Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
Toolkit Appendices
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Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
Table of Contents
1.
Orders of Magnitude
3
2.
Units and Conversion Factors
2.1. Distance
2.2. Area
2.3. Volume
2.4. Mass
2.5. Pressure
2.6. Temperature
2.7. Force
2.8. Energy
2.9. Power
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
3.
Energy Reference Numbers
3.1. Approximate Values of the Most Common Measures of Energy
3.2. Approximate Values of the Most Common Energy Flows
3.3. Energy Content of Select Substances
6
6
6
7
4.
Power Reference Numbers
4.1. Examples of Power Use and Requirements
8
8
5.
Energy Resources, Emissions, and Data
5.1. Global Exergy Flux, Reservoirs, and Destruction
5.2. Fossil Energy Resources
5.3. Renewable Energy Resources
5.4. Emissions Factors
6.
References
9
9
10
11
11
15
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Toolkit Appendices
1. ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE
Table 1 Orders of Magnitude & Metric Unit Conversions
Multiple
Prefix
Symbol
10-18
0.000000000000000001
atto
a
10-15
0.000000000000001
femto
p
10-12
0.000000000001
pico
p
0.000000001
nano
n
10-6
0.000001
micro

10-3
10
-9
0.001
milli
m
10
-2
0.01
centi
c
10
-1
0.1
deci
d




10
1
10
deka
da
10
2
100
hecto
h
10
3
1,000
kilo
k
106
1,000,000
Mega
M
109
1,000,000,000
Giga
G
1012
1,000,000,000,000
Tera
T
1015
1,000,000,000,000,000
Peta
P
1018
1,000,000,000,000,000,000
Exa
E
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Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
2. UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
Distance
1 meter (m) = 3.281 feet (ft) = 39.37 inches (in)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 ft = 1.609 kilometers (km)
1 micron (µ) = 10-6 m
1 angstrom (Å ) = 10-10 m
Area
1 square meter (m2) = (100 cm)2 = 104 square centimeters (cm2)
1 square meter (m2) = (3.281 ft)2 = 10.8 square feet (ft2)
1 square kilometer (km2) = (1000 m)2 = 106 m2 = 0.4 square miles (mi2)
1 hectare (ha) = (100 m)2 = 104 m2 = 2.47 acres
1 acre = 43560 ft2
1 barn (b) = 10-24 cm2
Volume
1 cubic meter (m3) = 1000 liters (l) = 264.2 US gallons (gal) = 35.31 cubic feet (ft3)
1 liter (l) = 103 cubic centimeters (cm3) = 103 mL = 1.057 US quarts
1 acre foot = 1.234× 103 m3
1 cord = 128 ft3
1 board foot = 2.36× 10-3 m3
1 cubic mile = 4.17 cubic kilometers (km3)
1 barrel of petroleum (bbl) = 42 US gallons = 0.159 m3
Mass
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 metric ton (tonne) = 103 kg = 1.102 short tons = 0.9842 long tons
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces avoirdupois (oz) = 453.6 grams (g)
2.5.
2.6.
Pressure
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.9869 atmospheres (atm)
1 atmosphere (atm) = 76 cm of mercury = 14.17 lb/in2 = 760 torr
Temperature
Degrees Celsius (°C) = [degrees Fahrenheit (°F) −32]
Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) = [degrees Celsius (°C)] +32
Kelvins (K) = degrees Celsius (°C) + 273.15
2.7.
2.8.
Force
1 Newton (N) = 1 kg ·m⁄s2
Energy
1 joule (J) = 1 Newton-meter (N·m) = 1 kg ·m2⁄s2
1 joule (J) = 107 ergs
1 joule (J) = 0.2390 calories (cal)
1 joule (J) = 9.484× 10-4 British thermal units (Btu)
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Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
1 joule (J) = 1 watt –second (Ws)
1 joule (J) = 6.242× 1018 electron volts (eV)
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6× 106 J = 3414 Btu
1 quad = 1015 Btu = 1.05× 1018 J
1 therm = 105 Btu
1 foot pound = 1.356 J
1 kiloton of TNT (KT) = 4.2× 1012 J
1 calorie (cal) = 4.1868 J
1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 103 calories (cal)
1 tonne of oil equivalent (toe) = 41.868 GJ
2.9.
Power
1 Watt (W) = 1 joule/second (J⁄s) = 3.6 kJ/hour = 31.5 MJ/year
1 horsepower (hp) = 0.764 kiloWatts (kW)
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Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
3. ENERGY REFERENCE NUMBERS
3.1.
Approximate Values of the Most Common Measures of Energy
Reference energy measure: joule (J)
1 British thermal unit (Btu) ≈ 1 kilojoule (kJ)
1 million Btu ≈ 1 gigajoule (GJ)
1 GJ ≈ 8 gallons of gasoline ≈ 1000 cubic feet of natural gas ≈ 33 kg of coal
4 GJ ≈ 1 ton of TNT
6 GJ ≈ 1 barrel of oil (bbl)
15 GJ ≈ 1 ton of wood
30 GJ ≈ 1 ton of coal
1,000,000,000 GJ = 1 exajoule = 1 quad
Reference energy measure: watt (W)
70 gigawatts (GW) ≈ 1 million bbl of oil per day ≈ 2 exajoules per year
1 terawatt (TW) ≈ 1 billion tons of coal per year ≈ 30 exajoules per year
Reference energy measure: 1 British thermal unit (Btu)i
1,028 Btu ≈ 1 cubic foot of natural gas
3,412 Btu ≈ 1 kilowatt-hour electricity (kWh)
3,500,000 Btu ≈ 1 barrel of fuel ethanol
5,200,000 Btu ≈ 1 barrel of gasoline
5,800,000 Btu ≈ 1 barrel of crude oil
22,230,000 Btu ≈ 1 tonne coal
3.2.
Approximate Values of the Most Common Energy Flows
Flow
Value in Terawatts(1012 W)
Energy radiated by sun into space
3.7× 1014
Solar radiation incident on top of Earth’s atmosphere
175,000
Solar radiation reflected back to space from Earth
53,000
Solar radiation reflected back to space from Earth’s atmosphere
46,000
Solar radiation absorbed in atmosphere
44,000
Rate at which latent heat flows from Earth’s surface to atmosphere
42,000
Rate at which infrared radiation leaving Earth’s surface flows directly to space
10,200
Rate at which convective heat flows from Earth’s surface to atmosphere
8,600
Wind, waves, ocean currents
500-2,000
Net primary productivity on earth
75-125
Energy conducted from Earth’s interior to its surface
20-40
World energy consumption (1980)
10
U.S. energy consumption (1980)
2.5
Energy content of food consumed by world’s human population (1980)
0.55
World electricity production (1980)
0.87
U.S. electricity production (1980)
0.26
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3.3.
Toolkit Appendices
Approximate Energy Content of Select Substances
Substance
Natural gas
Gasoline
Petroleum (crude)
Typical animal fat
Coal
Charcoal
Paper
Dry biomass
Air-dried wood or dung
Crop wastes (20% moisture)
Bread
Milk
Beer
Energy Content (106 J/kg unless otherwise noted)
3.9× 107 J/m3
48
43 (6.1× 109 J/bbl)
38
29.3
29
20
16
15
13
12
3
1.8
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Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
4. POWER REFERENCE NUMBERS
4.1.
Examples of Power Use and Requirements
Power (Production and Use)
Power Requirements (with units)
Lift a mosquito at a rate of 1 cm/sec
1 erg/sec = 10-7 W = 10-10 kW
Pumping human heart
1.5 W = 1.5× 10-3 kW
Combusting a match
10 W = 10-2 kW
Human working hard
0.1 kW
Draft horse working
1 kW
Compact car, moving
100 kW
Boeing 747 jetliner, cruising
250,000 kW
One large coal fired power plant
1× 106 kW = 1 GW of electricity
All power plants worldwide
2× 109 kW = 2,000 GW
All cars in the US, on at the same time
15× 109 kW = 15,000 GW
Total human energy use (7 billion people)
1.1× 1010 kW =1.1× 104 GQ
= 400 Quads/year
From, Tester, et al., (2005).
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Energy & Society
Toolkit Appendices
5. ENERGY RESOURCES, EMISSIONS, AND DATA
5.1.
Global Exergy Flux, Reservoirs, and Destruction
For more information, see Weston A., Hermann. “Quantifying global exergy resources.” Energy 31,
no. 12 (September 2006): 1685-1702.
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Energy & Society
5.2.
Toolkit Appendices
Fossil Energy Resources
Table 2 Global Fossil Energy Reserves, Resources, and Occurrences, in EJ
Table from Nakicenovic N, et al. (1997), pg 87, Table B-3.
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Energy & Society
5.3.
Toolkit Appendices
Renewable Energy Resources
Table 3 Global Renewable Energy Potentials by 2020-2025, maximum technical potential,
and annual natural flows, in EJ thermal equivalenta
Table from Nakicenovic N, et al. (1997), pg 88, Table B-4.
5.4.
Emissions Factors
Table 4 Carbon-emissions factors for some primary energy sources (kg C/GJ)
IPCC
1996
Default
IPCC
2006
Lower
LIQUID FOSSIL FUELS
Primary Fuels
Crude Oil
Orimulsion
Natural Gas Liquids
20.0
22.0
17.2
20.0
21.0
17.5
19.4
18.9
15.9
20.6
23.3
19.2
Secondary Fuels / Products
Gasoline
— Motor Gasoline
— Aviation Gasoline
— Jet Gasoline
Jet Kerosene
Other Kerosene
Shale Oil
18.9
—
—
—
19.5
19.6
20.0
—
18.9
19.1
19.1
19.5
19.6
20.0
—
18.4
18.4
18.4
19
10.3
18.5
—
19.9
19.9
10.0
20.3
20.1
21.6
Fuel
Upper
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Gas/Diesel Oil
Residual Fuel Oil
Liquefied Petroleum Gases
Ethane
Naptha
Bitumen
Lubricants
Petroleum Coke
Refinery Feedstocks
Refinery Gas
Paraffin Waxes
White Spirit & SBP
Other Petroleum Products
Other Oil
Toolkit Appendices
20.2
21.1
17.2
16.8
(20.0)a
22.0
(20.0)a
27.5
(20.0)a
18.2b
—
—
—
(20.0)a
20.2
21.1
17.2
16.8
20.0
22.0
20.0
26.6
20.0
15.7
20.0
20.0
20.0
—
19.8
20.6
16.8
15.4
18.9
19.9
19.6
22.6
18.8
13.3
19.7
19.7
19.6
—
20.4
21.5
17.9
18.7
20.8
24.5
20.5
31.3
20.9
19.0
20.3
20.3
20.3
—
SOLID FOSSIL FUELS
Primary Fuels
Anthracite
Coking Coal
Other Bituminous Coal
Sub-bituminous Coal
Lignite
Oil Shale (& Tar Sandsc)
Peat
Secondary Fuels / Products
BKB & Patent Fuel
Coke Oven / Gas Coke
Coke Oven Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
Gas Works Gas
Oxygen Steel Furnace Gas
26.8
25.8
25.8
26.2
27.6
29.1
28.9
26.8
25.8
25.8
26.2
27.6
29.1
28.9
25.8
23.8
24.4
25.3
24.8
24.6
28.4
27.5
27.6
27.2
27.3
31.3
34
29.5
25.8a
29.5
25.8b
29.5
—
—
26.6
29.2
12.1
70.8
12.1
49.6
23.8
26.1
10.3
59.7
10.3
39.5
29.6
32.4
15.0
84.0
15.0
55.0
GASEOUS FOSSIL FUELS
Natural Gas (Dry)
15.3
15.3
14.8
15.9
29.9
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
(20.0)a
—
—
—
27.3
25.0
39.0
30.5
30.5
26.0
27.3
—
19.3
19.3
—
23.1
20.0
30.0
25.9
25.9
22.0
23.1
—
16.3
16.3
—
32.0
33.0
50.0
36.0
36.0
30.0
32.0
—
23.0
23.0
BIOMASS
Solid Biomass
Municipal Waste – Biomass Fraction
Municipal Waste – Non-biomass Fraction
Industrial Wastes
Charcoal
Wood / Wood Waste
Sulphite Ives (black liquor)
Other Primary Solid Biomass
Liquid Biomass
Biogasoline
Biodiesels
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Energy & Society
Other Liquid Biofuels
Gas Biomass
Landfill Gas
Sludge Gas
Other Biogas
Toolkit Appendices
—
(30.6)a
—
—
—
21.7
—
14.9
14.9
14.9
18.3
—
12.6
12.6
12.6
26.0
—
18.0
18.0
18.0
a
This value is a default value until a fuel specific carbon emissions factor (CEF) is determined. For
gas biomass, the CEF is based on the assumption that 50% of the carbon in the biomass is
converted to methane and 50% is emitted as CO2. The CO2 emissions from biogas should not be
included in national inventories. If biogas is released and not combusted, 50% of the carbon content
should be included as methane. (IPCC 1996)
b
For use in the sectoral calculations. (IPCC 1996)
c
Tar sands added in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
The table below combines data from the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories and the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Units are in kg C/GJ
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Toolkit Appendices
Table from Nakicenovic N, et al. (1997), pg 80, Table B-2.
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Toolkit Appendices
6. REFERENCES
Nakicenovic N, Grübler A, Ishitani H, Johansson T, Marland G, et al. 1997. Energy primer. In Climate
Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses, ed.
RT Watson, MC Zinyouera, RH Moss, pp. 75–92. Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change,
Geneva. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tester, Jefferson W., Drake, Elisabeth, M., Driscoll, Michael J., Golay, Michael W., Peters, William
A. Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 2005).
Committee on America’s Energy Future. 2009. “Appendix D” in America’s Energy Future: Technology and Transformation.
National Academies Press: Washington, DC.
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