10TH EUROPEAN CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL LABOR AND
EMPLOYMENT RELATIONS ASSOCIATION (ILERA) IN COOPERATION WITH THE
INTERNATIONAL TELEWORK ACADEMY (ITA),
20-22 JUNE 2013, AMSTERDAM
DOUBLE SYMPOSIUM 5.1 A (BLOCK 6, FRIDAY 2 1, 2013, 14:00-15:30) AND
5.1B
(BLOCK 7, FRIDAY 21, 2013, 16:00-17:30):
D R I V E R S A N D C O N S E Q U E N C E S O F N E W W A Y S TO W O R K A R O U N D T H E W O R L D
NEW BALANCE OF PRODUCTION
FACTORS IN THE INFORMATION
SOCIETY
T HE N E T H E R L A N D S , J U N E 2 1 , 2 0 1 3
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 3
What are the productive factors? ...................................................................................................................... 4
Factor of Production: LAND ............................................................................................................................ 4
Factor of Production: CAPITAL ..................................................................................................................... 5
Factor of Production: LABOR ......................................................................................................................... 5
A predominant factor in eacb Society.............................................................................................................. 5
The prevalence of informality............................................................................................................................. 5
A necessary transition ........................................................................................................................................... 7
From alienation to stress ................................................................................................................................. 7
From tangible material production to the imaterial intangible production ............................ 10
Old rights as a limit to the new ones ........................................................................................................ 11
The new balance of factors in the information society ............. ¡Error! Marcador no definido.
Balancing elements that cause imbalance ...................................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido.
1.
Education ................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.
Information technologies and communication .............. ¡Error! Marcador no definido.
3.
Compensations.......................................................................................................................................... 15
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
CV Sonia Boiarov ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
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ABSTRACT
In the knowledge society, workers, as holders of intellectual capital, find increasing opportunities
to export their services in globalized labor markets, enabled through the use of ICTs and the
development of new ways of working, such as telework. Consequently, it has become more
difficult for organizations to monopolize the knowledge of workers, as it is no longer clear who is
the owner of ‘the product’ in the case of intangible goods, even in case workers have signed a
formal labor contract. The empowerment that knowledge grants to workers entails the promise
of a new balance in labor and employment relations. However, access to adequate education and
technology is increasingly important. By shedding light on the technological and scientific
developments shaping the Information Society, this paper reflects on the current struggle
between the new and the old rights of workers and how current labor legislation may or may not
follow the needs of new generations of workers in an increasingly flexible world of work.
Purpose: To call to reflection on the relevance of intellectual capital and empowerment of
workers as holders of knowledge in the information society, and the new balance of production
factors as a result of that.
Design/Methodology: Historical/bibliographical research.
Results: See how the labor factor becomes more relevant in the information society, entailing
the promise of a new balance of factors.
Limitations: It is a theoretical analysis of the above situation.
Practical Implications: To think about the structures instrumental to the model of the
industrial development, such as labor legislation, education, the system involving remunerations.
However all these structures do not seem fit completely in the Information Society.
Originality/Value: The scarce production of theoretical studies on the changes in factors.
Key words: labor factor, telework, information society.
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INTRODUCTION
From the viewpoint of labor economics, an enhanced balance means that all those who wish
to work will get a job. However, in early 2012 the information provided by the ILO (ILO, 2012)
was alarming, as one out of every 3 people in the world lacked jobs or lived in poverty.
It is essential not only to talk about formal labor arrangements but also about the new forms
of work vis-à-vis the emerging Information Society and also to understand the historical
process that we are experiencing, particularly as of 2008, when unemployment rates began to
grow incessantly, reaching its highest point in 2011 with more than 205 million people
unemployed worldwide and more than 530 million workers with precarious or vulnerable
employment arrangements. This situation still remains.
Labor is one of the three factors of production, along with land or nature and capital; all of
them are essential in a process of production and development.
However, each production society (agricultural, industrial and postindustrial or the
information society) establishes a different balance among these factors.
Some brief concepts will allow us to share with you some ideas on the preeminence of the
“labor factor” over the others in the Society of Information and Knowledge, as well as the
differences among some analytical categories that are characteristic of this society and of the
entity itself.
WHAT ARE THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION?
For classical economists productive factors remain the same as defined by Adam Smith in the
18th Century: land, labor and capital necessary to produce goods and services. Therefore, it is
important to know what is meant by each of them.
FACTOR OF PRODUCTION: LAND
"Land" comprises not only agricultural land but also urbanized land, as well as mineral
resources, energy and natural resources in general. It also comprises the raw materials within
a production process.
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FACTOR OF PRODUCTION: CAPITAL
"Capital" is defined as the resources needed to produce goods and services: machinery or
industrial facilities, for example.
Money will be considered “capital” only when it is used to produce goods and services. In this
case it is known as financial capital.
FACTOR OF PRODUCTION: LABOR
"Labor" means any human activity, both physical and intellectual.
This classification of productive factors has been used since the 18th century, and the main
exponent was Adam Smith. Smith paid special attention to the labor factor as the real
generator of wealth and the main element towards social change.
The combination of each of the factors is different in each of the production society but all are
involved in the generation of wealth.
A PREDOMINANT FACTOR FOR EACH SOCIETY
Formal and decent employment in the industrial society is regarded as being more valuable in
recent times, perhaps as a result of the 2009 crisis and also of other previous ones, and also in
view of the lack of jobs caused by these crises.
Each crisis affects the labor market by increasing unemployment rates to such an extent that
the good periods that follow cannot revert back to the old days. Therefore, lots of people are
forced to become self-sufficient through activities performed outside the traditional markets
or formal employment.
THE PREVALENCE OF INFORMALITY
The ILO classifies labor from an structural viewpoint, in formal and informal (Trejos, n.d.).
The term "Informal" has several meanings (Tokman, 2006)(Salas, n.d.). We can distinguish
between informal labor arrangements that take place when companies try to evade
legislation. This is also known as unregistered or underground work.
In this paper we define informal labor as the arrangement conducted outside of the formal
market such as micro-entrepreneurships, homeworkers and professional freelancers.
Frequently this is the result of unemployment, or of the surplus labor force within the market.
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ILO studies recognize that not all the informal businesses are illegal, and that not all workers
in the informal sector are poor and finally that not all the informal units are disorganized.
The following table shows how the countries selected share employment
opportunities with the informal sector. In just a few countries the total number of
persons with informal employment is lower than 50 percentage points (ECLAC, 2013).
Chart II.4
LATIN AMERICA (SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES: URBAN INFORMAL LABOR, AROUND 2009 AND 2011
(Figures and percentages)
Around 2009
Country
Around 2011
Nº of people
/informal labor
No. of people in
the informal
sector
No. of people in
informal jobs in
the formal sector
Total No. of
people with
informal jobs
People employed
in the informal
sector
People with
informal jobs in
the formal sector
No,
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
%
%
%
%
%
%
Economic crises provoke changes in the structure of employment, but we should also
recognize that many youngsters of Generation Y choose not to work in a company and
not to sacrifice so many hours in an office. They hope for a more balanced picture
between their personal and professional life in order to achieve a better quality of life.
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And here we have a curious balance between formal work, - with less jobs in view of
the crisis, and therefore with less employees, - and informal work arrangements –
young people that prefer to maintain their independence, and older men and women
that cannot find traditional jobs and freelance professionals looking for new
opportunities. These are times of transcendental changes that will never stop.
These changes in jobs/work are highly unknown, and perhaps for this reason there is
an attempt to apply part of the structure of the industrial world as we know it to these
new times.
A NECESSARY TRANSITION
When the industrial society began to expand, education was adapted in order to meet the
requirements of companies. There was a rupture with teachers and apprentices and this gave
rise to schools, classrooms, a different teacher, a study group, a pedagogically controlled
scope: school classes. It was a moment of creation which was also needed to follow the
development process.
Labor legislation had to be adapted to follow full employment; Ford rearranged salaries in a
different manner in order to ensure the massive consumption of massive production schemes
that appeared in the form of assembling lines ... the combination of all this produced
unimaginable moments of creation which reflected the 50 golden years of the Industrial
Society.
But the emergence of new technologies, globalization, and crises put an end to this balance of
development and prosperity.
Perhaps because of this, we are experiencing this current revaluation of industrial
employment, formal and decent, but this was not always the case. One of its biggest critics was
Karl Marx, and clearly one of its leading exponents.
FROM ALIENATION TO STRESS
Marx said that the origin of value lies in the labor force, but that when one visualizes the
whole situation from the viewpoint of the worker, there is a contradiction, as he thought that
workers got poorer whilst production gained strength and volume.
This comparison was done in relation to craftsmanship, where the worker was the owner of
the process, of the tools, and of the product. In this situation the labor factor had larger
predominance.
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According to Marx, the labor factor – the worker - in the process of industrial production is
seen as a “thing”, as a commodity. There was a direct relationship between the value of things
and the devaluation of labor. That is, the more valuable the thing produced was, the less
valuable the worker was considered. The Capital Factor is predominant here (Rojas, 2010)
Summarizing, in the capitalist mode of production the "process" itself generates the alienation
of the worker.
This alienation, according to Marx, had two aspects. The first one, in the relationship between
the object produced and the worker, as the product does not belong to him, which does not
belong to him, it is beyond his control, it completely alien to him. The second aspect of
alienation takes place in the act of production itself, an imposed way of making that produces
pain, it is not his activity, but it is the activity of another person, he is not allowed to create, as
he expresses in his own words:
“…after all, the product is the summary of the activity, of the production. For the worker
it appears as something external, that is not a part of his essential being, since in his
work (he refers to the worker) he is not confirmed to himself, but instead it denies
himself, he does not feel happy, but unfortunate, does not freely develop his physical and
mental energy but instead it mortifies his body and ruins his mind”.
In these conditions, the worker only feels free when he "is not at work" because his work is
not a voluntary activity, but instead it is coercive, forced.
Finally, work is done in order to meet the worker´s needs, but it is not a goal in itself. Labor is
not his, but it belongs to another person and consequently he does not belong to him, but to
another person.
Craftsmen put their lives in the objects they created, they made objects for themselves, and
the objects they created were theirs.
The supremacy of the factor Capital in the form of industrial production made workers get
organized in order to exercise the necessary counterweight and to dignify work. Class
struggles were the necessary condition for a more egalitarian society. That is to say, the
imbalance of the factors due to the supremacy of the capital required a reorganization that
would allow workers achieving new balance.
Thus, the introduction of new technologies in the industry, the energy sources and the
development of massive forms of production and consumption, gave rise to the 50 golden
years of the Industrial Society. Mass production, higher wages, a strong domestic market,
marked the course of full employment.
During these 50 years ─between 1920 and 1970─ our country’s economy expanded and
generated wealth for a large part of the society.
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The 1973 oil crisis produced a contradiction in this model of development that, in addition to
the introduction of other technologies helped to lose jobs, and the rates of unemployment
were so high that its effects still last.
The new global crisis started in the 2009 is seeking a new balance.
The type of telework arrangement that we mentioned might perhaps be compared to some
kind of craftsmanship and might differ from the industrial work, and may also generate a new
factor unbalance, and also criticism.
Teleworkers today, also called knowledge workers, are the owners of the raw material, that is
to say, of the information and the knowledge they were able to achieve. They also own their
work tools - their computers – and the product or services they generate. And perhaps more
importantly, they can also generate their “working space”, wherever they wish, i.e. their
homes, a client, a co-working center, and so on. And they can also arrange their working
schedules according to their own needs.
Production based on knowledge that mutates material into immaterial, made entrepreneurs
doubtful about who the owner of the work was, even when the worker has a contractual
relationship with the employer. Thus, the importance of copyright, patents of invention and
even knowledge management … otherwise a person leaves the company and takes with
him/her everything (he/she has created), and therefore the risk of losses gets higher … Power
relationships have changed within companies. This has added value to the work fact in an
almost unusual manner.
Perhaps we are mutating Marx´s alienation into a new scourge: stress, from a psychological
point of view we do not refer to the loss of identity but rather to an excess of activities as a
result of a full-life work, in the continuing invasion of work in our personal life, in the
technological dependence and lack of the most precious thin: Time. But this is not
comparable to Marx´s alienation, since neither the product nor the process are aliens to us. In
some way the Information Society breaks with the alienation of the industrial work.
The following table shows how certain categories of analysis vary among different societies:
the agricultural one, the Industrial one and the Information Society.
Each society assumes characteristics. According to Castells face a new society where power
relations, production and experience (Castells, n.d.) have changed or were affected.
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Category of Analysis
Agrarian society
(8000 BC until the 18th
Century)
Industrial
society (End of
the 18th
Century until
1970)
Information society
(1970 –to date)
Main factor of
production
Land
Capital
Labor
Scope/production space
Countryside
Factory
Internet
Product
Agrarian
Industrial
Knowledge
Product type
primary
material
Immaterial
Owner of the means of
production
landlord
capitalist
labor
The rich or millionaires
Land owners
Owners of the
factory
Owners of knowledge
Expansion technology
Plow and the division of
land for planting
Steam
ICTs
Worker
Farmer
Worker
Telecommuter
Wealth
Real estate
Movable
property
Intangible
Time
The rhythm of Nature.
Daylight
Working hours
Flexible work times
Electricity
FROM TANGIBLE MATERIAL PRODUCTION TO IMATERIAL INTANGIBLE
PRODUCTION
Dealing with each category of analysis in our table would be impossible in this presentation,
and for that reason we are selecting just two: The type of product that made a transition from
the material to the immaterial existence and the legislation that the new situations demands
by means of usage and customary rules.
The historical evolution of the scientific and technological progress generated various impacts
that reflected in several economic, political, and social changes.
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The same technological advances, globalization, the search for greater productivity in order to
deal with crises, and the same historical cycle caused the Industrial Society to shrink and at
the same time allowed the emergence and expansion of the Information Society
We are forced to innovate, as we are in the middle of chaos and crisis that produces all this
change and the lack of employment. Changes carry within them opportunities and challenges.
Although it is difficult for many to work on the basis of the abstraction and virtuality, the
virtual environment exists and is based on knowledge. It becomes a new type of production
and a new labor arrangement: the teleworker.
For some years now, I try to gather the intellectual capital within a different organization: a
virtual building, which is only possible in the immateriality of the Internet.
The outcome of this great productive force in this building is a virtual one and constitutes a
new paradigm. The wealth of nations today is the sum of its material products and of its
intangible products.
Our own life is made up of the real and virtual worlds, and both form a new inseparable
reality.
The classics believed that economic growth and enhanced production were the results of the
increase in the numbers of factors available, especially labor and capital. But at present we
know that the most important role in terms of economic growth correspond to the advances
in scientific and technical knowledge. Some scholars (Sebastián & Benavides, 2004) believe
that we need to add two additional productive factors: the human knowledge that are
incorporated into the work factor (i.e. the "know-how") and technology, or simply the
techniques which are embodied into the capital."
OLD RIGHTS LIMITING NEW RIGHTS
Information and Communication technologies give rise to ubiquity are also modeling
the new labor legislation: Working from the place we choose.
In the industrial society, farm workers were the first to move in their search for wok,
attracted by the expectations involving enhanced life quality.
Cities received lots of people willing to live in suburban areas trying to avoid timeconsuming traveling. Living near work places shortened time and travel expenses. Large
substandard housing areas were created, close to the workplace.
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The Retiro Villa 31 shantytown, and in general these slums found in the city of Buenos Aires
are the ones that grew most and rentals are expensive. One of the main reasons is because
they are closer to the job supplying companies.
In general, Latin America has generated marginal zones considered, in principle, as labor
reserves. However, labor insertion proved difficult in a large number of cases.
The ubiquity that allows the use of information and knowledge technologies at work has
produced some changes in the use of productive spaces.
The technological evolution that gives rise to the Information and Knowledge Society allows
different uses of the workspace and also of the geographic space. The working space is nearer,
and then the worker is available for performing his tasks. The workplace may be the worker´s
own living room at home. The paradox is that this type of work is called distance work, when
the job was never so close.
On the Internet Day, the United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki Moon1, encouraged
the use of technologies to prevent traffic accidents that cause annually 1, 3 million deaths per
annum, and fifty per cent of the victims are youngsters. We believe that telework could make a
great contribution also in this regard. Argentina´s statistics show that there are 7,000 deaths a
year
due
to
road
accidents:
http://www.luchemos.org.ar/es/estadisticas/generales/comparativo-del-numero-demuertos-anual-en-accidentes-de-transito-en-argentina-entre-1995-y-2012 notwithstanding
some decrease in the last five years, this figure is still unacceptable.
The fact of not having to move to the "space" of work is not only an impact on working
environments but also on life itself. ICTs allow that the office or factory can be located where
the worker is, at the exact point of convergence of knowledge and the ICT, and this causes
ubiquity and at the same time universality, perhaps a new oxymoron.
All this demands new questions before making any decisions: Why should our children
emigrate? Why leaving the city we love and settle down in another city in search of work?
Why cannot we rethink space and have new staff hiring proposals? Why not visit our son, who
has emigrated, without losing the job we have? Why not accompanying our sick relatives?
Why not stay with our children in the park, on a sunny Monday afternoon?
If we do not take into account ubiquity some economic consequences might also
appear. The staff that is scarce in a certain village may be found in another one, but perhaps
the worker does not wish to leave his hometown and his family. Vacancies that cannot be
filled cause losses to companies, as certain products fail to be made or certain services fail to
be offered.
11http://www.cinu.mx/noticias/mundial/las-telecomunicaciones-pueden-/
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Legislation ensuring equality among workers rights is somewhat limitative. We
protect old rights forgetting the new ones. Anyway we are of the opinion that this is just a
stage for adaptation and transition to the recognition of the existence of this new worker in
the information society.
Regulations in some countries determine that teleworkers have to work at home for
them to receive insurance coverage vis-à-vis certain labor risks, whilst in other cases the
appointment of foreign teleworkers is forbidden. These regulations may in fact prove effective
in the Industrial Society, but certainly will have no effect in the Information Society.
Some social and labor movements, either internal or external, become unnecessary
with technological development. Generations Y and Z demand more flexible jobs and this
trend will presumably culminate that in a not distant future the place where we work will be
chosen freely, and this will constitute a new right for us all.
THE NEW BALANCE OF FACTORS IN THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
The information society is searching for a new balance of factors of productions where
the predominant factor is labor, especially as regards teleworkers. Elements such as
legislation, education and salary that accompanied the development of the Industrial Society
are causing unbalances when they are not focused promptly. We have already mentioned
legislation in the previous item, and we are adding technological access, as this was essential
in the creation of this new Society.
BALANCING ELEMENTS THAT CAUSE IMBALANCES
These brief ideas do not intend to exhaust the topics or to address all the unbalancing
elements. However, we have to pay attention to three factors that, in view of their
characteristics, affect the whole population.
1. Education
2. Information and communication technologies
3. The system of compensations or labor remuneration.
1. EDUCATION
Although good part of educational programs refer to economic aspects, as in this stage of life
we are all actors in flesh and bones and we need economic goods, such as food, clothing and
housing in order to protect our own subsistence, we have been able to evidence during
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Industrial Society times that all this was not enough and that not everybody benefited in an
egalitarian manner.
We also witnessed how inequalities increased and how most men impoverished with this
ideas and this type of education.
If we refer to phases in education, we could also say that education 1.0 corresponds to the
industrial model.
Education adapted to the industrial model which also distanced workers from their homes to
take them to factories and plants, with predetermined working hours. People no longer
worked and live in the hinterland, but instead they performed their duties in a new specific
space and with characteristics that survive to date.
However, the irruption of the ICTs is causing deep transformations that affect especially the
use of the working space in companies and the time made available to the employer. This does
not mean that we lack facilities and working times, but instead that they provide new meaning
and other changes. At present, Knowmads to which CRISTÓBAL COBO & John Moravec refer in
their work EL APRENDIZAJE INVISIBLE 2, are teleworkers that can work almost with everyone,
at any time and place.
In this way the industrial society as we know it shrinks with the introduction of these
technologies, and for that reason we all know that it will not offer employment opportunities
to all, but at the same time these technologies give rise to a new society, which we know as the
society of “Information and Knowledge”, which is now expanding and that we still have to
reveal.
At present, our life is adapting to these changing, turbulent and fast processes fuelled by
technological change. Education does not respond to all this and we also endeavor to apply
industrial standards to this new society, and the mechanisms for accumulation and in crisis.
This is demonstrated just by the growing gaps between the rich and the poor,
notwithstanding the political efforts to improve redistribution of income. In item 3 below we
have included some graphs that refer to this topic.
Going back to the topic of education and to the reasons for the urgent need of a specific path
for work at this time of History – and teleworking is included here – we may say that we are
living in a 2.0 educational stage that tries to survive these changes and provided responses
when these responses seem almost impossible. The necessary innovations where teaching
and learning allows to follow the new model of the emerging information society.
2
http://www.elearningeuropa.info/en/download/file/fid/22885
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However, change cannot occur if we refrain from focusing a 3.0 educational framework,
sufficiently adequate for a society which is also 3.0 in terms of young people. The
characteristics of this society demand courses able to qualify them accordingly.
For a long time now we have been waiting for responses from the educational sector and
failing to produce these changes could also sound as a lack of diligence. The new technologies
have reached schools and new types of connections go beyond our borders and extend to
other countries in our region. While each course is preparing new Knowmads, we should
speed up the process with a specific and cross-sectional course allowing for globalized greater
and enhanced labor opportunities for all those who are now imagining a 3.0 scenario.
2. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
We cannot refer to information and knowledge society without information and
communication technologies symmetrically distributed throughout world geography, and
available to all human beings. And of course we could never refer to telework without these
technologies.
This topic does not need further explanation now, but we would like to highlight that the
Right to Internet [access] should be regarded as a human right.
3. COMPENSATIONS
Another issue that we have to focus if we are to achieve a balanced society, in which
everybody can develop, is the remuneration issue.
In the best years of the industrial society domestic salaries were high and collective
bargaining agreements covered all the activities. One of the problems in the rupture of the
Fordism model lies in a globalized model, through which it was possible to produce goods at
lower wages, i.e. with cheaper workforce and to sell these products in countries with
enhanced retributive standards. This could not last for long.
When we apply compensation standards to the new business agreement and to companies on
the basis of knowledge we will certainly achieve an outstanding increase of inequalities.
The charts below were presented by the Argentinean Chamber of companies involved in
Software and Information Services during an event organized by the Ministry of Science and
Technology. The data for 2010 was as follows:
Sales by employee in USD thousands/Year
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Distributive inequality gets worse when we observe the invoicing figures for each employee of
the companies in involved in the production of knowledge.
At the same time, the OPSSI3 observatory presented the following average payroll chart of the
sector towards August 2010:
2. Global Results
2.1.
Evolution of salaries
During the first half of 2010 nominal salaries in the software and information services sectors
showed a positive evolution, although at a slower pace when compared to the second half in
2009. While the average salary in the sector was increased by 7.5% between June and December
http://www.slideshare.net/cessiargentina/niveles-salariales-en-las-empresas-desoftware-y-servicios-informticos-de-argentina
3
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of that year, during period January-June in 2010 the increased was about 5.4%. In addition, when
making inter-annual comparisons, June to June, the average nominal salary grew 13.3%
The question we should answer now is what would have happened with these average
salaries should they follow the gains of companies instead of following inflation rates.
Both charts evidenced that the accumulation system does not ensure equity in the current
economic development model, especially in the case of the Information Society and therefore
there is a need to discuss other forms of distribution of income.
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Finally I wish to share with you that I firmly believe that we are a privileged generation, as we
may see and be the protagonists of the birth of the new Information Society, but we are also
responsible for instrumenting adequate educational programs, the necessary technological
availability and for innovating in the setting up of equitable remunerations.
Although as we said before balance or equilibrium is something difficult to achieve, if we
diligently work on the issue we will finally achieve what we wish.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Castells, M. (n.d.). La era de la información Tomo I, Economía, Sociedad y Cultura. Retrieved
from http://www.geocapacitacion.com.ar/geoweb/biblio/laera.pdf
CEPAL (ECLAC), O. (2013). Advances and challenges in measuring decent work Advances and
challenges in, (8).
ILO. (2012). Global Employment Trends 2012 Preventing a deeper jobs crisis. Retrieved from
http://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-employmenttrends/WCMS_171571/lang--es/index.htm
Rojas, A. S. (2010). La alienación en marx: el cuerpo como dimensión de utilidad, 37–55.
Salas, C. (n.d.). El Sector Informal, 192–223. Retrieved from
http://docencia.izt.uam.mx/egt/publicaciones/libros/teoria_social/cap6.pdf
Sebastián, J., & Benavides, C. (2004). Si el conocimiento es un factor de producción.
Tokman, V. (2006). El sector informal posreforma económica, 1–3. Retrieved from
http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/26934584/618574630/name/El+sector+informal+posr
eforma+econ%C3%B3mica++(Tokman).pdf
Trejos, J. D. (n.d.). El trabajo decente y el sector informal en los países del istmo
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SONIA BOIAROV (SUMMARIZED CV)
Graduated in Labor Relationships and Magister from the University of Buenos Aires in Labor
Social Sciences.
Professor of Administration II in the Course of Labor Relationships of the University of
Buenos Aires (UBA), Invited Professor of Bucaramanga's University- Colombia, Tokyo
University of Science and of Human Resources, UANL- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León,
México, ADEN Business School, University of High Management, Mendoza, Argentina.
ITA's Chair (International Telework Academy).
Counsel in the area of remunerations for several companies. Has lectured in several courses of
the ITU (International Telecommunications Union).
Director of Torres de Teletrabajo and Red Experta, Academic Director at CEDTEL –Center of
education for teleworking.
Founder of the Centro de Teletrabajo y Teleformación of the Faculty of Social Sciences,
University of Buenos Aires – UBA.
Project leader research work for the IDRC - International Development Research Center, in
Canada.
Researcher at CETEL- Group on studies and research on labor management and technology,
Business School Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Advisory work for CEPAL (ECLAC) and research works for Unesco-Quito.
Director of UNESCO telework courses for Latin America and the Caribbean during the period
2002-2005.
Publisher of the newsletter Boletín Teletrabajando, author of the book: ¿Cómo empiezo a
teletrabajar? (How do I start teleworking?), co-author of the book: Exportadores de Servicios
en Internet (Export of teleservices for the social and labor inclusion of Latin America and the
Caribbean); general coordinator of the book: Telecapacitados ; author of the report on
telework in Argentina and articles for the media.
Organizer of the Ibero-American Telework Congresses I and II, Regional Meeting for
employment of the visually disabled sponsored by UNESCO, and the Academic International
Event: Telework 2010- Argentina under the auspices of the ITA- International Telework
Academy.
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www.boiarov.com.ar
[email protected]