A Curriculum Guide
About Enslavement and
Resistance in Colonial New York
Historic Hudson Valley
http://www.hudsonvalley.org
The Center for Arts Education
http://www.cae-nyc.org
©Historic Hudson Valley, August 2014
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ABOUT THE PROJECT ABOUT THIS CURRICULUM RUNAWAY ART CURRICULUM MAP GLOSSARY LESSON PLANS LESSON 1: PEOPLE AS PROPERTY LESSON 2: THE STORY OF COLONIAL SLAVERY LESSON 3: RESISTANCE LESSON 4: READING RUNAWAY SLAVE ADVERTISEMENTS LESSON 5: TELLING THEIR STORIES LESSON 6: EXPLORING WORKS OF ART LESSON 7: CREATING A WORK OF ART LESSON 8: PRESENTATION AND REFLECTION APPENDICES APPENDICES MAP APPENDIX A ADOLPH PHILIPSE PROBATE INVENTORY ADOLPH PHILPSE PROBATE INVENTORY TRANSCRIPT VENDUE AD 1750 VENDUE AD 1750 TRANSCRIPT BILL OF SALE BILL OF SALE TRANSCRIPT TENANT SLAVE CENSUS TRANSCRIPT APPENDIX B VAN BERGEN OVERMANTEL THE STORY OF PHILIPSBURG MANOR, UPPER MILLS THE STORY OF PHILPSBURG MANOR, UPPER MILLS, TEXT CARDS TEXT ANALYSIS APPENDIX C RUNAWAY ART STUDENT ESSAY RUNAWAY SLAVE WOODBLOCK PRINTS RUNAWAY SLAVE ADVERTISEMENTS ANALYZING RUNAWAY SLAVE ADVERTISEMENTS APPENDIX D ENSLAVEMENT AND FREEDOM IN CONTEMPORARY ART APPENDIX E COMMENT CARDS 4-­‐12 4 5 10 12 13-­‐36 13 17 19 24 27 30 32 34 37-­‐95 37 39-­‐45 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46-­‐66 46 50 56 66 67-­‐81 67 71 73 78 80-­‐94 80 95 95 3
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About the Project
Project Overview Runaway Art: Interpreting Colonial Slave Ads is a collaborative project of Historic Hudson Valley (HHV) and The Center for Arts Education (CAE). This curriculum guide is part of a larger project designed to teach about northern colonial enslavement and resistance. Participating teachers will engage in professional development workshops to support implementation of the eight lesson plans included in this guide. Additionally, teaching artists will be available to provide ongoing classroom support with the creative art components of the lessons. The lessons lead towards a culminating project to interpret a historic runaway slave ad. Students will select an advertisement, create a two-­‐ or three-­‐dimensional work of art to represent the ad, and then write a reflection statement that describes the work of art and the process of analyzing the slave advertisement. Project Resources The following website contains all the resources available to support implementation of this curriculum: Runaway Art Teachers Resource Page: http://www.hudsonvalley.org/education/runaway-­‐art Online portal containing links to individual lesson plans, appendices, and supporting primary and secondary materials; professional development materials; films and media; and an exhibition of student artwork. Here, teachers can also find a link to the online discussion forum, the student works submission page, and the project’s Facebook page. About Historic Hudson Valley and Philipsburg Manor Historic Hudson Valley (HHV) is a museum of historic sites – buildings, landscapes, and objects – that celebrates the history, architecture, landscape, and culture of the Hudson Valley region of New York State. Educational programs research, interpret, and promote the historical and artistic significance of the region to the public. Philipsburg Manor is one of six National Historic Landmark sites where HHV welcomes visitors. Throughout the 18th century, Philipsburg Manor was a thriving farming, milling, and trading center owned by the Philipses, a family of Anglo-­‐Dutch merchants. The site serves as a living history museum set in the 1750s to tell the story of colonial life in New York State. During this period in history, the land was rented to tenant farmers of diverse European backgrounds and relied on a community of 23 enslaved Africans to operate the complex. Museum programs invite visitors to participate in hands-­‐on activities, related to 18th-­‐century colonial life, such as food preparation, textile production, and medicinal practices. The stories of Philipsburg Manor's inhabitants tell the riveting yet little-­‐known history of enslavement in the colonial North. About The Center for Arts Education The Center for Arts Education (CAE) offers a variety of programs for students, families, teachers, and school leaders during and after school. Teaching and learning is an integral part of CAE’s mission to ensure that New York City public school students have quality arts learning as an essential part of their K-­‐12 education. Artist residencies and professional development sessions are designed to address the Common Core Learning Standards and are tailored to accommodate each school’s goals and resources. Many programs include field trips to museums and live school performances by professional musicians, actors, and dancers. 4
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About This Curriculum
Curriculum Overview This curriculum addresses the need for more teaching and learning about the history of northern slavery and the many acts of resistance taken by enslaved individuals in defiance of this institution. Slavery is well understood as an economic factor that led to the Civil War, which pitted northern against southern states. However, less is known about the colonial years in America, when slavery thrived in every American colony. During the 18th century, runaway slave advertisements were published in nearly every newspaper produced throughout the colonies. As primary source documents, these ads indicate the size and scope of colonial enslavement in the North. They also provide evidence of ongoing, active resistance by individuals against the institution of slavery. Runaway slave advertisements form the basis of this curriculum, Runaway Art: Interpreting Colonial Slave Ads. The runaway slave ads allude to the complex lives of enslaved Africans who struggled to maintain a sense of personal identity, family, work life, and aspirations for hope and freedom amidst this violent form of oppression. Understanding History through Art The arts are an effective approach to bring American history to life and make it relevant and relatable to students. In this curriculum, students interpret colonial-­‐era runaway slave ads through in-­‐depth study of primary source documents and then integrate and express meaning across content areas. They synthesize their ideas, experiences, feelings, and beliefs through the creation of original artwork and reflective writing. As a result, students who engage with this curriculum will develop deep and unique insights as they grapple with complex ideas about history, culture, and society in the colonial North. Curriculum Goals The eight lesson plans contained in this guide are designed to engage middle school students in interdisciplinary study of this period of history through Social Studies and English Language Arts through the Arts. The lessons encourage in-­‐depth study of primary source documents from archives in the colonial North to supplement curricula that teaches about U.S. slavery. This guide also invites uncomfortable discussions about the impossibility of freedom in the context of a society that allowed for such inhumane conditions. Students will grapple with the harsh realities of slavery and understand the forms of resistance through the imagined life of those depicted in historic runaway slave advertisements. In doing so, students will also confront the complex realities of our present-­‐day society and the continued patterns of injustice and inequality aligned to demographics of race and ethnicity. Guiding Principles The following principles and goals guide this curriculum: 1. Enable historical learning through the use of primary documents as a tool for critical thinking and reflection. 2. Stimulate knowledge development, the understanding of history, and self-­‐expression through the creation of artwork and related commentary. 3. Build empathy for historical figures, specifically those who have been underrepresented in the telling of history. 4. Support standards-­‐based teaching and learning in social studies, literacy, and the arts. 5
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Core Learning Strategies The standards-­‐aligned lesson plans engage students in the creative practices of art making as an essential way to process knowledge. The activities in this guide encourage reflection and skill development to enable critical thinking, thoughtful discussion, writing, and art making that reflects deep understanding of issues related to the study of American slavery. As a culminating project, students will create two-­‐ or three-­‐dimensional works of art inspired by 18th-­‐century runaway slave ads from local newspapers and accompanying reflection statements that explore this painful part of our nation’s history. Four core learning strategies are essential to the Runaway Art lesson plans. Core Strategy #1: Description Primary documents provide important information about the past. Students will practice close reading to uncover details and present those as evidence of an informed point of view on historical knowledge. Discussion and writing provide opportunities to demonstrate understanding of the information provided. Core Strategy #2: Analysis A variety of materials are included to analyze the perspectives offered. Students will interpret information from multiple primary and secondary sources, compare and contrast documents to reveal omissions or raise questions, and gather information to further support or refute the perspectives presented. Core Strategy #3: Critique Critical discussion encourages students to process insights based on their personal reaction to information. Critical questioning of issues asks that we complicate the surface description and analysis of materials and raise questions about the consequences of the examination. This makes space for emotional responses that are an essential aspect of developing historical consciousness. In this way, students begin to apply what they learn to other questions about society and culture that are related to the themes and issues raised. Core Strategy #4: Reflection Regular opportunities for written and artistic reflection are encouraged to promote deep and careful thinking about the issues raised. Personal reflection allows for the uncomfortable and perplexing aspects of the content to be prioritized and not avoided. Students develop the habit of collecting these thoughts and ideas as an essential practice to inform the cumulative development of knowledge. Assessments Assessment in this curriculum centers on five key learning experiences: 1. Journal to record written and artistic responses to prompts 2. Portfolio to house all written and artistic reflections including journal, artistic responses, and practice work 3. Culminating work of art, based on a runaway slave ad 4. Reflection statement about the artwork and process of creation, as well as reflection on the entire process of understanding history in a new way 5. Presentation to share final work and reflections 6
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Journal Throughout this project, students will maintain a journal to record written and artistic responses to prompts provided in most lessons. Personal statements and artwork will demonstrate new knowledge, skills, or vocabulary learned in activities, or will show critical reflection on activities. The journal may be maintained as a physical book, a blog or electronic document, or as individual worksheets or loose-­‐leaf paper that is collected and graded. Teachers may choose to regularly review journals to see if assignments have been completed and to assess understanding and depth of thinking on assigned topics. The journal is a major piece of the cumulative portfolio. Portfolio Throughout this project, students will maintain a portfolio collection of all written and artistic work and resource materials, including the following: • Draft and final versions of student writing • Draft and final versions of student artwork • Completed worksheets • Copies of primary source documents and articles • Photographs or videos to document classwork The portfolio may take several formats: Portfolio Journal – a book with pockets to combine responses to journal prompts as well as all handouts, worksheets, and documents. Physical Folder – a simple folder for holding writing samples, artwork, and materials. This works best if the journal prompts will be distributed as handouts or written on loose-­‐leaf paper. Digital Portfolio – an online collection of writing, artwork, and scans of handouts, worksheets, and documents. This works best if the journal will be maintained on a blog or as an electronic document. The portfolio is an active space. Students begin collecting work at the start of the project and refer to collected materials during each lesson. It is important that students have access to prior work and resource materials to inform each new activity. Final Work of Art As a culminating project, students will create two-­‐ or three-­‐dimensional works of art inspired by 18th-­‐century runaway slave ads from local newspapers to explore this painful part of our nation’s history. Artwork may be created in any medium, such as drawing, painting, collage, digital media, or sculpture. Reflection Statement A personal reflection statement will accompany the artwork to describe the piece, explain students’ reasons for choosing a particular advertisement, and recount the creative choices made to create it. The essay will also include the students’ response to encountering a new way of understanding history. Presentation The final lesson creates a space for the presentation of artwork and discussion of personal reflections about the Runaway Art curriculum. Students will engage in dialogue with others about their understandings and experiences from the project, provide feedback to demonstrate learning about colonial slavery, and present questions for further exploration. 7
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Connections to Learning Standards The curriculum is aligned to Common Core Learning Standards in Literacy and Writing; the New York State Social Studies Framework; and National Core Arts Standards (NCAS), in order to promote knowledge of social studies content, literacy, and creative expression among middle school students, with a particular focus on grade 7. New York State Common Core Social Studies Framework The New York State Social Studies Framework has recently been revised to support Common Core Learning Standards in Literacy and Writing. This curriculum supports the focus on colonial development, one of eight Key Ideas critical to instruction in the 7th grade. New York State Social Studies Framework for 7th Grade Key Idea #7 7.2 COLONIAL DEVELOPMENTS: European exploration of the New World resulted in various interactions with Native Americans and in colonization. The American colonies were established for a variety of reasons and developed differently based on economic, social, and geographic factors. Colonial America had a variety of social structures under which not all people were treated equally. (Standards: 1, 2, 3, 4; Themes: MOV, GEO, ECO, TECH, EXCH) 7.2d In New York, the Dutch established settlements along the Hudson River and the French established settlements in the Champlain Valley. Dutch contributions to American society were long-­‐lasting. • Students will compare and contrast the early Dutch settlements with French settlements and with those in the subsequent British colony of New York in terms of political, economic, and social characteristics, including an examination of the patroon system. • Students will examine the changing status and role of African Americans under the Dutch and English colonial systems. • Student will examine Dutch contributions to American society including acceptance of a diverse population, a degree of religious toleration, and right to petition. Students will examine Dutch relations with Native Americans. 7.2e Over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, slavery grew in the colonies. Enslaved Africans utilized a variety of strategies to both survive and resist their conditions. • Students will describe the conditions of the Middle Passage. • Students will explain why and where slavery grew over time in the United States and students will examine the living conditions of slaves, including those in New York State. • Students will investigate different methods enslaved Africans used to survive and resist their conditions, including slave revolts in New York. • Within the context of New York history, students will distinguish between indentured servitude and slavery. New York State Common Core Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies Reading Standards for Informational Texts (Grade 7) Craft & Structure 4: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. Craft & Structure 6: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. 8
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Integration of Knowledge & Ideas 7: Compare and contrast a text to an audio, video, or multimedia version of the text, analyzing each medium’s portrayal of the subject. Integration of Knowledge & Ideas 9: Analyze how two or more authors writing about the same topic shape their presentations of key information by emphasizing different evidence of advancing different interpretations of facts. Writing Standards (Grade 7) Text Types & Purposes 3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-­‐structured event sequences. Responding to Literature 11: Create a presentation, artwork, or text in response to a literary work with a commentary that identifies connections. (a) Make deliberate, personal, cultural, textual, and thematic connections across genres. (b) Create poetry, stories, plays, and other literary forms (e.g., videos, artwork). National Coalition for CORE ARTS Standards The Runaway Art curriculum also supports standards developed by the National Coalition for CORE ARTS Standards at elementary and intermediate levels. These standards encourage the development of creative skills and practices to imagine, investigate, construct, and reflect as a part of knowledge acquisition. National Coalition for CORE ARTS Standards -­‐ Anchor Standards Anchor Standard #1. Generate and conceptualize artistic ideas and work. Creating Anchor Standard #2. Organize and develop artistic ideas and work. Anchor Standard #3. Refine and complete artistic work. Performing Anchor Standard #4. Analyze, interpret, and select artistic work for presentation. Presenting Anchor Standard #5. Develop and refine artistic work for presentation. Producing Anchor Standard #6. Convey meaning through the presentation of artistic work. Anchor Standard #7. Perceive and analyze artistic work. Responding Anchor Standard #8. Interpret intent and meaning in artistic work. Anchor Standard #9. Apply criteria to evaluate artistic work. Anchor Standard #10. Synthesize and relate knowledge and personal experiences to make art. Connecting Anchor Standard #11. Relate artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural, and historical context to deepen understanding. For more information, see the National Coalition for CORE ARTS Standards http://www.nationalartsstandards.org/ Lesson Plan Summary The following curriculum map summarizes the eight lesson plans in the Runaway Art program: Lesson 1: People as Property Lesson 2: The Story of Colonial Slavery Lesson 3: Resistance Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Ads Lesson 5: Telling Their Story Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Lesson 7: Creating Works of Art Lesson 8: Presentation and Reflection 9
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Runaway Art Curriculum Map Lessons 1-­‐4 OBJECTIVES GOAL Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4 People as Property The Story of Colonial Slavery Resistance Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements This lesson will encourage students to develop a nuanced understanding of resistance in the context of colonial northern slavery. In this lesson, students will analyze runaway slave advertisements from the 18th century and examine forms of resistance to enslavement in the colonial North. Students will: • Deconstruct primary documents to understand the biases of those who placed the ads and conceptualize perspectives of enslaved individuals, whose point of view is absent from historical records. • Use close reading skills to describe, analyze, and critique a runaway slave advertisement • Compare and contrast the tone of advertisements to indicate perspectives about runaway slaves • Discuss the biases inherent in runaway slave advertisements • Understand the opportunities and limitations of primary source documents as the sole historic artifacts available to understand the perspectives of enslaved Africans • Write a creative scenario that proposes a nuanced and sensitive portrayal of the enslaved person depicted and his/her decision to run away By analyzing primary source documents, students will consider the concept of people as property and the complexity of life for enslaved Africans living in 18th-­‐century colonial New York. Students will: • Analyze primary source materials to identify evidence of enslaved individuals as property • Understand the notion of people as human property as an essential component of the economic system in the colonial North • Understand how being considered property, rather than a person, can affect life experiences and relationships This lesson will examine the economic system of commerce and trade in northern colonies in the 17th-­‐18th centuries, using Philipsburg Manor to provide context for colonial enslavement. Students will: • Examine the economic system of commerce and trade in northern colonies in the 17th-­‐
18th centuries and understand institutionalized slavery as a central component of the colonial labor system • Learn about the history of Philipsburg Manor and the individuals who were enslaved there to provide context for colonial enslavement in New York • Empathize with enslaved individuals and appreciate the fragility of life in the context of slavery • Analyze a work of art to support knowledge development about an historic time period • Engage in visual and textual analysis to support reading comprehension • Propose research to extend knowledge of colonial commerce and slavery Students will: • Consider actions and opposition in their own lives as a way to define resistance as an act based on principles • Compare and contrast various forms of overt and covert resistance to slavery, why they were used, and the potential consequences for enslaved individuals • Connect forms of resistance to perceptions of those who were enslaved and analyze how these contribute to interpretations of African American history and people 10
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Runaway Art Curriculum Map Lessons 5-­‐8 Lesson 6 Lesson 7 Lesson 8 Telling Their Story Exploring Works of Art Creating a Work of Art Presentation and Reflection Using their deconstruction of runaway ads, preliminary creative works, and inspiration of other artists, students will begin the final construction of a work of art that represents the enslaved individual(s) depicted in their selected ad. The work of art will present a creative and responsible portrayal of an enslaved person’s perspective, which is often absent from the historical record. Students will: • Use an artistic medium to translate a runaway slave ad into artwork that communicates critical ideas about history and demonstrates complex knowledge about colonial slavery • Learn discipline-­‐specific art vocabulary and concepts to support the creation of an accurate representation of an historic individual • Write a personal statement about the artwork, the reasons for choosing a particular advertisement, and reflecting on the entire process of reexamining history This lesson creates an intimate space in which to share artwork and discuss culminating personal reflections about the Runaway Art curriculum. Students will engage in dialogue with others about their understandings and experiences from the project, artistic and historic, and present lingering questions for further exploration. GOAL Lesson 5 Using primary and secondary source documents, students will imagine the individuals whose identities exist only through the runaway ads written by others. After analyzing their selected ads, students will begin the process of recreating a life and a story for these individuals, humanizing the experience of slavery through art making and creative writing. Students will learn about and explore works of art that depict slavery and freedom and discuss the potential of art to convey meaning about society, culture, and history. OBJECTIVES T
O
P
I
C Students will: • Analyze primary and secondary source materials to identify details about an enslaved individual • Create a visual portrait that imagines an enslaved individual or some aspect of his/her life • Write a first person statement from the perspective of an historic figure to reflect on the complexity of life in enslavement • Use historical background and artistic inspiration to create a rough draft of their selected individual, which will build toward the final artwork Students will: • Explore works of art that depict slavery and freedom to examine how artists represent their understanding of historical events • Discuss the biases inherent in runaway slave advertisements and primary documents Students will: • Present original artwork to classmates, teachers, and the public • Explain how artwork inspired by runaway slave ads demonstrates complex understanding about colonial slavery • Provide peer feedback and critique • Reflect on the entire process of re-­‐thinking history, encountering lesser-­‐known historical figures, and creating empathetic artwork to honor these individuals 11
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Glossary
Listed below are key terms essential to Runaway Art activities. Agency – asserting power or influence Bequeath – to hand on or pass down through a will Chattel – personal property or possessions that can be owned, such as furniture, domestic animals, etc. Commerce – an exchange of goods or commodities on a large scale for business or trade Commodity – goods or products of trade or commerce Consequence – the effect, result or outcome of something that has occurred Covert – concealed; secret; disguised Enslavement – to make a slave; the condition of being a slave, of being controlled, dominated, or forced to wor
for another Entrenched – firmly established Freehold – an estate inherited or held for life Narrative – n. a true or fictionalized story or account of events or experiences Overt – open to view; not hidden or secret Perspective – a way of regarding a situation, facts, or information and judging their importance Point of view – the position from which something is observed or told; an opinion or attitude from the perspec
of someone Principles – set of beliefs that guide the way we go about the world; personal basis for one’s conduct Probate or Will – a document expressing one’s wishes regarding disposal of possessions or property after death
list of possessions or property owned by the deceased to be distributed according to his or her wishes Provisioning – providing or supplying something that is needed, especially food or other necessities Resistance – the act of withstanding, striving against, or opposing; opposition to a force or power Tenant – a person or group who occupies land, a house, or an office, etc. rented from another for a period of ti
Trade – the process of buying, selling, or exchanging commodities Vendue – a public sale or auction Arts Vocabulary Background – part of a scene or view that is furthest from the viewer Design – to plan how something should look and work Expressive – shows or suggests a particular feeling or meaning Foreground – portion of a scene or view that is nearest to the viewer Literal – true to fact; actual or strict interpretation of meaning Medium – material used to create a work of art Metaphorical – a term, phrase, or idea used to represent something or suggest a resemblance Mood – the emotional quality or attitude of a person, place, time, etc. Narrative – adj. representing a story or account of events or experiences in a visual form, like a picture Point of view – the angle from which a viewer sees an object in a scene Portrait – a painting, drawing, or photograph of a person, especially of the face Representation – a picture or model that shows the likeness of something Symbolic – used to represent something; usually an object, image, letter, or sign 12
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Lesson 1
Lesson 1: People as Property
Goal By analyzing primary source documents, students will consider the concept of people as property and the complexity of life for enslaved Africans living in 18th-­‐century colonial New York. Learning Objectives Students will: • Analyze primary source materials to identify evidence of enslaved individuals as property • Understand the notion of people as human property as an essential component of the economic system in the colonial North • Understand how being considered property rather than a person can affect life experiences and relationships Vocabulary Chattel – personal property or possessions that can be owned, such as furniture, domestic animals, etc. Enslavement – the condition of being a slave, of being controlled, dominated, or forced to work for another Probate or Will – a document expressing one’s wishes regarding disposal of possessions or property after death; a list of possessions or property owned by the deceased to be distributed according to his or her wishes Tenant – a person who rents or leases land from another for a period of time Vendue – a public sale or auction Materials Prepare copies of the following, either handouts or on a SMART Board: • Documents [Appendix A]: o Adolph Philipse Probate Inventory and Adolph Philipse Probate Inventory Transcript o Vendue Ad 1750 and Vendue Ad 1750 Transcript o Bill of Sale and Bill of Sale Transcript o Tenant Slave Census Transcript • *Note on differentiation. Review materials in advance and select those suitable for individual students. Lesson Outline Total Time: 50-­‐60 minutes
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A. Do Now: Writing the Lion’s Story -­‐ Introduction to the Runaway Art Project (5 minutes) The author Chinua Achebe said, “Until the lions have their own historians, the history of the hunt will always glorify the hunter.” Have students write the quote in their journals, then discuss as a class. What does he mean by this quote? What does it say about the way that history is written? This exercise is meant to introduce the concept that there is no one version of history, but there are many versions, some of which are never told. Over the course of these eight lessons, students will write a story from the point of view of the lion. B. Your Property Inventory (10 minutes) Create a list of everything you own beginning with what you consider to be your most valuable possessions. Once completed, create a will by assigning each item to a family member or friend who will be given your property when you die. Debrief inventory lists using the following discussion questions: 1. What did you list as your most valuable possession and why? 2. What do you expect your family or friends to do with property that is inherited? [Ex. Keep it and use it; sell it; give it away] 3. Is there anything on your list that is not an object? [Ex. a pet] 4. What does it mean to own a living thing? What are or should be the responsibilities of such ownership? C. Working with Primary Source Documents Part 1: Large Group Discussion (10-­‐15 minutes) From the beginning years of New York history until slavery was abolished in 1827, the concept of property included the ownership of human beings. The names of enslaved individuals are well documented as property in numerous primary source documents including sales advertisements and receipts, runaway slave ads, legislative records such as personal wills and probate inventories, and shipping records. Review the Adolph Philipse Probate Inventory. This page from the inventory of Adolph Philipse’s estate includes the names of the enslaved individuals living at Philipsburg Manor in 1750. This is one page of a longer inventory, created after Philipse’s death to list all goods connected to his estate. 1. DESCRIBE – What does the document tell us? a. What type of property is listed? b. How is the list organized from the top to the bottom of the page? c. Why do you think it is organized in this way? [More valuable property is listed first.] 2. ANALYZE – What does this information mean? a. What do you think determines the value of the property listed? b. What might make the men and women named at the top of the list more valuable than the boys and girls listed beneath them? c. What might make an enslaved person more valuable to a slave owner than livestock? d. Why are some men listed as “not fit for work”? [They are probably old or infirm.] 14
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3. CRITIQUE – What insights do you have based on your personal reaction to the information? a. How do you feel seeing the names of humans listed among animals as possessions? b. How do you think these people felt about being considered property? c. What might be the consequences of treating people as property? Part 2: Small Group Work (15-­‐20 minutes) Discuss a second document in small groups or pairs. Printing presses used different typeface so some words may be difficult to decipher. A transcript accompanies some documents, but if not, use your best guess to name words that you recognize. Select from the following (listed in order of complexity to support differentiation): •
•
•
Vendue Ad 1750 and Vendue Ad 1750 Transcript -­‐ This document shows three advertisements for goods and chattel that would typically appear in colonial-­‐era newspapers. The center ad announces a public auction for several enslaved Africans owned by Adolph Philipse. Bill of Sale and Bill of Sale Transcript – This document is a legal agreement between two parties over the sale of a 17-­‐year-­‐old enslaved boy named Cyor. Tenant Slave Census Transcript – This document lists the names of tenant farmers at Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills and the names of the enslaved Africans they owned. For each document, discuss the following: 1. DESCRIBE – What information does the document provide? Read each word and sentence closely, line-­‐by-­‐line, to clarify as many details as possible. Use the following questions as a guide: a. Who is named? Note differences in the names used, such as first and last names, titles, etc. b. What details or description is given about the person, situation, or context? c. Where does this take place? Are specific locations mentioned? Locate these places on a map. d. When was the document created? By whom? e. Why was this document created? For what purpose? f. How should the intended reader react to the information provided? 2. ANALYZE – Evaluate what the information means using evidence to support your ideas. a. Whose perspective does the document represent? b. What information is included and what information is omitted? c. What action might have occurred as a result of the information provided by the document? 3. CRITIQUE – What insights do you have about the concept of people as property? (Choose one). a. What might the relationships have been like between and among owners, buyers, tenants, and enslaved Africans? b. How might ownership of people as property shape the identity of the individuals mentioned, including owners, buyers, tenants, and enslaved Africans? c. How does this history shape the identity of present day Americans in New York? 4. REFLECT – What is your reaction to the information? (Choose one or, alternately, discuss these as a large group). a. What is troubling or difficult to understand about the document? b. What additional questions do you have? c. What feelings or emotions do you have about the document? About the history of enslavement? 15
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D. Closing (10 minutes) “Knowing that a person was a slave does not tell everything about him or her ... The slaves’ history – like all human history – was made not only by what was done to them but also by what they did for themselves.” -­‐ Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America, 1998. p. 2. Part 1: What’s in a Name? The quote above serves as a reminder that the terms “slaves” and “masters” are insufficient. These words only represent the perspective of the people who declared themselves “masters” and define those who were enslaved solely according to the condition of their exploitation. Instead, when talking about the history of slavery, it is best to identify people by characteristics that made them human – their names, occupations, cultural identities, or family relationships. When referring to more than one person, the terms “enslaved Africans” or “African captives” serve as a reminder of their cultural origins. Part 2: Journal Prompt Since many primary source documents from the colonial period do not reflect the perspective of enslaved Africans, information about their lives must be inferred based on knowledge about slavery during that period. To Do: Select one name from the documents that you looked at. Note any description provided about this person. Think of 3-­‐5 questions that you would like answered to better understand the human being behind the name and details about his or her life and story. 16
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Lesson 2
Lesson 2: The Story of Colonial Slavery
Goal This lesson will examine the economic system of commerce and trade in northern colonies in the 17th-­‐
18th centuries, using Philipsburg Manor to provide context for colonial enslavement. Learning Objectives Students will: • Examine the economic system of commerce and trade in northern colonies in the 17th-­‐18th centuries and understand institutionalized slavery as a central component of the colonial labor system • Learn about the history of Philipsburg Manor and about the individuals who were enslaved there to provide context for colonial enslavement in New York State • Empathize with enslaved individuals and appreciate the fragility of life in the context of slavery • Analyze a work of art to support knowledge development about an historic time period • Engage in visual and textual analysis to support reading comprehension • Propose research to extend knowledge of colonial commerce and slavery Vocabulary Commerce – an exchange of goods or commodities on a large scale for business or trade Commodity – goods or products of trade or commerce Entrenched – firmly established Freehold – an estate inherited or held for life Provisioning – providing or supplying something that is needed, especially food or other necessities Tenant – a person or group who occupies land, a house, etc. rented from another for a period of time Trade – the process of buying, selling, or exchanging commodities Materials Prepare copies of the following [Appendix B]: • Handout: Van Bergen Overmantel – a painting of a New York farm from the mid-­‐18th century, New York State Historical Association • Essay: The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills – this handout explains the economic system of slavery that existed in 18th-­‐century New York and includes a history of the Philipse family and Philipsburg Manor • Text Cards: The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills– these cards divide the story into 10 smaller sections. Provide one card per student. • Worksheet: Text Analysis • Copies of essay, for homework [Appendix C]: • Essay: Runaway Art Student Essay by Michael A. Lord 17
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Lesson 2
Lesson Outline Total Time: 40-­‐50 minutes A. Picture Analysis (10-­‐15 minutes) Look closely at The Van Bergen Overmantel, a painting from the mid-­‐18th century that depicts a farmstead near the Catskill Mountains in colonial New York. The name of the painting refers to the Van Bergen family that owns the land, farmhouse, and buildings shown. The term overmantel was used to describe artwork that would be displayed over a fireplace. 1. DESCRIBE: What do you see? Make a list of the many types of people and things depicted. a. The painting gives clues to the diversity of area inhabitants, including European settlers like the Van Bergens, indentured servants and tenants, enslaved Africans, and Native people. b. The painting also gives clues about the type of work that was needed to manage an estate of this size. 2. ANALYZE: What do these clues tell you about work? a. Based on the images from the painting and consider the various types of labor that might be needed to maintain the farmstead. b. For example, the presence of animals suggests a range of activities needed to manage livestock including feeding, caring for, and eventually slaughtering animals. The presence of buildings suggests the need to maintain homes. A barn for grains suggests that somewhere there may be fields that require tending. 3. CRITIQUE: What questions do these details raise? a. This picture serves as a starting point for considering the people and commerce that supported the economy of 18th-­‐century northern colonies. b. What additional information do you need to understand the people, where they come from, what their relationships might be to each other and to this place? B. Text Analysis (25-­‐30 minutes) During this activity, students will engage in close reading of secondary source text about the economic system of commerce and trade in northern colonies in the 17th-­‐18th centuries. Assign The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards according to reading ability. There are 10 cards so students may work independently or with a partner or small group. More advanced students may read the entire The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills handout, but might focus on a single passage for deep analysis. Part 1: Independent Reading Read the entire passage once silently. 18
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Lesson 3
Lesson 3: Resistance
Goal This lesson will encourage students to develop a nuanced understanding of resistance in the context of colonial northern slavery. Learning Objectives Students will: • Consider actions and opposition in their own lives as a way to define resistance as an act based on principles • Compare and contrast various forms of overt and covert resistance to slavery, why they were used, and the potential consequences for enslaved individuals • Connect forms of resistance to perceptions of those who were enslaved and analyze how these contribute to interpretations of African American history and people Vocabulary Agency – asserting power or influence Consequence – the effect, result or outcome of something that has occurred Covert – concealed; secret; disguised Overt – open to view; not hidden or secret Principles – set of beliefs that guide the way we go about the world; personal basis for one’s conduct Resistance – the act of withstanding, striving against, or opposing; opposition to a force or power Materials • Essay: Runaway Art Student Essay by Michael A. Lord [Appendix C] • Blank paper • Stopwatch • Poster paper and markers Lesson Outline Total Time: 45-­‐55 minutes 19
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Lesson 3
A. Personal Acts of Resistance Part 1: One-­‐Minute Brainstorms (5 minutes) There are some activities that we find objectionable because we don’t like to do them. There are some we object to because they go against our morals or values. This activity is designed to understand the difference between these two things—and to get students to understand how they have already demonstrated resistance in their lives. Begin with a blank piece of paper in front of you. Use a stopwatch to limit each brainstorm to one-­‐
minute. 1. Brainstorm 1 – In one minute, brainstorm a list of activities or tasks that you dislike doing. Consider any chore, job, or other responsibility that you simply dislike. Use brief descriptions and list as many as possible. (Ex. Cleaning the toilet, waking up early, doing homework, etc.) 2. Brainstorm 2 – Now list activities, tasks, or ideas that you find morally wrong, or that you are opposed to because they go against your values. 3. Brainstorm 3 – Review your second list and identify those activities, tasks, ideas, or people that you have stood up against, resisted, or actively opposed. Use brief descriptions and list as many as possible. Maybe some new items will come to mind as well. (Ex. Stopped shopping at stores that profiled based on race, stopped talking to a friend who used homophobic language, etc.) Students may also want to think about notable historical examples of resistance. 4. Brainstorm 4 – Now review your lists and circle anything that you believe is truly objectionable. These reflect more serious beliefs or values that you believe are important. 5. Brainstorm 5 – Next, share the most important circled items from your list with a partner. Select the top one or two from your collective lists that you both agree are worth resisting. Part 2: Defining Resistance (10 minutes) Share one or two examples of resistance with the larger group. Discuss the following aspects: • What is the difference between disliking something and being morally opposed to something? • Were there any items on your lists that affected only you? Were there any items on your lists that affected many people or had a very broad scope? • What beliefs or principles encouraged you to resist? • How did you resist? o What actions or steps did you take to object? o What actions did you consider taking but did not? Why not? • What were the consequences of the act of resistance? B. The Complexity of Resistance to Colonial Enslavement Part 1: Review Vocabulary (5 minutes) Resistance is about more than simply not doing something. Resistance is an act of withstanding, striving against, or opposing something, usually because it goes against some principle or belief that we hold about life. Resistance is often a natural way to demonstrate agency in our lives. However, there may be different consequences for standing up for your interests, depending on who is resisting and the effect of that resistance on others. In some instances, resisting may lead to more power or agency to determine aspects of your life. In other situations, resistance could be met with punishment or other negative repercussions. 20
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Lesson 3
Since slavery was a legal institution in the colonies, enslaved Africans who resisted were not guaranteed more power or control over their lives. In fact, resistance often put them and their families at greater risk for punishment, separation, or even death. But resistance based on the principle of freedom to act on one’s own life meant that it was sometimes worthwhile to take the risk. This meant that many forms of resistance were needed. Some engaged in overt acts of resistance such as revolting or running away. Others chose covert methods of resistance that could go undetected, such as doing work incorrectly or slowly. Part 2: Methods of Resistance (15 minutes) Work in small groups to review what you read about resistance in the essay Runaway Art Student Essay by Michael A. Lord. Optionally, look at runaway slave ads to find clues about resistance by the enslaved. Create a poster with three columns to discuss the many forms resistance took, especially some of the more subversive resistance methods, as well as understanding how these methods demonstrated resistance. Finally, discuss the consequences that might have resulted from different forms of resistance. The poster should have the first column (forms of resistance) filled in. As a group, fill in the rest of the chart together. Forms of Resistance* How this Demonstrated Possible Consequences* Resistance* (fill this in as a group) (fill this in as a group) Work slowly • Minimized amount of • Punishment work produced • Beatings • Sold and separated from family and home Do work incorrectly • Minimized amount of • Public humiliation/shaming work produced • Lowered expectations about abilities/intelligence Refuse to work • Goods produced by the • Punishment farm/plantation not • Beatings produced • Sold Sabotage work, tools, or • Owner had to pay for • Punishment land goods to be fixed • Skewed or biased history • Work/goods not produced Feign illness • Minimized amount of • Punishment work produced Pretend not to • Minimized amount of • Lowered expectations about understand work produced abilities/intelligence • Owner/manager spent • Skewed or biased history time trying to explain Revolt • Destruction of property • Execution • Demonstrated to others • Punishment that owner/manager not • Sold and separated from family in control 21
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Maintain cultural identity (language, stories, etc.) Run away Develop skills Form a family Earn money • Refusal to conform to “slave” identity • Kept home culture alive • Provided hope • Allowed communication in a language owner didn’t understand • Owner lost money since enslaved person and his/her labor was a commodity • Minimized amount of work produced • Enabled individual to do work for him/herself • Demonstrated humanity of the individual • Showed hope for the future • Indicated unwillingness to operate by the rules of slavery (since marriages were not recognized) • Refused to live in fear • Provided possibility of purchasing freedom /
Lesson 3
• Punishment • Prohibited from speaking in native language • Returned to owner • Forced to wear shackles and collars • Mutilation or branding • Punishment of family members • Lived in fear of being caught • Left family behind • Punishment • Beatings • Potential of being separated • Owner/manager could use emotional connections to his advantage (through intimidation or threatening family members) • Wages taken away *These are all examples only. Encourage the class to think broadly and to reflect on many different possibilities. Part 3: Large Group Debrief (10-­‐15 minutes) Share posters and use the following questions to discuss the unique challenge of resisting an institution that offered no legal way out of enslavement. 1. DESCRIBE a. What were reasons to resist enslavement? What were reasons not to resist enslavement? b. Discuss the various forms of resistance. Characterize them as covert or overt, active and passive. 2. ANALYZE a. Which forms of resistance do you believe were more effective? Least effective? b. Why does running away seem to be the most common form of resistance? [We have historical documents to prove that many individuals ran away. Accounts from the 22
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Lesson 3
perspectives of enslaved individuals that might describe other forms of resistance are rare.] c. What evidence is available to document this form of resistance? [runaway slave ads] d. What evidence is needed to learn about other forms of resistance? [personal or reported accounts] 3. CRITIQUE a. Debate the various consequences of resistance. b. Discuss how some consequences led to negative perceptions of the enslaved that persist in negative views of African American history and people. c. What forms of resistance required that enslaved individuals contribute to their lives and work in positive ways? How might this have also helped to dismantle the institution of slavery? [Ex. Forming families at all cost maintained a sense of hope, humanity, and provided a reason for living. This helped to sustain communities that supported other active forms of resistance. Learning skills allowed some enslaved individuals to earn money from their labor and later buy their freedom.] 4. REFLECT a. In what ways is resistance to enslavement similar to and different from the personal acts of resistance that you engage in? b. What kinds of resistance, if any, would you have participated in? Why or why not? C. Closing: Journal Prompt (5 minutes) Return to the journal writing from Lesson 1. Review the questions you posed to find out more about the enslaved person named on the primary source documents you reviewed. Now, write a paragraph reflecting on what freedom might have meant to this person. 23
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Lesson 4
Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements
Goal This lesson will analyze runaway slave advertisements from the 18th century and examine forms of resistance to enslavement in the colonial north. Students will deconstruct these primary documents to understand the biases of those who placed the ads, and conceptualize perspectives of enslaved individuals whose point of view is absent from historical records. Learning Objectives Students will: • Use close reading skills to describe, analyze, and critique a runaway slave advertisement • Compare and contrast the tone of advertisements to indicate perspectives about runaway slaves • Discuss the biases inherent in runaway slave advertisements • Understand the opportunity and limitations of primary source documents as the sole historic artifacts available to understand the perspectives of enslaved Africans • Write a creative scenario that proposes a nuanced and sensitive portrayal of the enslaved person depicted and his/her decision to run away Vocabulary Agency – asserting power or influence Narrative – n. a true or fictionalized story or account of events or experiences Perspective – a way of regarding a situation, facts, or information and judging their importance Point of view – the position from which something is observed or told; an opinion or attitude from the perspective of someone; the angle from which a viewer sees an object in a scene Materials • Chart paper and markers • Runaway slave woodblock print • Prepare copies of the following [Appendix C]: o Assortment of runaway slave ads o Worksheet: Analyzing Runaway Slave Advertisements o Review the article: Runaway Art Student Essay by Michael A. Lord Lesson Outline Total Time: 50 minutes 24
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Lesson 4
A. Do Now: A Plan to Run Away (5 minutes) Prompt: Imagine that you plan to run away from enslavement. What you would need to survive? Chart a list of the essential items that you will need, as well as an outline of steps you will take as you plan your escape. A strategy, information, and resources must all be a part of your plan. Share your list with the class to fill in gaps and think of concerns. Some ideas: Resources: Food, clothing, a disguise, tools, friends or helpers, mode of transportation Strategy: A place to hide, a time to leave when you may not be missed, a destination Information: Survival skills, knowledge of the area, language B. Reading Runaway Slave Ads (25 minutes) Part 1: Historical Perspectives on Running Away Running away was not a simple matter. Running away was an overt act of resistance that required careful planning. The defiant act of running away represented a powerful assertion of one’s humanity at a time when slaves were defined as property. However, there are few historical documents that can teach us about the perspective of running away from the point of view of the enslaved individuals who took this risk. Instead, we must review primary source materials such as runaway slave advertisements, which appeared in every newspaper printed during colonial times. All of these ads were placed by slave owners, and, from their perspective, running away was the equivalent of theft – stealing labor from the owner. A close reading of these ads reveals historical biases about enslaved peoples and their intelligence, and often inaccurate information about this form of resistance. Regardless, much can be learned from runaway slave ads. A close reading provides clues to understand the reasons why many enslaved individuals attempted escape, the conditions they were running from, as well as insight into the cultural origins, skills, abilities, and interests of enslaved individuals. Whether runaways were successful or not, the existence of these ads demonstrates that this was an effective form of resistance. Searching for runaway slaves demanded resources and time that detracted from slave owners’ profits. Additionally, runaways reinforced the notion that enslaved people were not simply complacent and willing captives, but were determined to have agency in their lives. Part 2: Analyze Runaway Slave Ads Use the Analyzing Runaway Slave Advertisements worksheet to guide close reading, analysis, and critique of runaway slave ads. The completed chart will inform a nuanced narrative about the individuals described. Refer to the article, Runaway Art Student Essay, by Michael A. Lord, to support this activity. The runaway slave woodblock print images may also be used at this time. These prints would have accompanied runaway ads in the papers. How do the images serve as illustrations for the ads? In what ways do the images, like the ads, also depict a specific point of view? *Note on differentiation: Students may analyze ads independently or in small groups. Assign ads based on complexity and reading level. Some students may create their own chart by suggesting categories of information expected in an advertisement about a missing person. 25
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Lesson 4
1. DESCRIBE – Enter exact information as it appears on the primary source document a. Include description and details about the person, place, situation, or context in which the ad was created. b. Note new vocabulary or unfamiliar phrases for further research. 2. ANALYZE – Indicate what each detail means about the enslaved person described in the ad a. Explain who authored the ad and why. Where was it published, and for whom? b. Does the ad contribute to a biased perspective about the individual? If so, how? i. What evidence do you have? ii. Note negative characterizations that reveal biases from the owner or potentially inaccurate information about the person or situation. c. Suggest insights into the cultural origins, skills, abilities, and interests of enslaved individuals. d. Examine similarities across the ads, such as the time, strategy, or method of escape. 3. CRITIQUE – The absence of information is often just as important as information found in historical records. Omissions can also tell us about how the enslaved were viewed during this time period. a. What information is missing from this document? Why is this important? b. How might the biases and omissions reflected in the ad lead to general historical biases about enslaved people? c. How is the information you analyzed valuable to historians? C. Large Group Discussion – “Introducing … ” (10 minutes) Take turns making thoughtful introductions of the individuals from each ad. Introductions must not stop at simple description, but should offer analytic and critical comments about the situations in which they may have lived. D. Journal Prompt – Selection (5 minutes) Select one advertisement to interpret into an original work of art and write about why. The following questions may help you explore the ad in more detail: 1. Are there clues in the ad that suggest specific reasons this enslaved person might attempt escape? 2. Does the ad mention a possible location of origin for the individual (Africa, the Caribbean), or a possible destination the person might be traveling to? 3. Does the ad name any other people that this individual might be with or might be going to find? 4. What time of year was this ad written? 5. Were there any parts of the ad that really stood out for you? Why do you think this ad really connected with you? Optional Activity or Homework Tonight, think about this individual as you are doing everything you normally do on any given night: doing chores, eating dinner, getting ready for bed. Imagine how all of this would be different if you suddenly decided to leave your life behind. What would it be like to run for your freedom? 26
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Lesson 5
Lesson 5: Telling Their Stories
Goal Using primary and secondary source documents, students will imagine the individuals whose identities exist only through the runaway ads written by others. After analyzing their selected ads, students will begin the process of recreating a life and a story for these individuals, humanizing the experience of slavery through art making and creative writing. Learning Objectives Students will: • Analyze primary and secondary source materials to identify details about an enslaved individual • Create a visual portrait that imagines an enslaved individual or some aspect of his/her life • Write a first-­‐person essay from the perspective of an historic figure to reflect on the complexity of life in enslavement Vocabulary Bequeath – to hand on or pass down through a will Expressive – shows or suggests a particular feeling or meaning Medium – material used to create a work of art Narrative – adj. representing a story or account of events or experiences in a visual form, like a picture Point of view – the position from which something is observed or told; an opinion or attitude from the perspective of someone; the angle from which a viewer sees an object in a scene Portrait – a painting, drawing, or photograph of a person, especially of the face Materials • Selected runaway slave ads [Appendix C] • Essays: The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills [Appendix B] and Reading between the Lines [Appendix C] • Worksheet: Text Analysis (for The Story of Philipsburg Manor) [Appendix B] • Art materials for drawing Lesson Outline Total Time: 60-­‐65 minutes 27
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Lesson 5
A. Do Now: Sensory Response (5 minutes) Re-­‐read your ad and begin to visualize the scene, from the point of view of the individual. What mental images immediately come to mind? Are there certain colors you see as you are reading? Does the scene take place at night or during the day? What sounds might there be? Are there other people there? Make a list of words or short phrases, or draw quick sketches, that come to mind when you read the ad. Don’t stop to perfect anything—just try to capture the emotions that this ad evokes. B. Imagining the Past: Group Discussion (20 minutes) In order to understand the daily existence of enslaved individuals during colonial times—as well as begin to imagine their rich inner lives, their emotions, motivations, hopes, fears, dreams—we must understand how they were connected to their community at large and to each other. What was their relationship with plantation owners or managers—like Adolph Philipse at Philipsburg—and with other community members, like the European tenant farmers who lived on the manor or traded at Philipsburg Manor? Who were their family members? Did they live together or were they separated from family? What work did they do every day? What special skills did they have that might tell us more about their training and what they excelled at? By synthesizing primary and secondary sources, we can begin to develop more complete portraits of these individuals, inside and out. In Lesson 2, The Story of Philipsburg Manor explored the family connections among the enslaved community at Philipsburg. Review these relationships, as well as the ways in which forming a family helped slaves develop and maintain a sense of cultural and personal identity. Then use information from a selected runaway ad that might shed information on motivations for running away. The work of a historian includes trying to pull together information from a variety of sources to create a realistic understanding of the past. The work of an artist is to take facts or experiences and endow them with emotion to create an image that speaks to the soul. From this point forward, our work will be on this transformation. C. Telling their Stories (30 minutes) Part 1: Creative Response Use the journal prompt from yesterday as a starting point for a creative response. Select one of the following writing activities to craft an essay from the perspective of the enslaved individual that you selected. Your essay should attempt to rehumanize the dehumanized aspect of these ads. • A short life-­‐story about what led the person to decide to run away • A journal entry written the night before the person’s escape to describe the plan to run away. Refer to the Do Now brainstorm from Lesson 4 to include ideas about the strategy, resources, and information you will need. 28
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Lesson 5
•
•
•
•
A newspaper article that details the escape from a journalist’s perspective. Use the information from the ad to breathe life into the person and offer a less biased view of his/her motives and character. A letter from the individual to a family member s/he left behind. Perhaps the individual is explaining his/her actions or is sharing information about what it’s like to be on the run. A letter to the editor in response to the advertisement. Imagine that this will be published as an opinion piece in the newspaper that featured the ad. A creative vignette or short story to imagine any part of the enslaved individual’s life Part 2: Character Study Create a character study of the individual you selected using any medium. This should be a rough draft of a portrait, not a perfect piece of art. Instead, think about how you might want to use the visual arts to represent the emotional and physical experience of running away. How could you depict expression and emotion? How could you show that this act of running away is part of a larger narrative of this person’s life? Refer to your notes from the Do Now activity and your work in the “creative response” (above) to help inform your artistic choices. D. Closing – Share (Optional: 5-­‐10 minutes) Share your essay or portrait with a partner or with the entire group. Use the following questions to encourage dialogue: 1. Why did you choose to tell this story? What was the motivation? 2. What connections appear across each other’s stories and portraits? Describe notable commonalities or differences. 29
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Lesson 6
Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art
Goal Students will learn and explore works of art that depict slavery and freedom and discuss the potential of art to convey meaning about society, culture, and history. Learning Objectives Students will: • Explore works of art that depict slavery and freedom to examine how artists represent their understanding of historical events • Discuss the biases inherent in runaway slave advertisements and primary documents Vocabulary Mood – the emotional quality or attitude of a person, place, time, etc. Narrative – n. a true or fictionalized story or account of events or experiences Materials • PowerPoint: Enslavement and Freedom in Contemporary Art – This includes examples of student artwork from the pilot Pretends to Be Free project, available in Powerpoint format at: http://www.hudsonvalley.org/runaway/ [or as PDF in Appendix D] • Previous journaling and artistic sketches • Art materials—select any materials to support two-­‐ or three-­‐dimensional representations of a slave ad such as a drawing, painting, sculpture, collage, or digital art. Lesson Outline Total Time: 40-­‐45 minutes A. Exploring Works of Art (20 minutes) View PowerPoint Slides in Enslavement and Freedom in Contemporary Art to see examples of how artists depict the themes of enslavement and freedom using historical research and documents as information. Discuss how art can be used to raise questions about history and broaden the perspectives that are available through documents and artifacts. Use the following questions as a guide: 1. DESCRIBE – Describe the people, context, and action in this work of art. a. Who is depicted? What are the relationships between the people shown? What emotions are shown? Where is the scene located? Is there movement and if so, how is that depicted? b. What materials or techniques does the artist use? c. What historical time period or themes are depicted in the artwork? How do you know? 30
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Lesson 6
2. ANALYZE a. Does the artist attempt to tell a story or narrative through the artwork? How do you know? b. What mood or sense of feeling is communicated by the art? c. How do the materials or technique contribute to the mood, themes, or narrative? 3. CRITIQUE a. What questions or critique does the artwork raise about history? i. How, if at all, does the artwork argue for an alternate perspective on history? ii. Does it contradict, challenge, or support alternate views of history? b. What contemporary issues does the narrative or themes connect to? 4. REFLECT a. How does each piece make you feel? b. What lingering questions do you have about the art, the topics raised, or the artist’s work? B. Beginning to Create (20-­‐25 minutes) After reflecting upon how professional artists and high school students have depicted the experience of slavery and its lingering legacy in American history, now begin to work in earnest on your own artwork. Use the previous journaling and artistic exercises to begin an attempt at a final piece. Create a two-­‐ or three-­‐dimensional work of art depicting one or more of the people described in the runaway slave advertisement selected. This will help to tell the story of the everyday people whose stories have been omitted from history. Your work of art should attempt to rehumanize the dehumanized aspects of the advertisement. The following are all elements you should consider: • Person – What does the person look like? What is s/he wearing or carrying? Who else is there? What distinguishing features or characteristics were not included in the advertisement but seem plausible? • Emotions – What emotions might this person feel at the time of his/her escape? Review your Do Now activity and essay/portrait from Lesson 4. • Environment – Describe the context, location, or setting this person might be in? How might you depict this place either literally or metaphorically? What is in the foreground? What is in the background? What is the time of day, year, or season? • Narrative | Theme | Mood – What issue, situation, or story do you wish to tell about the person? • Symbolic – What other objects, words, shapes, symbols, or colors can be used to represent any of the components mentioned above? These do not have to be literal choices. For example, if an ad mentions a person with dark skin tone, you may select a color that seems accurate, or you may choose a dark blue or purple to symbolize darkness. 31
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Lesson 7
Lesson 7: Creating a Work of Art
Goal Students will choose a runaway slave ad and construct a work of art to represent the enslaved individual or individuals described, as well as some aspect of the situation or experience imagined. The work of art will present a creative and responsible portrayal of an enslaved person’s perspective, which is often absent from the historical record. Learning Objectives Students will: • Use an artistic medium to translate a runaway slave ad into artwork that communicates critical ideas about history and demonstrates complex knowledge about colonial slavery • Learn discipline-­‐specific art vocabulary and concepts to support the creation of an accurate representation • Write a personal statement to describe the artwork and state reasons for choosing a particular advertisement Vocabulary Background – part of a scene or view that is furthest from the viewer Foreground – portion a scene or view that is nearest to the viewer Literal – true to fact; actual or strict interpretation of meaning Metaphorical – a term, phrase, or idea used to represent something or suggest a resemblance Symbolic – used to represent something; usually an object, image, letter, or sign Representation – a picture or model that shows the likeness of something Materials • Art materials – select any materials to support two-­‐ or two-­‐dimensional representations of a slave ad such as a drawing, painting, sculpture, collage, or digital art. • Draft artwork from Lesson 6 • Portfolio – all work completed in previous lessons, including a runaway slave ad and the Analyzing Runaway Slave Advertisements worksheet 32
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Lesson 7
Lesson Outline Total Time: 45-­‐60 minutes A. Creating Works of Art (45 minutes) In Lesson 6, students began to work on a piece of art that will become their final product. In this lesson, they should continue to refine the work, reflecting on the artistic process and on the act of bringing someone to life. Students should consider • Medium • Style • Narrative elements • Creating an expressive individual • Mood The focus of this exercise should equally be on the stages of artistic creation—reiterating to students the need for revision—as well as on deepening their understanding and connection to the historical figures they are depicting. B. Journal Prompt – Reflect on Your Work of Art (15 minutes) Reflect back on the stages of this process: from first encountering otherwise forgotten figures from history, gradually coming to understand and piece together a life for them, and creating an artwork to eternalize their experiences. • How has this caused you to re-­‐think how history is told? • How has this caused you to re-­‐think your place in history? In the world? 33
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Lesson 8
Lesson 8: Presentation and Reflection
Goal This lesson creates an intimate space in which to share artwork and discuss culminating personal reflections about the Runaway Art curriculum. Students will engage in dialogue with others about their understandings and experiences from the project, artistic and historic, and present lingering questions for further exploration. Learning Objectives Students will: • Present original artwork • Explain how artwork inspired by runaway slave ads demonstrates complex understanding about colonial slavery • Provide peer feedback and critique Materials • Student portfolios including completed works of art and personal statement • Copy of the runaway slave advertisement that inspired the artwork • Handout: Comment Cards (Or provide blank index cards or paper) [Appendix E] • Post-­‐it Notes • Pens or pencils Activity Description Total Time: 60-­‐120 minutes Final Presentation The final presentation offers students an opportunity to share the work and experiences gained through this project. This may take place during a class period; however, since art is a powerful form of communication, this is an ideal time to invite parents and others in your community to participate as audience members with an in-­‐class art exhibition. Criteria for Presentation All presentations should describe the artwork and the process of creating it. Presenters should explain why they chose a particular advertisement, describe their key choices in the creation of the artwork, and discuss how this whole process has helped them identify with history in new ways. 34
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Lesson 8
Feedback and Reflection Comment cards provide positive critique and initiate dialogue about potential interpretations of the historic documents. Comment cards should be shared directly with artists after presentations and then collected and scanned as part of the final evaluation for the project. Use one or more of the following questions to prompt written feedback and reflection: • What is most striking about the work of art? • Can you determine the narrative, theme, or story just by looking at it? What do you like or appreciate about the narrative, theme, or story told? • How will this work of art contribute to a more nuanced telling of history about colonial-­‐era slavery and the enslaved individuals who resisted by running away? • How is this portrayal similar or different to the work of art that I created? • How does this piece encourage me to look differently at my artwork? • How does this piece encourage me to look differently at the historic source that inspired it? • How does this piece contribute to a re-­‐thinking of the way that history gets told? All participants should complete a comment card for at least one artist in each round of presentations. Each artist should receive at least one comment card, so assign peer reviewers in advance. Gallery Walk in Four Rounds The format for this presentation provides multiple methods for sharing work. In this Gallery Walk, each round will last 15 minutes and give different students time to present their work while others tour the gallery viewing artwork and providing feedback. Round 1 – Gallery Walk with Group 1 Round 2 – Gallery Walk with Group 2 Round 3 – Large Group Presentations with Group 3 Round 4 – Mingle with all students to visit any project During Rounds 1 and 2, students in these groups will be stationed near their artwork to share reflections and answer questions. Other students will tour the gallery, pose questions, and provide feedback using the Comment Cards handout. During Round 3, volunteer students in this group will take turns to present their artwork and reflections to a seated audience. During Round 4, all students will mingle in the gallery to visit any project they missed and talk to each other about their artwork. Assigning Groups To organize this event, divide students into 3 groups. Group 1: 6 to 8 students sit with projects during a gallery walk Group 2: 6 to 8 students sit with projects during a gallery walk Group 3: 6 to 8 volunteers to present to the whole group *Note on differentiation: Students will not have the opportunity to hear from artists in their group except during the Round 4 Mingle period. Use this as a way to ensure a variety of feedback across each round. 35
RUNAWAY ART: Interpreting Colonial Slave Ads
/
Lesson 8
Additional Displays Primary Source Documents – Create an area in the gallery to display the collection of runaway slave ads, as well as other primary source documents used throughout the lessons. Student Portfolios – Display selections of student work collected throughout the project. Comment Wall – Create a section of wall space where visitors can leave comments about the exhibition using Post-­‐it notes. This format is more interactive than a static guest book and encourages multiple and more candid comments and suggestions. Photograph the wall to create a lasting document. Concluding Discussion Total Time: 10-­‐20 minutes Reflect back on Chinua Achebe’s quote “until the lions have their own historians, the history of the hunt will always glorify the hunter,” introduced at the beginning of Lesson 1. This quote demonstrates that point of view always determines how the story is told. But it also tells us that history is open to change, and that it is not set forever. History can be re-­‐told and re-­‐shaped. Over the past eight lessons, we have explored history from a new perspective. How has this experience changed the way you think about the past? Final Thoughts *A Note to Teachers: For many enslaved Africans and runaways in New York, freedom remained elusive until slavery was abolished in 1827. Therefore, the topic of colonial-­‐era slavery yields complex emotions with no easy answers. As students share their artwork, it is important to honor the range of emotions that exist. Students may remain perplexed by the impossibility of freedom during this time, and therefore may communicate futility in the hope that runaways sought. Students may pose uncomfortable questions about the social injustice that persists as a result of slavery’s legacy. In many situations, it is appropriate to not attempt to provide answers. It can be very empowering to permit students to simply divulge these troubling questions and allow a space for them to exist as a part of learning. This deeply personal reflection is indeed a crucial part of making sense of this tragic period in history. This final presentation encourages this deep reflection and continued processing as students share these ideas and feelings with classmates and other visitors. 36
Appendices Map Documents are listed in the order in which they are used. Some documents may be used with more than one lesson. In this event, they are included in the appendix for the first lesson that uses them. Appendix Document Type Reference Image Appendix A Appendix A Appendix A Document Name Corresponding Lesson(s) Adolph Philipse Probate Inventory New York Public Library Lesson 1: People as Property Adolph Philipse Probate Inventory Transcript Lesson 1: People as Property Vendue Ad 1750 Library of Congress Lesson 1: People as Property Vendue Ad 1750 Transcript Lesson 1: People as Property Bill of Sale Lesson 1: People as Property Bill of Sale Transcript Lesson 1: People as Property Tenant Slave Census Transcript Lesson 1: People as Property Appendix A Appendix A Bergen County Historical Association Appendix A Appendix A (Original document: New York State Archives) Appendix B Handout Van Bergen Overmantel New York State Historical Association Lesson 2: The Story of Colonial Slavery Appendix B Essay The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills Lesson 2: The Story of Colonial Slavery 37
Appendix B Handout The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills Lesson 2: The Story of Colonial Text Cards Slavery Appendix B Worksheet Text Analysis Lesson 2: The Story of Colonial Slavery Appendix C Essay Runaway Art Student Essay Lesson 3: Resistance Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements Appendix C Image Runaway Slave Woodblock Print Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements Appendix C Document Runaway Slave Ads Appendix C Worksheet Analyzing Runaway Slave Advertisements Appendix D PowerPoint Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements Lesson 5: Telling Their Stories Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements Lesson 5: Telling Their Stories Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Appendix E Handout Enslavement and Freedom in Contemporary Art *Powerpoint format online here: http://www.hudsonvalley.org/runaway/ Comment Cards Lesson 8: Presentation and Reflection 38
39
Inventory of all and Singular the goods, Rights Chattels &
Credits of the Estate of Mr. Adolph Philipse Deceased vizt:
On the manour of Philipsburgh-12th February 1749
NEGROS VIZ:
Ceaser
Dimond
Sampson
Kaiser
Flip
Tom
Susan
Abigal
Massy
Dina
Sue
... Men
Venture
James
Charles
Billy
...Women
... Men not fitt for work
Tom abt
Charles
Sam
Dimond
Hendrick
Ceaser
Harry
9 years old
9 Do
8 Do
7 Do
... Boys
5 Do
2 Do
1 &4 months
Betty ...
3 years old
A Girl
CATTLE VIZ:
(old)
(all dead
‘fore ye
Vendue)
6 worken Oxen
12 Milch Cows
9 3yr old heffers Steers & bulls
9
2
ditto
6
1
ditto
30
sheep & some lambs
19
hoggs & some piggs
HORSES VIZ:
3
3
17
Stable Horses
horses in the woods
Mares & young horses
Transcript from Adolph Philipse Probate Inventory 12 Feb. 1750
Original—New York Public Library Manuscript Collection
40
41
To be sold at public vendue, at ten o’clock on Thursday morning, the 19th [instant], at the house of the late Adolph Philipse,
Esq; deceased, on the Manor of Philipsburg;
Four Negro Men, viz. a Miller, a Boat-Man,
and two farmers; three Negro women; six Negro boys, and two
girls, household goods, and all the stock, consisting of 40 odd head
of cattle, 26 horses, a number of sheep and hogs, and all the
utensils belonging to the said manor.
42
43
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS that I Peter
Peterse Demerest of the precinct of Hackensack in the
county of Bergen in the province of New Jersey former
For in the consideration of the sum of ninety pounds
to me in hand paid by Dirck Terhuen of the precinct
of Sadel river in the county and province aforesaid before
insealing and delivery of these payments the receipt where
of I do acknowledge have bargained and sold and [advise]
and by these payments do bargain and sell unto the good Dirck
Terhuen a Negro boy named Cyor about seventeen years
of age to have and to hold the said Negro boy named
Cyor by these payments have bargained and sold unto the said
Dirck Terhuen by his heirs executors administrators and
assigns for ever and I the said Peter Peterse Demarest
for myself my heirs executors and administrators all and
singular the said Negro boy unto the said Dirck Terhuen
his heirs executors administrator and assigns against me
the said Peter Peterse Demarest my executors administrators
and assigns and against all and every person or persons
what so ever shall and will warrant and for ever do
find by these payments the sale of the said Negro boy
joined and in good health at the delivery of these payments
in witness whereof I have set my hand and fixed
my seal this fifth day of March [1771]
Signed sealed and
Delivered in the
Presents of us
44
List of Negro Slaves in the Manor of Philipsburgh
of the upper part where of William is Cap’t
Josiah Martin Esq’r. his Slaves
1
Caser
1
2
Tom
3
Argile
4
Oxfoot
5
jeffery
The Slaves of Joseph Hitchcock
6
Handy
The Slaves of Joseph Polden
7
Harry
the slave of Harmon Yurksea
8
Jno; Sharpe
the Slave of Moses Sherwood
9
Ned
The Slave of William Brett
10
Ceaser
Joseph Anten his Slaves
11
Charls
12
Ben
The Slaves of Thomas Champenois
13
tom
The Slaves of Samuel Davenport
14
Harry
15
Jack
Jno Smith his Slaves
16 Stephen
Richard Davenport his Slave
17 tom
Beniamon Kipp his Slave
18 ffranck
Elbert Artse his Slave
19 Philip
20
Barth Cornell his Slave petter
Josiah Martin his Slaves
The negrois Mally
Joseph Hitchcock Slaves
2
the negrois Abigail
3
Lace
Joseph Polden his Slave
4
the negrois Fillis
Mos’es Sherwood his Slave
5
the Negrois Flora
William Brett his Slave
6
the negrois Ginne
Jno Anten his Slave
7
The negrois Marey
Thomas Champenois his Slave
8
Fillis
Samuel Davenport his Slave
9
Dine
Jno Smith his negrois
10
flora
Anthony Woodhouse his negrois
11
Molly
Here is in the Sd. upper part
Eleven negrois women where
of Wm Hamman Cap’t
here is in the upper part of The
Manner twenty negro men
Transcription
Historic Hudson Valley mss. PX 2356
NYS Library, NY Col. Mss vol. 35-88, #632. ca March, 1755
45
National Humanities Center Resource Toolbox
Becoming American: The British Atlantic Colonies, 1690-1763
THE VAN BERGEN OVERMANTEL
*
Van Bergen Overmantle, 1728-1738. Attributed to John Heaten. Oil on cherry wood
boards. Museum Purchase. Fenimore Art Museum Cooperstown, New York. Photograph
by Richard Walker.
*
Library of Congress
Martin Van Bergen, a New York colonist of Dutch heritage, commissioned this work
by a local artist to depict his farmstead near the Catskill Mountains. Intended to be
displayed over the fi
fireplace (thus the term overmantel), the work is about seven feet
long and one and a quarter feet high. It clearly indicates the Dutch-style architecture of
the farmhouse and outbuildings.
Most notably, the overmantel displays the ethnic diversity of New York in the 1700s, a
characteristic widely noted by travelers to the colony. Depicted are European
TextAmerican settlers (including the Van Bergen family and several indentured servants),
African American slaves, and two Native Americans of the Esopus tribal group.
R. Sayer, An accurate map of North America . . . , 1763,
detail of northeastern colonies; area of the Van Bergen
farmstead indicated
*
Enlarged sections of the overmantel are reproduced on the following pages. What does
one learn from studying this work? What questions arise? How would one pursue
answers to the questions?
National Humanities Center, 2009: nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/. New York State Historical Association, Object ID #N0366.195; permission pending. Complete image credits at nationalhumanitiescenter.
org/pds/becomingamer/imagecredits.htm.
46
THE VAN BERGEN OVERMANTEL
Van Bergen Overmantle, 1728-1738. Attributed to John Heaten. Oil on cherry wood
boards. Museum Purchase. Fenimore Art Museum Cooperstown, New York. Photograph
by Richard Walker.
left third of overmantel
National Humanities Center
2
47
THE VAN BERGEN OVERMANTEL
Van Bergen Overmantle, 1728-1738. Attributed to John Heaten. Oil on cherry wood
boards. Museum Purchase. Fenimore Art Museum Cooperstown, New York. Photograph
by Richard Walker.
middle third of overmantel
National Humanities Center
3
48
THE VAN BERGEN OVERMANTEL
Van Bergen Overmantle, 1728-1738. Attributed to John Heaten. Oil on cherry wood
boards. Museum Purchase. Fenimore Art Museum Cooperstown, New York. Photograph
by Richard Walker.
right third of overmantel
National Humanities Center
4
49
The Story of a Northern Colonial Plantation Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. Introduction The story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills challenges commonly held notions about America’s colonial past in the North. In contrast to the mythic ideal of modest, self-­‐sufficient, freeheld farmsteads owned by settlers of Anglo-­‐Saxon origin, Philipsburg Manor was a provisioning plantation that was part of a network of worldwide trade. Laborers turned wheat and milk into flour and butter on a commercial scale and sent these processed foodstuffs on boats bound for Manhattan, for export to the West Indies and beyond. However, these men and women did not participate in this expansive economy of their own accord. The majority of people who lived and worked at the Upper Mills were of African origin. Caesar, Massy, Dina and the twenty other members of the Upper Mills community – the property’s only year-­‐round residents – were enslaved. The story of Philipsburg Manor exemplifies how New York’s wealth, like other northern colonies, was entangled in enslavement. At the same time, the enslaved workers who lived here found ways to remain connected to each other and their cultural heritage. The Economy of Northern Colonies: Historical Background The Pursuit of Trade Ever since 1609 when Hendry Hudson sailed up the Hudson River, the Dutch had claimed the territory that would become New York as part of their New Netherland colony. The Dutch government chartered a merchant corporation called the Dutch West India Company to exploit the economic potential of the colony. This revolved around the lucrative fur trade with Native Americans. Europe strongly desired North American beaver, otter, and other fur pelts to make hats and other garments. The fur trade remained the driving economic force in New York throughout most of the seventeenth century. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor | 1 50
Provisioning Plantations By 1750, the provisioning trade had surpassed fur as New York’s most important commodity. Much of the produce grown in the Hudson Valley was shipped down the Hudson and out of New York harbor on ships bound for the Caribbean. New York commodities such as preserved meats, fish, and vegetables, dairy products, timber, and above all, wheat products such as flour and ship’s biscuit sustained the plantations of the West Indies. In essence, the plantations of the Caribbean gave rise to the plantations of the Hudson Valley, and of other coastal areas in the Mid-­‐Atlantic and New England. Farmers along the Hudson would not have had a market for their produce without Manhattan’s excellent port. Manhattan merchants would not have been able to send well-­‐laden ships out from the port without the goods produced by their agricultural neighbors. Transatlantic Trade West Indian products had an eager market in Europe so planters grew luxury cash crops like sugar and chocolate rather than basic food crops. Ships transported sugar, rum, molasses, cacao, and tropical dye-­‐woods, along with New York commodities, to Britain, the Netherlands, and Germany. In turn, the colonies demanded European finished goods such as textiles, hardware, glass, ceramics, building materials, tools, household equipment, and other consumer goods, as well as goods from Asia, such as spices, silk, cotton, and porcelain. Africa welcomed both European and American commodities in trade as well. But alongside the African ivory, gold, and textiles offered in exchange, coastal traders sold men, women, and children to willing buyers who knew they would find profit in the Americas by trafficking in human beings. The skills and labor of enslaved African men, women, and children played a critical role in establishing New York’s economic and cultural riches. Origins of Enslaved Africans As early as 1625, the Dutch West India Company brought African captives to New Amsterdam, setting in motion over two hundred long years of slavery in New York. Africans forced to New York were as diverse in origin and culture as the European emigrants. The enslaved population primarily came from West Central African coastal Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor | 2 51
regions of present-­‐day Ghana, Togo, and Benin, as well as from Madagascar. These are areas where Europeans had already established navigation routes and trade relationships. In colonial years, many Africans in New York had been enslaved first in the Caribbean. Transatlantic trade had also created a group of people, referred to by historians as Atlantic Creoles, because they had lived on both the east and west shores of the Atlantic Ocean in Europe, Africa, and North and South America. As a group they were of mixed ancestry and often spoke many languages. These people served as middlemen – merchants, translators, and sailors who understood and created the culture and language of trade. Atlantic Creoles, some free and some enslaved, were among New York’s earliest black residents. Slave Labor By 1750, New York had grown so dependent on the skills and labor of African people that slaves represented fourteen percent of the colony’s population. In addition to the wealth, middle class and tenant farmers also relied on African labor. This vicious aspect of the Atlantic trade was so entrenched by the eighteenth century that virtually no aspect of colonial commerce could be disentangled from slavery’s web. New York’s climate and terrain meant that rural captives worked at more varied agricultural labors than their southern and Caribbean counterparts. The city’s bustling port meant that urban captives worked at many different trades, some related to the maritime industry and some related to the many businesses that supported a growing population. Wheat was New York’s cash crop, just as tobacco was for Virginia, indigo for Carolina and sugar in the West Indies. Along with wheat, farmers grew smaller amounts of maize, rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat in the Hudson Valley. These were labor-­‐
intensive crops, especially during grain harvest time. Many of the enslaved Africans in the region would have worked in the fields. Those from agricultural societies in West Africa who knew the art of cultivation would have held primary responsibility for farm work. The well-­‐honed agricultural skills of Africans made them valuable to slaveholders. Whenever possible, African captives used to their advantage the knowledge that whites were dependent on them. The irresistible inclination to control one’s own life Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor | 3 52
and be an agent of one’s own destiny, combined with whites’ reliance on slaves’ skills and labor, created relationships between captives and slaveholders that were based on negotiation. The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills Philipsburg Manor was a large family estate that spanned over 50,000 acres in Westchester County and the present-­‐day Bronx. In 1750, the milling, trading, and agricultural activities that occurred on the manor were part of a vast commercial enterprise with close connections to the burgeoning port city of New York and to the trade network of the Atlantic world. The Upper Mills included several hundred acres near the Hudson River. This property included a barn, gristmill, and manor house, a bakehouse, storehouse, lime house, living quarters for the enslaved workers, extensive meadowlands, grain fields, and orchards. Adolph Philipse was no farmer, and he did not live at Philipsburg Manor. He leased most of the manor lands in farms of about 150 to 200 acres to tenants from a wide variety of European backgrounds. By 1750, the tenant population on the manor included about 150 families numbering around 800 people. Like much of the settlers across the colony of New York, these tenants were of diverse northern European origins, including Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Norway, France, and the British Isles, as well as from European colonies in Brazil. They shared in common the need to clear land of trees and stones, cultivate grain crops, plant orchards, tend livestock, fence fields, and build necessary structures. They paid their rent primarily in wheat, and used the Philipses’ mills to grind their grains. The Upper Mills Community: Enslaved Africans The Philipses were among the largest slaveholders in the northern colonies. Adolph Philipse claimed twenty-­‐three women, men, and children as property at the Upper Mills plantation. While in most cases we don’t know exactly who performed each job at Philipsburg Manor, we can nevertheless imagine a possible breakdown of labor at based on records that list the names of enslaved individuals, and what is known about this provisioning plantation and its products. Caesar maintained and operated the mill, a crucial role at a plantation that relied on grain. Diamond loaded plantation produce from the wharf onto boats and navigated Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor | 4 53
the Hudson to Manhattan with his cargo. Flip and Tom labored in the fields, orchards, and hay meadows, plowing, planting, and harvesting. Sampson and Kaiser managed livestock, maintained fences, and baked hard-­‐tack. Susan and Abigail processed barrels of beef, pork, and dried peas for export. Sue maintained the manor house, cooked meals for the enslaved community, and watched over the smallest children who were too young to help with work. Dina and Massy milked the dairy cows, processed the milk into butter for export, and kept the dairy and all its utensils clean. James, Venture, Charles, and Billy, too old for heavy labor, worked in the provision garden and helped mind the children. All their labors combined made the Upper Mills plantation a profitable endeavor for Adolph Philipse through the decades between 1700 and 1750. Telling Their Stories Family Names By 1750, multiple generations of enslaved persons had lived at the Upper Mills, and the community consisted largely of families. Naming patterns that emerge from wills and inventories help reveal family connections and long associations with the Upper Mills. Charles and Billy were among the sixteen people Adolph inherited in 1702, and are most likely the Charles and Billy who were community elders at the Upper Mills in 1750. “Old Susan,” designated in Frederick Philipse’s 1700 will to remain at the Upper Mills for the rest of her life, had probably died by 1750. However, “Susan the Younger” from the 1700 document may well have been the Susan heading the list of five women at the Upper Mills in 1750. Sue, another of the five, carried on the name and may well have been the granddaughter of “Old Susan.” Sampson, one of the six young men at the Upper Mills community, and eight-­‐year old Sam were probably descendants of the “Samson bequeathed to Adolph by his father. Other namesake relationships evident in the Upper Mills community at 1750 were Caesar, the miller, with two-­‐year-­‐old Caesar; Diamond, the boatman, with seven-­‐
year-­‐old Diamond; and Tom, the farmer, with nine-­‐year-­‐old Tom. Upper Mills children Charles, Harry, and Hendrick shared names with three men listed in Frederick Philipse I’s will. Frederick’s will explicitly stated certain family relationships such as “Harry with his wife and child” and “the Indian woman Hannah and her child.” Another will also refers to Molly, an “Indian or Mustee” slave, and her children. Since family cohesion under Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor | 5 54
slavery faced constant challenges and families were so often separated, networks of relationship sometimes referred to by anthropologists as “fictive kinship” also existed within slave communities. Separation and Tradition The conspicuous absence of any young girls other than three-­‐year-­‐old Betty suggests that Adolph Philipse considered female children less crucial to the Upper Mills operations and sold them, probably to city residents who used female slaves in their homes. More women were enslaved in the city while more men were enslaved in the country. At age nine, Tom and Charles were the oldest boys in the community. Boys older than they were may have been sold, or perhaps they were considered old enough to be counted among the adults. With the significant exception that separated young girls from their families, there was relative continuity in the Upper Mills community from 1702 through 1750. The presence of multiple generations of families at the Upper Mills must have gone a long way toward creating continuity in a situation otherwise rife with uncertainty. Not only could children like Diamond and Sam gain a strong sense of personal identity through close contact with parents and grandparents – an experience more often denied under slavery – but all those who were born or raised in New York could maintain a strong cultural identity as Africans through relationships with African-­‐born elders. Folktales, music, religious custom, and other critical cultural expressions from B’Kongo, Malagasy, or Akan traditions must have sustained the American generations. Glossary Commerce – an exchange of goods or commodities on a large scale for business or trade Commodity – goods or products of trade or commerce Entrenched – firmly established Freehold – an estate inherited or held for life Provisioning – providing or supplying something that is needed, especially food or other necessities Tenant – a person or group who occupies land, a house, or an office, etc. rented from another for a period of time Trade – the process of buying, selling or exchanging commodities Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor | 6 55
The Story of a Northern Colonial Plantation Introduction The story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills challenges commonly held notions about America’s colonial past in the North. In contrast to the mythic ideal of modest, self-­‐sufficient, freeheld farmsteads owned by settlers of Anglo-­‐Saxon origin, Philipsburg Manor was a provisioning plantation that was part of a network of worldwide trade. Laborers turned wheat and milk into flour and butter on a commercial scale and sent these processed foodstuffs on boats bound for Manhattan, for export to the West Indies and beyond. However, these men and women did not participate in this expansive economy of their own accord. The majority of people who lived and worked at the Upper Mills were of African origin. Caesar, Massy, Dina and the twenty other members of the Upper Mills community – the property’s only year-­‐round residents – were enslaved. The story of Philipsburg Manor exemplifies how New York’s wealth, like other northern colonies, was entangled in enslavement. At the same time, the enslaved workers who lived here found ways to remain connected to each other and their cultural heritage. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 1 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 56
The Economy of Northern Colonies: Historical Background The Pursuit of Trade Ever since 1609 when Hendry Hudson sailed up the Hudson River, the Dutch had claimed the territory that would become New York as part of their New Netherland colony. The Dutch government chartered a merchant corporation called the Dutch West India Company to exploit the economic potential of the colony. This revolved around the lucrative fur trade with Native Americans. Europe strongly desired North American beaver, otter, and other fur pelts to make hats and other garments. The fur trade remained the driving economic force in New York throughout most of the seventeenth century. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 2 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 57
The Economy of Northern Colonies: Historical Background Provisioning Plantations By 1750, the provisioning trade had surpassed fur as New York’s most important commodity. Much of the produce grown in the Hudson Valley was shipped down the Hudson and out of New York harbor on ships bound for the Caribbean. New York commodities such as preserved meats, fish, and vegetables, dairy products, timber, and above all, wheat products such as flour and ship’s biscuit sustained the plantations of the West Indies. In essence, the plantations of the Caribbean gave rise to the plantations of the Hudson Valley, and of other coastal areas in the Mid-­‐Atlantic and New England. Farmers along the Hudson would not have had a market for their produce without Manhattan’s excellent port. Manhattan merchants would not have been able to send well-­‐laden ships out from the port without the goods produced by their agricultural neighbors. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 3 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 58
The Economy of Northern Colonies: Historical Background Transatlantic Trade West Indian products had an eager market in Europe so planters grew luxury cash crops like sugar and chocolate rather than basic food crops. Ships transported sugar, rum, molasses, cacao, and tropical dye-­‐woods, along with New York commodities, to Britain, the Netherlands, and Germany. In turn, the colonies demanded European finished goods such as textiles, hardware, glass, ceramics, building materials, tools, household equipment, and other consumer goods, as well as goods from Asia, such as spices, silk, cotton, and porcelain. Africa welcomed both European and American commodities in trade as well. But alongside the African ivory, gold, and textiles offered in exchange, coastal traders sold men, women, and children to willing buyers who knew they would find profit in the Americas by trafficking in human beings. The skills and labor of enslaved African men, women, and children played a critical role in establishing New York’s economic and cultural riches. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 4 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 59
The Economy of Northern Colonies: Historical Background Origins of Enslaved Africans As early as 1625, the Dutch West India Company brought African captives to New Amsterdam, setting in motion over two hundred long years of slavery in New York. Africans forced to New York were as diverse in origin and culture as the European emigrants. The enslaved population primarily came from West Central African coastal regions of present-­‐day Ghana, Togo, and Benin, as well as from Madagascar. These are areas where Europeans had already established navigation routes and trade relationships. In colonial years, many Africans in New York had been enslaved first in the Caribbean. Transatlantic trade had also created a group of people, referred to by historians as Atlantic Creoles, because they had lived on both the east and west shores of the Atlantic Ocean in Europe, Africa, and North and South America. As a group they were of mixed ancestry and often spoke many languages. These people served as middlemen – merchants, translators, and sailors who understood and created the culture and language of trade. Atlantic Creoles, some free and some enslaved, were among New York’s earliest black residents. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 5 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 60
The Economy of Northern Colonies: Historical Background Slave Labor By 1750, New York had grown so dependent on the skills and labor of African people that slaves represented fourteen percent of the colony’s population. In addition to the wealth, middle class and tenant farmers also relied on African labor. This vicious aspect of the Atlantic trade was so entrenched by the eighteenth century that virtually no aspect of colonial commerce could be disentangled from slavery’s web. New York’s climate and terrain meant that rural captives worked at more varied agricultural labors than their southern and Caribbean counterparts. The city’s bustling port meant that urban captives worked at many different trades, some related to the maritime industry and some related to the many businesses that supported a growing population. Wheat was New York’s cash crop, just as tobacco was for Virginia, indigo for Carolina and sugar in the West Indies. Along with wheat, farmers grew smaller amounts of maize, rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat in the Hudson Valley. These were labor-­‐
intensive crops, especially during grain harvest time. Many of the enslaved Africans in the region would have worked in the fields. Those from agricultural societies in West Africa who knew the art of cultivation would have held primary responsibility for farm work. The well-­‐honed agricultural skills of Africans made them valuable to slaveholders. Whenever possible, African captives used to their advantage the knowledge that whites were dependent on them. The irresistible inclination to control one’s own life and be an agent of one’s own destiny, combined with whites’ reliance on slaves’ skills and labor, created relationships between captives and slaveholders that were based on negotiation. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 6 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 61
The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills Philipsburg Manor was a large family estate that spanned over 50,000 acres in Westchester County and the present-­‐day Bronx. In 1750, the milling, trading, and agricultural activities that occurred on the manor were part of a vast commercial enterprise with close connections to the burgeoning port city of New York and to the trade network of the Atlantic world. The Upper Mills included several hundred acres near the Hudson River. This property included a barn, gristmill, and manor house, a bakehouse, storehouse, lime house, living quarters for the enslaved workers, extensive meadowlands, grain fields, and orchards. Adolph Philipse was no farmer, and he did not live at Philipsburg Manor. He leased most of the manor lands in farms of about 150 to 200 acres to tenants from a wide variety of European backgrounds. By 1750, the tenant population on the manor included about 150 families numbering around 800 people. Like much of the settlers across the colony of New York, these tenants were of diverse northern European origins, including Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Norway, France, and the British Isles, as well as from European colonies in Brazil. They shared in common the need to clear land of trees and stones, cultivate grain crops, plant orchards, tend livestock, fence fields, and build necessary structures. They paid their rent primarily in wheat, and used the Philipses’ mills to grind their grains. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 7 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 62
The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills The Upper Mills Community: Enslaved Africans The Philipses were among the largest slaveholders in the northern colonies. Adolph Philipse claimed twenty-­‐three women, men, and children as property at the Upper Mills plantation. While in most cases we don’t know exactly who performed each job at Philipsburg Manor, we can nevertheless imagine a possible breakdown of labor at based on records that list the names of enslaved individuals, and what is known about this provisioning plantation and its products. Caesar maintained and operated the mill, a crucial role at a plantation that relied on grain. Diamond loaded plantation produce from the wharf onto boats and navigated the Hudson to Manhattan with his cargo. Flip and Tom labored in the fields, orchards, and hay meadows, plowing, planting, and harvesting. Sampson and Kaiser managed livestock, maintained fences, and baked hard-­‐tack. Susan and Abigail processed barrels of beef, pork, and dried peas for export. Sue maintained the manor house, cooked meals for the enslaved community, and watched over the smallest children who were too young to help with work. Dina and Massy milked the dairy cows, processed the milk into butter for export, and kept the dairy and all its utensils clean. James, Venture, Charles, and Billy, too old for heavy labor, worked in the provision garden and helped mind the children. All their labors combined made the Upper Mills plantation a profitable endeavor for Adolph Philipse through the decades between 1700 and 1750. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 8 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 63
The Story of Philipsburg Manor, Upper Mills Family Names By 1750, multiple generations of enslaved persons had lived at the Upper Mills, and the community consisted largely of families. Naming patterns that emerge from wills and inventories help reveal family connections and long associations with the Upper Mills. Charles and Billy were among the sixteen people Adolph inherited in 1702, and are most likely the Charles and Billy who were community elders at the Upper Mills in 1750. “Old Susan,” designated in Frederick Philipse’s 1700 will to remain at the Upper Mills for the rest of her life, had probably died by 1750. However, “Susan the Younger” from the 1700 document may well have been the Susan heading the list of five women at the Upper Mills in 1750. Sue, another of the five, carried on the name and may well have been the granddaughter of “Old Susan.” Sampson, one of the six young men at the Upper Mills community, and eight-­‐year old Sam were probably descendants of the “Samson bequeathed to Adolph by his father. Other namesake relationships evident in the Upper Mills community at 1750 were Caesar, the miller, with two-­‐year-­‐old Caesar; Diamond, the boatman, with seven-­‐year-­‐old Diamond; and Tom, the farmer, with nine-­‐year-­‐old Tom. Upper Mills children Charles, Harry, and Hendrick shared names with three men listed in Frederick Philipse I’s will. Frederick’s will explicitly stated certain family relationships such as “Harry with his wife and child” and “the Indian woman Hannah and her child.” Another will also refers to Molly, an “Indian or Mustee” slave, and her children. Since family cohesion under slavery faced constant challenges and families were so often separated, networks of relationship sometimes referred to by anthropologists as “fictive kinship” also existed within slave communities. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 9 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 64
The Story of a Northern Colonial Plantation Separation and Tradition The conspicuous absence of any young girls other than three-­‐year-­‐old Betty suggests that Adolph Philipse considered female children less crucial to the Upper Mills operations and sold them, probably to city residents who used female slaves in their homes. More women were enslaved in the city while more men were enslaved in the country. At age nine, Tom and Charles were the oldest boys in the community. Boys older than they were may have been sold, or perhaps they were considered old enough to be counted among the adults. With the significant exception that separated young girls from their families, there was relative continuity in the Upper Mills community from 1702 through 1750. The presence of multiple generations of families at the Upper Mills must have gone a long way toward creating continuity in a situation otherwise rife with uncertainty. Not only could children like Diamond and Sam gain a strong sense of personal identity through close contact with parents and grandparents – an experience more often denied under slavery – but all those who were born or raised in New York could maintain a strong cultural identity as Africans through relationships with African-­‐born elders. Folktales, music, religious custom, and other critical cultural expressions from B’Kongo, Malagasy, or Akan traditions must have sustained the American generations. Runaway Art: The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Cards | 10 Excerpts adapted from Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills, by Margaret L. Vetare, Historic Hudson Valley Press, 2004. 65
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New Vocabulary
Step 1. Read by yourself.
Step 2. Work with a partner to share your analysis.
Step 3. Form a group with others to discuss.
Step 4. Personal reflection
Important Facts and Ideas
Additional Questions
Runaway Art Lesson 3: Historical Background of Colonial Slavery
Further Research Needed
Use this chart as you analyze The Story of Philipsburg Manor Text Card. Note 3-5 ideas in each column.
Text Analysis
1
RUNAWAY ART
Interpreting Colonial Slave Ads
An Introductory Essay for Students
© 2014 Michael A. Lord, Historic Hudson Valley
Runs falls rises stumbles on from darkness into darkness
and the darkness thicketed with shapes of terror
and the hunters pursuing and the hounds pursuing
and the night cold and the night long and the river
to cross and the jack-muh-lanterns beckoning beckoning
and blackness ahead and when shall I reach that somewhere
morning and keep on going and never turn back and keep on going
Runagate
Runagate
Runagate
If you were an enslaved person in eighteenth-century New York, choosing to run away was
a very difficult decision. The opening lines from Robert Hayden’s poem Runagate Runagate
capture both the confusion and determination present when someone enslaved chose to
run away and free him or herself from the bonds of slavery. At a time when slaves were
defined as property without any human rights, making a personal choice to run away
represented a powerful assertion of their humanity.
Contrary to popular belief, slavery in America was not limited to the southern states. At
the time of the American Revolution, slavery was legal in all thirteen colonies. In fact, by
1776, one of every five residents of the colonies was enslaved. The largest slaveholding
colony in the north was New York. By the middle of the eighteenth century, of the 11,000
or so residents of New York City, about 2200, or about 20%, were enslaved. Most slave
owners in New York owned between one and three individuals. However, plantations
along the Hudson River such as Philipsburg Manor and Van Cortlandt Manor each owned
dozens of enslaved men, women, and children.
The life and labor of captive Africans in colonial New York is well-documented. Surviving
records of the colony note the development of New York’s “slave codes” and detail the
harsh punishments given to enslaved individuals for arson, robbery, conspiracy, and
rebellion. Shipping records note the size and scope of the transatlantic slave trade carried
out by New York merchants. Personal wills and probate inventories record the names,
occupations, and ages of numerous enslaved men, women and children. Recent and
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ongoing archaeological excavations in Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Long Island provide
physical evidence of slavery’s brutality while also confirming the variety of African cultures
represented in the region. Many colonial-era newspapers printed advertisements for
runaways and often described in detail the clothing, skills, education, physical traits and
even perceived behavior of those who ran off.
In New York, the hundreds of runaway advertisements that have survived provide us with a
wealth of knowledge about enslaved individuals and their community. The ads show how
slaves themselves resisted against their forced captivity and allow us to learn something of
their appearance, skills, personalities, and motives behind choosing to run. In their
introduction to “Pretends to Be Free:” Runaway Slave Advertisements from Colonial and
Revolutionary New York and New Jersey (New York: Garland Publishing, 1994), authors
Graham Russell Hodges and Alan Edward Brown note that “advertisements culled from
the newspapers of colonial and revolutionary New York and New Jersey offer rich evidence
of African American resistance to servitude.”
Students studying slavery often express anger at the system and suggest that they would
have resisted slavery through acts of sabotage, rebellion, physical violence against slave
owners, and by running away. Not surprisingly, many enslaved individuals did exactly the
same thing. Although every type and individual act of resistance has its own story, there is
much to be learned from the act of running away.
After researching these runaway ads, it is apparent that many enslaved persons ran away
during the busiest times of the agricultural season, a time when their absence would hurt
the owners the most. An example of this can be seen in a runaway ad placed by George
Mumford of Fishers Island, New York. During the spring of 1754, at the height of the
planting season, three of Mumford’s enslaved men and one white indentured servant ran
away together. Because slaves were considered property, the act of running away was
treated as theft. Not only did these men “steal themselves” (and the clothes they wore),
they also took a two-masted boat, a canoe, sixty pounds of butter, sixty-four pounds of
cheese and some bread.
With slavery legal and practiced in all thirteen colonies, freedom was hard to find and
harder to keep. Prior to American independence, there simply was no north to freedom,
no “underground railroad,” and no anti-slavery societies. In the eighteenth century,
enslaved individuals often ran to find or maintain family. Although marriage between
slaves was not legal, family ties were nonetheless strong. Forced separation of family
members was common and often occurred with little or no notice to the enslaved
community. Numerous ads suggest that enslaved individuals ran away to protect or reunite
with family. In April of 1778, a reward for two hundred dollars was offered for the capture
of a ten-year-old enslaved girl, Dinah. The ad noted that Dinah was “stolen by her
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mother,” an enslaved woman named Cash. Another ad refers to Violet, who in 1783 ran
from her owner taking her two children with her.
In addition to showing evidence of resistance and the importance of maintaining family
connections at any cost, runaway advertisements also provide information about the skills
and cultures within the enslaved community. The skills and education of enslaved persons
were similar to those of white New Yorkers of the time. Because it was not illegal to
educate an enslaved person, one’s job more or less dictated the amount of formal
education they would receive. Slaves working as millers, carpenters, and blacksmiths
needed certain mathematical and engineering skills to accomplish their tasks, while the
ability to read or write was noted for several runaway boat pilots and traveling musicians.
The ability to read and write was also apparent by the numerous references in
advertisements to runaways who “forge their own pass” as a means of avoiding capture.
One ad mentions a fiddler, Mark Edward, who ran away in February of 1761. Enslaved
musicians often traveled throughout the countryside performing at parties and dances.
This mobility provided numerous opportunities to run away.
Much has been written about the ethnic diversity of Europeans in colonial New York, but
the enslaved population was equally diverse. Ritualistic scarification patterns and culturally
specific names noted in runaway advertisements attest to the variety of African nationalities
present in the enslaved community. Venture, one of three enslaved men who ran from
George Mumford in April of 1754, was described as “mark’d in the face, or scar’d with a
knife in his own country. Facial scarification was most prevalent in the Senegambia region
of West Africa. The Akan speaking peoples of modern Ghana and Togo were easily
identified through their names. The names Cuff and Cuffee were noted in numerous ads.
These names were a modified version of the Akan day-name, Kofe.
It must be noted, however, that runaway advertisements were written by slave owners and
were written for people in support of slavery. Advertisements that refer to women as
“wenches,” men as “boys,” hair as “wooll” and numerous character traits ranging from
deceitful and cunning to slow-witted and clumsy give more insight into the slave owning
authors than the true nature of the individuals who ran away. While a significant resource,
runaway notices must be read with an understanding that these are painful reminders of a
time marked by terrible inhumanity. Documents written by slave owners about their slaves
tell only one side of the story.
Although runaway advertisements cannot be taken at face value, neither can they be
discounted. With few surviving sources written by enslaved individuals, runaway ads allow
us to “put a face” on the past. As we learn to recognize the bias of the ads and read beyond
it, these documents become more meaningful and useful both to scholars and students.
Taking the author’s biases into consideration it becomes readily apparent that enslaved
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individuals living in New York and New Jersey had ample reasons and opportunities to run
away
While many enslaved individuals ran away, others, however, chose not to for a variety of
reasons. Acts of sabotage, violence, and running away were met with harsh punishments—
both to the person or persons who ran or resisted and also to the families of those
involved. Knowing that one’s family and friends could suffer for the acts of another may
have kept many from actively resisting. Those who chose not to run away often used other,
more secretive methods of daily resistance including work slow-downs, pretending to be
sick, and acting incompetent.
_______________________
The runaway advertisements noted in this essay do not represent the choices of every
person who chose to run away. However, the enslaved individuals noted in these ads each
had personal reasons, motivations, hopes and desires for running away that may well have
been shared by many, many others. Some of these reasons may seem readily apparent in
the notices, but others most certainly were hidden from the slaveholders who were the
authors of these advertisements. “Runaway Art: Interpreting Colonial Slave Ads” provides
an opportunity for students to represent the other side of the story.
70
The Anti-Slavery Record, Vol III, No 7 (July; New York: Published by the
American Anti-Slavery Society, 1837). The Alderman Library, University of Virginia.!
71
!!
Image!found at http://www.accessible-archives.com/2011/05/10-southern-us-slaveadvertisements/
An Internet search using the term “runaway slaves” will lead to a limited selection of
images that portray this important aspect of American enslavement. Many of these
images were notices rendered for newspapers and publications when enslavement was
legal, and represent the perspective of those who hoped to catch and return the
enslaved. These historical artifacts often depict an image of a single anonymous man or
women with a small satchel of possessions slung over a shoulder.
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1
Runaway Art: Interpreting Colonial Slave Ads
selection of runaway advertisements
1
New-York Weekly Post-Boy
August 18, 1746
th
Run away on Sunday the 10 instant from Captain George Hall, of
this city, a tall likely young Negroe man named Quaw; he is a cunning
and artful fellow, Jamaica born, stutters very much and had one of his
ears cropt; he stole away a £5, 12s and £3 Johannes Pieces and was
seen going towards Kingsbridge. Whoever takes up said Negro and
brings him to his master, shall have fifty shillings reward and all
reasonable charges paid by George Hall.
#44, p. 20
2
New York Weekly Post Boy
June 27, 1748
Run away from the Executors of Captain Beezley, a Spanish Negro
Man, named Domingo, about 40, pitted with small pox, but a scar
under his left eye brow, speaks bad English; had on when he went
away a Brown cloth Jacket, a check shirt, an old hat flapt, a striped
blue and white cotton trowsers, is supposed to harbor in or about the
swamp, having frequently been seen near Mary Carrey, a white
woman, that frequently used to harbor him at her lodgings near the
Stockade. Whoever takes up said Negro, and secures him, so that he
made be had again, shall receive Twenty Shillings Reward by James
Mills.
58, p. 26
3
New York Weekly Post Boy
November 14, 1748
Run away from John Pell of the Mannor of Pelham, a Negro wench
named Bell, a boy named Janneau, a girl named Tamar, another
named Dianah, another named Isabel, also a Negro Man named
Lewis. Whoever will take up said Negroes, and bring them to John
Pell aforesaid, shall have Five Pounds Reward, and all reasonable
charges, paid by John Pell.
66, p. 29
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2
4
New-York Gazette
November 6, 1752
Run away from Philip Livingston, of New York, on the 28th of
October last; a Negro Man lately imported from Africa, his Hair or
wool is curled in locks, in a very remarkable manner; he is a very
likely lusty fellow, and cannot speak a word of English, or Dutch, or
any other language but that of his own country. He was seen last
Monday on New York Island, and is supposed now to be in the
Woods near Harlem. Whoever takes up said Fellow, and delivers him
to his said master shall receive THREE POUNDS as a reward, from
PHILIP LIVINGSTON.
101, p. 44.
5
New-York Weekly Post Boy
April 23, 1753
th
Run away on the 12 Instant April, from ISAAC KINGSLAND of
Saddle River, in Bergen County, East New Jersey, a Negro Wench
named Nell, who formerly belonged to Robert J. Livingston,
Merchant in New York: she is a tall slim Wench, has three Diamonds
in her face, one on each side and the other on her Forehead: had on
and taken with her when she went away, three Petticoats, one is an old
quilted one, and the other two homespun, one striped and the other
mixed, a blue and white striped short gown, a bluish homespun
Waistcoat, and an Ozenbrigs shirt, with Homespun sleeves, a short
blue cloke, a new pair of Blue Stockings, a pair of old crooked shoes,
and several other Things too tedious to mention. These are therefore
to Forewarn all Masters of Vessels and others, of carrying off,
concealing or harbouring said Wench, as they will answer it at their
peril with the utmost Rigour of the Law. Whoever takes up the
foremention’d Negroe, and secures her in any Gaol, so that her master
may have her again, shall have Forty Shillings reward, and all
reasonable charges paid by ISAAC KINGSLAND.
#103, p. 45.
6
New York Gazette
December 31, 1759
New-York, December 31, 1759, RUN-AWAY, from Charles Lewis,
of the City of New-York, Mariner, the 20th Instant, a negro fellow
named Harry, about 5 feet 9 Inches high: Had on when he went away,
an old green Jacket, and a white one under it, wore a Cap, and Woolen
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ribb’d Stockings, and had an Iron Collar round his neck, which is not
visible without examination. Whoever takes up said Negro Fellow
and secures him so that his Master may have him again, shall receive
Twenty Shillings reward, and all reasonable Charges paid, by Charles
Lewis.
183, p. 83
7
New York Weekly Post Boy
November 6, 1760
th
Run away from John Waddell the 6 Instant, a negro man named
Charles, about 24 years old, a likely middle fine Fellow, talks good
English, this Country born; he formerly belonged to Colonel Moore, is
well known in town and in Harlaem, and was seen last Saturday night
in Harlaem. Whoever takes up said negro and brings him to his
master shall have Five Pounds reward paid by John Waddell.
N.B. He reports that he is a free negro and has a Counterfeit
pass or Certificate, in order to induce any Commander of a vessel to
take him off.
190, p. 86
8
New York Gazette
September 30, 1762
TAPPAN, SEPT. 26. RUN AWAY last Sunday Evening, from his
Master, in Orange County, Johannes Blauveldt, Blacksmith, a Negro
Fellow, named as he says, ADONIA, but by us, DUCA. He is a yellow
Complexion, being a mixed Breed, speaks and reads pretty good LOW
DUTCH, and speaks little ENGLISH: Is a very good BLACK SMITH by
Trade, and can make Leather Shoes, and do something at the
CARPENTERS TRADE, is about 5 and a half Feet high, full Faced, black
Hair, but cut off about one Inch long, is 20 or 22 Years old. Had on
when he went away homespun Trowsers, Shirt, gray Waistcoat, and
Felt Hat; took with him a check Shirt and Trowsers, a white Shirt and
a Pair of blue Cloth Breeches, and one home spun Waist Coat. He
had been whip’d the day before he went off, which may be seen pretty
much on his right side, he pretends to be free, and perhaps will get a
Pass for that Purpose. Whoever takes up and secures the said Fellow,
so that his Master may have him again, shall have THREE POUNDS
Reward, and all reasonable Charges paid by JOHANNES
BLAUVELDT.
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N.B. All Masters of Vessels and others are forbid to carry him
away.
211, p. 97
9
New York Gazette
March 05, 1763
ST
WENT AWAY ON SUNDAY MORNING, THE 1 DAY OF MAY INSTANT,
from the house of ADAM STATES, a negro woman called LUCRETIA or
CRETIA. She is low in stature, has not been long in the Country, and
speaks broken Dutch and English, she has had the smallpox and is
also great with Child. She had on when she went away, a black
Petticoat mended or patched on both Sides, a white Apron and a
speckled Handkerchief, a blue waistcoat and laced cap with a blue
short Cloak. She is very slow in walking and is very black of
Complexion: She was entrusted into the Care of the Subscriber to sell,
and belongs to the Widow MARY DAUCHY, N. Y. Any person who
takes up and secures the said negro woman so that her Mistress or the
subscriber may have her again, shall receive THREE POUNDS IN NEW
YORK MONEY and all reasonable charges paid by HENRY JACOB
PITTS.
N.B. All masters of vessels are hereby forewarn’d not to carry
her off as they will answer at their peril.
220, p. 101.
10 BEN (ONE OF FOUR ADVERTISEMENTS BETWEEN 1766 AND 1770)
The New York Gazette
September 4, 1766
R U N A W A Y on Saturday the 23rd of August last, from Nathaniel
Richards at Newark, a Negro man named Ben, about 5 feet 8 or 9
inches high, aged 28, slim made, thin visage, yellow Complexion, and
can speak good Dutch. He formerly belonged to Thomas Budde, at
Morris-town in New Jersey, who several months ago sold him to the
Widow Mrs. Elizabeth Finn at Prakenas in the County of Bergen,
from whom he run away soon after, and being advertised, was taken
and brought home to his Mistress, by whom he was sold soon after to
the Subscriber. When he went away he pretended that he was going to
swim, and as he never returned, and next day his Clothes were found
near the Shore, he was supposed to be drown’d, till his Character was
known, which gives Reason to suppose he took Method to deceive his
Master and prevent a Search. It is not known whether he had any
clothes with him or not. Whoever returns him to his Master or secures
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him in any gaol, shall receive Eight Dollars Reward and all
reasonable charges.
NATHANIEL RICHARDS.
306, pp. 142-3.
11
New-Jersey Gazette
April 23, 1778
200 DOLLARS REWARD.
WAS stolen by her mother, a NEGRO GIRL about 9 or 10 years old,
named DIANAH--Her mother's name is CASH, and was married to an
Indian named LEWIS WOLIS near 6 feet high, about 35 years of age-They have a male child with them between three and four years old.
Any person that takes up the said Negroes and Indian and secures
them, so that the subscriber may get them, shall have the above
reward and all reasonable charges.
Any person that understands distilling rye spirits, may find
encouragement by applying to the subscriber at his own house.
KENNETH HANKINSON.
Penelapon, East New-Jersey, April 15, 1778.
455, p. 212.
12
The Royal Gazette (New York)
May 24, 1783
FIVE GUINEAS REWARD
W E N T off from his master on Thursday night, a Negro Wench,
called VIOLET, with her male children, one about 7 years old, called
Willis, the other about two years old, named Joe. The Wench is about
26 years old, tall, thin, and somewhat pitted with the small-pox. The
youngest boy is rather of a yellow complexion. Both boys have lately
had their hair or wooll cut short. Whoever apprehends said Negroes,
and brings them to the Subscriber’s House, at Greenwich, shall have a
reward of Five Guineas immediately paid them.
David Campbell.
625, p. 286
Excerpts from:
Hodges, Graham Russell and Alan Edward Brown, eds. PRETENDS TO
BE FREE: Runaway Slave Advertisements from Colonial and Revolutionary New York
and New Jersey. Garland: New York, 1994.
77
Analyzing Runaway Slave Advertisements
Use this chart to describe data collected from runaway slave ads, then analyze and critique information about the individuals described. 1 Name and age of enslaved person(s) listed Description Analysis Enter exact information as it What might this detail mean appears on the primary source about the enslaved person document described in the ad? Critique What conclusions can you draw based on this information? 2 Clothing or dress worn 3 Other physical descriptions of the enslaved person (ex. height, skin tone, markings, etc.) 4 Occupation or skills (ex. languages spoken, etc.) 5 Resources or possessions carried 6 Clues that suggest the strategy of escape and/or a plan or destination 7 Name of slave owner 8 Reward offered 9 Clues that indicate the perspective of the slave owner 10 Name of the newspaper and date of the advertisement 11 Note any new vocabulary or unfamiliar phrases 12 Runaway Art Lesson 4: Reading Runaway Slave Advertisements 78
Analyzing Runaway Slave Advertisements
Create your own chart to collect data about runaway slave ads. Then describe, analyze, and critique the information that you collect. Categories Suggest at least 10 categories of information that you might expect to see in a runaway slave ad. 1 Description Analysis Enter exact information as it What might this detail mean appears on the primary source about the person described? document Critique What conclusions can you draw based on this information? 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 79
Enslavement and Freedom in Art Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art 80
“I think my work sort of mimics the past, but it’s all about the present. Oh, some great ar<st in the past, Courbet or somebody, said there’s no historical art that isn’t about present…” —Kara Walker CONTEMPORARY ART SPEAKS 81
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Contemporary art can be used to fill in the gaps in history. Research and primary
sources can serve as prompts to imagine other perspectives of historic time periods.
Primary source documents give artists a window into individual experience of a
particular situation, and can perhaps enable a more accurate representation of the
multiple perspectives of a given time period. Some artists like Kara Walker do not seek
“accuracy” because she believes the past cannot be fully known. However,
interpretations can help to right the wrongs of history and portray it from more
perspectives.
Quote: Kara Walker in Tommy Lot, “Kara Walker Speaks: A Public Conversation on
Racism, Art, and Politics.” Black Renaissance 3, no. 1 (October 31, 2000).
From http://learn.walkerart.org/karawalker?n=Main.HomePage
82
Jacob Lawrence Forward (1967) 83
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Forward, by Jacob Lawrence, 1967. Tempera on masonite panel. North Carolina
Museum of Art, Raleigh, Purchased with funds from the State of North Carolina ©
2014 The Jacob and Gwendolyn Lawrence Foundation, Seattle/Artist Rights Society
(ARS), New York.
Contemporary artist, Jacob Lawrence, paints the black experience often focusing on
morality, courage and determination. In “Forward” 1967, Lawrence portrays heroine,
Harriet Tubman, leading runaway slaves to freedom via the Underground Railroad.
Harriet Tubman is distinguished by her white apron and gun but asserts her power as a
woman and leader. The angular lines of color that create the fugitive slaves and the
diagonal lines depicting their dramatic movement gives this piece some of the
neoclassic characteristics. The faces and gestures of the enslaved express both fear and
persistence. This piece leaves saviour Harriet Tubman forever poised in time in the
effort to save her people from hopeless and onward to self determination.
Excerpted from: http://allyclassart.blogspot.com/2008/08/contrasting-examples-ofneoclassicism.html
Forward dramatizes the life of Harriet Tubman (1820?-1913), called "the Moses of her
people." Born into slavery, Tubman escaped in 1849 and then repeatedly returned to the
South to rescue other slaves. Jacob Lawrence relates an incident in her story with
masterful economy, eliminating all but the essentials. In this painting Tubman
shepherds a small group of fugitives north to freedom. By the dark of a new moon, six
barefoot figures steal warily across a bare landscape. Clutching a revolver, Tubman
commands center stage, her indomitable spirit expressed in the forward momentum of
her body and the determined thrust of her arm that impels her recoiling comrade
onward. Others follow, their faces and gestures expressing both fear and resolution. In
the context of the ongoing Civil Rights struggles of the late 1960s, Lawrence portrays
the historical Tubman as a timeless exemplar of moral courage and determination. - See
more at: http://artnc.org/works-of-art/forward#sthash.PrvYJONh.dpuf
Excerpt from http://artnc.org/works-of-art/forward
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David Hammons Human Nature—Injus.ce Case (1970) 85
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Human Nature— Injustice Case, by David Hammons, 1970. Body print (margarine and
powdered pigments) and American flag. Digital image © 2014 Museum Associates/
LACMA. Licensed by Art Resource, NY.
This piece include motifs of the American flag and black subjects rendered like
negatives of snapshots to question the meaning of democracy and freedom. Hammons
often incorporates found objects like this flag in his artworks. Many of Hammons’
artworks of the late 1960s and early 1970s are also created with the easily available
means of the body as a paintbrush and grease as paint. Injustice Case is perhaps the
most well known of these “body prints.” The "body prints" reflect Hammon's effort to
create art using ordinary objects to graphically document the sociopolitical aspects of
black identity.
The negative image of the contorted and bound figure at the center of the picture
appears not to be afforded the ideals of freedom, equality, and justice for all symbolized
by the flag that frames the picture. As in much contemporary art created in this time
period, this piece specifically relates to a specific event: the trial of Bobby Seale, a cofounder of the Black Panthers who was on trial in the wake of the 1968 Democratic
convention, charged with conspiracy.
Excerpted from LACMA: http://lacma.wordpress.com/2011/08/25/recent-works-bydavid-hammons-at-lacma/
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Faith Ringgold Born in a Co0on Field (1997) 87
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Born in a Cotton Field by Faith Ringgold, 1997. Acrylic on canvas. Faith Ringgold ©
1997, private collection.
A painted quilt by Faith Ringgold known as a story quilt.
The nativity narrative comments on the experience of African American runaway
slaves in the south. The work of art replaces the biblical story of Jesus’s voyage to
Bethlehem with the fraught voyage of enslaved people travelling the Underground
Railroad in open cotton fields.
Excerpt from: http://www.conversantlife.com/art/born-in-a-cotton-field
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Caroline Torres Bound (2006) 89
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Bound (2006)
First place painting by Caroline Torres in 2006 Pretends to be Free: Imagining
Runaway Slaves student art project. Historic Hudson Valley.
The runaway slave, Violet, in this ad is trying not to be caught and bound back into
slavery by her white owner. To show this, I used different colored charcoals and drew
Violet running away. The white bondage around her, dragging her down, represents the
slave owners and everyone else trying to capture her and force her back into slavery.
The background is a nighttime scene far away from where Violet ran. But even though
she is so close to freedom, she is soon captured, bound, and brought back to slavery by
her white slave owner, like so many before and after her.
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Sisi Li Night Escape (2008) 91
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art Night Escape (2008)
First place painting by Sisi Li in 2008 Pretends to be Free: Imagining Runaway Slaves
student art project. Historic Hudson Valley.
I chose the ad about a runaway slave named Nell. In the advertisement, I was surprised
by the details about the clothing. The clothing descriptions were even longer than the
descriptions of Nell’s appearance. When I went to Philipsburg Manor, I saw an amazing
remake of Nell’s outfit from the ad. The gown and the waistcoat, along with the rest of
her clothing, really inspired my piece of artwork. The whole process for the painting
was long and repetitive. When I first started, I was not exactly sure as to what to do. So
I took my pencil and just started sketching. I used pictures that were taken by my art
teacher on the trip to Phillipsburg Manor as references. I tried my best to incorporate as
much detail on the dress as possible. I used oil paints because they blend very well and
make a larger array of colors than acrylic paints. I purposely made her eyes big because
I wanted her to be looking at the audience, and I wanted the audience to understand
why she is running away by adding fear into her expression. I think the part I enjoyed
painting the most was the moon and the sky. With the sky, I mimicked Vincent Van
Gogh’s technique in “Starry Night”. The green and yellow glow around the moon
makes the sky more interesting. When I first painted the little house in the background,
I used pure titanium white. But with the help and advice of my classmates, I dulled the
white and added a little blue because many said that the white house would distract the
viewer from the main point of the painting. In the end, I am really proud of this
particular artwork because I believed that Nell was an amazing woman for daring to
escape the cruel chains of slavery. Many of the ads that I read were about male slaves
escaping, and only a couple about women. No one ever mentions whether Nell
managed to be free or if she got caught and forced back into slavery, but I painted the
picture with hope that she had escaped.
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Liam Houghtaling What Freedom Looks Like (2009) 93
Runaway Art Curriculum Guide | Lesson 6: Exploring Works of Art What Freedom Looks Like (2009) Honorable Mention painting by Liam Houghtaling, Ossining High School in 2009
Pretends to be Free: Imagining Runaway Slaves student art project. Historic Hudson
Valley.
I chose this advertisement because I felt I could show the most emotion in my drawing
through its story. I started the drawing in regular pencil, then colored it in with colored
pencils, then used Sharpie markers for the colorful highlights in the water. This
drawing shows what I think it would feel like to be free for the first time. I imagine it’s
like seeing colors for the first time ever, which is what I depicted. Outside of the water
this man, Ben is still a slave and everything is black and white, while everything is in
color and vibrant inside of the water, where Ben is free. The color highlights in the
water represent emotion and feeling rather than anything physical.
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