, depicting shishi (the lion),
leaping. Mother-of-pearl relief inlaid on a gold lacquer iandscape.
Bead ojime. Ivory netsuke: shishi (the lion) with ball. Signed:
Tomochika.
20
THE ORIGIN OF NETSUKE
Obscurity surrounds the origin and development of the
netsuke. As a result, there are countless theories and con­
jectures.
The netsuke shaped like a rod seem to support the the­
ory which suggests that these Japanese toggles were an
outgrowth of similar attachments used by the Mongolian
riders. Another interpretation relates their origin to the
Chinese seal. With the adoption of Chinese painting in
Japan, the seal with which the painter signed his work
was also introduced. In Japan these Chinese seals, most
of which were in the form of a figure, were called kara­
mono or "Chinese thing." Because of their daily use, it
could be deduced that they also served as belt toggles.
The most plausible conjecture, however, seems to be that
artistically fashioned belt toggles were originally carved
out of suitable natural materials such as shells, gnarled
roots, bamboo or tiny gourds.
The netsuke is attached to the sagemono---or thing
which it suspends--by a silk cord, which is drawn through
behind the belt or sash with the netsuke showing above it.
Generally it is artistically shaped in a form easily handled,
with the typical two holes or himotoshi through which to
draw the cord. Frequently one of the holes is larger than
the other to facilitate the threading. This double cord is
almost thirty-three feet long. Between netsuke and sage­
mono we usually find an equally artistically carved bead,
the ojime, which serves as a slide, or, as in the case of the
inro, to close the hanging thing. We find various types of
these basic forms.
21
Himotoshi: An example of the
cord holes, in this case on the
side of the statuette. A netsuke
depicting the sennin (hermit)
Chokwaro, with a gourd bottle.
Ivory.
Himotoshi: Contrary to the normal fastening procedure with two
holes, we sometimes come across a netsuke with only one hole.
The cord was threaded from below and knotted above, to prevent
its slipping back. This netsuke shows a collector's ticket with the
number 411.
22
EXAMPLES OF NETSUKE
First let us take a look at the sashi netsuke, which rep­
resents one of the original forms of this Japanese belt
toggle. This is the rod-shaped netsuke. With a hole bored
in the top for the cord, it is stuck into the belt like a
dagger. It lends itself exceptionally well to the shape of a
fish.
We seldom find obi-hasami netsuke. (Obi, belt; hasami,
fastened between two things.) The upper round of this
c-shaped netsuke is stuck into the belt, while the thing to
be fastened is attached to the lower round.
Recumbent boy. Ivory. The cord is passed through the holes
created by the crooked arms.
23