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Journal of Adolescence 35 (2012) 628–637
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado
Predicting the filial behaviors of Chinese–Malaysian adolescents
from perceived parental investments, filial emotions, and parental
warmth and support
Charissa S.L. Cheah*, Sevgi Bayram Özdemir, Christy Y.Y. Leung
University of Maryland, Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
a b s t r a c t
Keywords:
Filial piety
Parental warmth and support
Adolescents
Chinese culture
The present study examined the mediating role of perceived parental warmth and support
in predicting Chinese Malaysian adolescents’ filial behaviors from their age, perceived
parental investments, and positive filial emotions toward their parents. The effects of these
predictors were examined separately for mothers and fathers. Participants included 122
Chinese adolescents (M ¼ 13.14 years; SD ¼ 2.22) in Malaysia. Adolescents’ perceived
parental investments, filial emotions, and warmth and support from each parent were
positively, and age was negatively associated with their filial behaviors. No gender
differences were found. Perceived maternal warmth and support significantly mediated
the effect of age, perceived investments from, and filial emotions toward mothers on
adolescents’ filial behaviors, but perceived paternal warmth and support did not have
a mediating role. The present study sheds light on the unique maternal versus paternal
filial role, and important familial processes in Chinese-Malaysian children and adolescents
from a cultural perspective.
Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Foundation for Professionals in Services for
Adolescents.
According to Confucian philosophy, filial piety is the foundation that ensures the stability and integrity of the Chinese
family, community, and state (Ho, 1986; Jordan, 1988). The socialization practices of Chinese parents are rooted in filial piety,
which shapes parent–child relationships as well as the roles, responsibilities and obligations of each party toward the other
across the life span (Chao & Tseng, 2002; Ho, 1996). Filial demands on children range from material to emotional requirements, such as support, memorializing, deference, respect, and love (Ho, 1996). In vertically structured cultures oriented
toward interdependence, filial piety represents an important dimension of children’s connectedness to their parents (l). Thus,
the study of filial piety is essential for understanding socialization and child development within Chinese families (Wong,
Leung, & McBridge-Chang, 2010).
Although children’s connectedness to their parents begins to change as children enter adolescence, most of the
research on filial piety and other aspects of children’s sense of responsibility to their parents have focused on late
adolescence and beyond (Chen, Bond, & Tang, 2007; Fuligni & Pedersen, 2002). Much less is known about younger
children’s filial–related beliefs and behaviors toward their parents (Fuligni, Tseng, & Lam, 1999; Fuligni & Zhang, 2004).
Moreover, the predictors of filial piety have also been neglected in the literature (Yeh & Yang, 2008). In the current study,
we examined the potential predictors of filial behaviors toward parents among Chinese adolescents ranging in age from 9
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 410 455 1059; fax: þ1 410 455 1055.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C.S.L. Cheah), [email protected] (S. Bayram Özdemir), [email protected] (C.Y.Y. Leung).
0140-1971/$ – see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents.
doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.001
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629
to 18 years old in Malaysia. Specifically, we examined the role of the adolescents’ age, gender, filial beliefs (i.e., their
perceptions of their parents’ investments in them) and positive filial emotions toward their parents’ investments, in
predicting their reported filial behaviors. In addition, we tested a mediation model that examines the mechanism through
which these predictors were related to child filial behaviors. Specifically, we focused on perceived parental warmth and
support as a mediator.
The Chinese in Malaysia
The ethnic Chinese constitute the largest minority group in Malaysia (26% of the Malaysian population in 2000), with the
ethnic Malays being the majority (Yearbook of Statistics, Malaysia, 2007). Chinese Malaysians are made up of various dialect
groups (e.g., Hokkien, Hakka, Cantonese, Teochew, Hainanese) who migrated from China and married extensively with one
another resulting in a pan-Chinese Malaysian identity (Lee & Tan, 2000). Several major factors have contributed to the
maintenance of a strong Malaysian Chinese identity over time. First, there are numerous Chinese language vernacular schools
whose medium of instruction is Mandarin, although the first official language is Malay and English is taught in schools and
widely used. Second, religious barriers for the mostly Buddhist or Taoist Chinese to intermarry with the Malay Muslim
majority exists. Third, Malaysian governmental policies such as ethnic quotas in universities and businesses and other
affirmative action policies favoring the ethnic Malays exist to maintain their political dominance and balance the economic
distribution (Lee & Tan, 2000).
Filial piety is a core principle in the Malaysian family system (Ismail, Jo-Pei, & Ibrahim, 2009), especially among the Chinese
minority (Thomas, 1990). Despite increasing westernization (Lee, Quek, & Chew, 2001), Chinese filiality in Malaysia may be
closer to the traditional Chinese interpretation than the current practices of many Chinese living in other countries. Thus, the
strong continued Chinese cultural resilience in this population of adolescents in Malaysia allows for a unique cultural context
to examine these processes.
Predictors of filial behaviors
A limited number of studies have examined the potential determinants of filial piety (e.g., Thomas, 1990; Zhan, 2004).
However, most of these studies focus on demographic factors (e.g., education, gender, age, socioeconomic status), tending to
neglect the psychological and relational determinants of filial behaviors that might be most relevant for adolescents. Thus, in
the present study, in addition to the demographic characteristics of age and gender, we examined adolescents’ perceptions of
their parents’ investments in them and positive filial emotions toward their parents in response to these investments as
predictors of their reported engagement in filial behaviors, and the mediating role of adolescents’ perception of parental
warmth in these associations.
Age
As children enter adolescence, one major developmental change is increased autonomous behavior and less direct
regulation by parents (Collins & Steinberg, 2006). Adolescents start to individuate themselves from their parents and develop
their own interests and identities, particularly in Western samples (Zimmer-Gembeck & Collins, 2003). Among Chinese
Americans, Juang and Cookston (2009) found that ninth- and tenth-graders’ perceptions of their likelihood of displaying filial
behaviors decreased over two years although they continued to believe the importance of treating parents with great respect,
and assisting and supporting the family. In the current study, we examined the mediating role of the adolescents’ perception
of their parents’ warm and supportive behaviors toward them in an attempt to explain the association between adolescents’
age and filial behaviors.
In Western samples, adolescents’ perceptions of parental support, intimacy, and warmth decline from pre- to middleadolescence, stabilizing by late adolescence (De Goede, Branje, & Meeus, 2009; Meeus, Iedema, Maassen, & Engels, 2005).
There are inconsistent findings, however, with regard to parent–child relationship quality among Chinese families during this
developmental period. Some researchers reported that Chinese adolescents’ relationship with their parents did not change
with increasing age (e.g., the frequency and intensity of parental conflict; Fuligni, 1998; Yau & Smetana, 1996). However,
others found that Chinese adolescents perceived their relationship with their parents to be less positive (Shek, 2007) and less
cohesive with increasing age (Fuligni, 1998).
Such inconsistent findings could be due to the specific aspect of parent–child relationship being examined (e.g., parental
conflict, cohesion with parents, or connectedness toward parents) across studies. Due to the process of individuation, Chinese
children’s connectedness, intimacy and warmth toward their parents may decline as they enter adolescence similar to their
Western counterparts (Shek, 2007). However, unlike their Western counterparts, they may be less likely to report higher
levels of conflict as they enter adolescence (Fuligni, 1998; Yau & Smetana, 1996) due to traditional cultural values that endorse
being respectful and obedient to the family.
In the current study, we examined the level of warm and supportive behaviors that adolescents perceived receiving from
their parents. Although the cross-sectional nature of our data did not allow us to conclude the direction of the associations
among these variables, in our conceptual mediation model, we expected that adolescents’ age would be negatively correlated
with their perceptions of parental warmth, which in turn would be associated with less reported filial behaviors.
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Perception of parents’ investments
Awareness of the investments that someone has made for an individual may form the root of felt indebtedness and state of
obligation to repay the other. According to Aikawa, interpersonal interactions need to be based on mutual obligations
(Aikawa, 1990). Thus, the Confucian filial child is obligated to repay his or her parents for their sacrifice and hardship in raising
them (Tu, 1998). Indeed, adult children who engaged in more shared activities with their parents, and received greater
financial support and affection in their early years were found to provide more support to their parents at later ages
(Silverstein, Conroy, Wang, Giarrusso, & Bengtson, 2002). Thus, one would expect that perception of greater parental filial
investments in them and sacrifices for them would predict children and adolescents’ increased reported filial behavior.
The child’s perception of their parents’ warm and supportive behaviors is likely important in the association between their
perceived parental investments and display of filial behaviors. Specifically, adolescents’ beliefs about how much their parents
have done for them may contribute to how much warmth and support they feel they receive from parents. In turn, these
perceived parental behaviors may enhance adolescents’ identification with parents, internalization of these cultural values,
and in turn their willingness to support, assist, and respect the family. In fact, Fuligni and colleagues found that Chinese
adolescents with positive family relationships reported stronger values and greater expectations regarding their duties to
respect and support their parents (Fuligni et al., 1999; Fuligni & Zhang, 2004). Similarly, Taiwanese adolescents with stronger
filial beliefs were less likely to experience parent-child conflict (Yeh & Bedford, 2004). Thus, in the present study, we
hypothesized that greater perceived parents’ filial investments would predict higher perceived parental warmth and support,
which in turn would predict greater filial behaviors among adolescents.
Filial emotions
Filial emotions are defined as the emotion of gratitude toward others due to their benevolence (Chang & Holt, 1994) and
capture children’s emotional reactions to receiving filial investments of the parents, for example, being happy and grateful.
Kim Haboush (1994) has argued that Confucian ethic, filial piety, was rooted in an emotion of gratitude felt toward parents
due to their earlier nurturance. The filial emotions result in filial values and behaviors (Kim Haboush, 1994) besides a duty
owed to the status of parents (Jordan, 1998). Thus, in addition to adolescents’ perceived investments from their parents, their
positive emotions about their parents’ fulfillment of the parental filial obligations may reflect their internalization of filial
socialization, and determine their own reciprocal filial behaviors. However, no studies to date have examined whether
adolescents’ filial emotions are related to their reported filial behaviors as well as underlying processes for the associations
between these two filial piety constructs. We proposed that as children’s positive filial emotions toward parents increased,
their reported engagement in filial behaviors would increase. Moreover, we argue that in the Chinese family context, children’s emotional involvement in filial roles and obligations is part of the natural socialization process that are not solely the
result of parental characteristics (e.g., the parental warmth) although the level of such emotion varies from one individual to
another one. Although the cross-sectional nature of our data does not allow us to conclude the direction of the associations
among these variables, in our conceptual mediation model based on traditional Confucian ethic (Kim Haboush, 1994), we
proposed that filial emotion may contribute to their perception of their parents’ warmth and supportive behaviors toward
them, which in turn would be related to their reported engagement in filial behaviors.
Child gender
In traditional Chinese society, special emphasis was placed on the filial relationship between the son and father in part
related to the belief that sons carry on the family lineage while daughters’ responsibility transfers to her husband’s family
upon marriage (Chappell & Kusch, 2007; Ho, 1986). However, exposure to more Western ideas of gender roles has contributed
to increasing equality among Chinese families, including those in Malaysia (Noor, 1999). Contemporary Chinese females are
able to provide for their parents as a result of greater educational opportunities and economic development for women, and
recent studies reveal that equal emphasis is now placed on the daughter’s filial behaviors (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003). No
differences are observed between the two genders in their sense of filial obligations (Chen et al., 2007; Juang & Cookston,
2009). Thus, in the present study, we expected no gender differences in the filial beliefs, emotions, or behaviors of Malaysian Chinese adolescents.
Mothers versus fathers
Traditionally, Chinese mothers are encouraged to express their emotions, be affectionate, kind, and protective toward their
children (Shek, 1998). Mothers’ major responsibilities include socializing their children and providing care; thus, they spend
more time with their children than do fathers (Roopnarine, Lu, & Ahmeduzzaman, 1989). In contrast, fathers are traditionally
regarded as authority figures and prohibited to express their feelings and emotions, which may serve as a barrier to the
development of close relationships with their children. Despite the changes in contemporary Chinese family dynamics
regarding the filial role of daughters and sons described above, research continues to find that Chinese adolescents perceive
their fathers as harsher, and less concerned, responsive, and demanding than mothers (Shek, 2000). Moreover, adolescents
reported lower perceived quality of communication with their fathers than mothers, even over time (Shek, 2007).
The culturally regulated roles of fathers and mothers, perceptions of parental filial investments, filial emotions, and the
parenting behaviors between Chinese-Malaysian mother-child and father-child dyads requires further examination, particularly during the transition to adolescence. Therefore, in the current study, we examined whether adolescents’ perceived
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parental investments, filial emotions, and warmth and support from their mothers and fathers differed. Because of the greater
involvement of Chinese–Malaysian mothers in the nurturing and caretaking of their children (Roopnarine et al., 1989), we
predicted that Chinese Malaysian adolescents would report greater perceptions of parental investments from and filial
emotions toward mothers versus fathers, and more perceived warmth and support received from their mothers than fathers.
Methods
Participants
One hundred and twenty-two children and adolescents of Chinese ethnicity (where both parents were ethnically Chinese)
residing in Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, were recruited from after-school programs. The participants ranged in age from 9
to 18 years (M ¼ 13.14 years; SD ¼ 2.22). There were 62 boys and 60 girls. The majority of the adolescents were first-born (41%),
followed by second- (29.5%) and third-born (18%). Seventy percent of the participants spoke primarily in Chinese (Mandarin,
Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, or Teochew dialects) with their family members, 24% spoke some Chinese and some English or Malay
(the national language), and 6% spoke no Chinese and only English or Malay at home. The distribution of religion within this
sample was similar to the national sample of Chinese residing in Malaysia. Most participants identified as being Buddhist (81%),
followed by Christian (15%), Muslim (8%), and other (3.4%). All participants were from two-parent middle-class families. About half
of the fathers (51.6%) and a quarter of the mothers (23.7%) held professional occupations. Regarding the adolescents’ perceptions
report of their family’s financial situation,1.7% were “well to do (rich),” 57.1% “had more than enough to get by,” 37.0% “had enough to
get by, but not extras,” 2.5% “barely had enough to get by,” and 1.7% “had not enough to get by (very poor).”
Procedures
After the directors of after-school centers were contacted by the researchers and permission was obtained, packets of
questionnaires including a brief description of the study, the informed consent form, a demographics form and measures
were distributed to the participating child or adolescent. Assent and parental consent was obtained from all participants
under 18 years of age prior to completing the questionnaires at the centers. The participants could complete the questionnaires in English or Traditional Chinese. The participants who chose to complete the measures in English did not significantly
differ from the participants who completed the measures in Chinese on any variables.
Measures
Measures that were originally available in English were first translated to Chinese and then back-translated to English by
bilingual graduate students. Similarly, Chinese measures were first translated to English and back-translated to Chinese. All
discrepancies were resolved through consensus by the translators. Finally, 8 pilot participants were administered the
measures (4 in each language, 4 males and 4 females) and then interviewed about the measures to further ensure the
appropriateness of the measures for Chinese–Malaysian children and adolescents and the linguistic equivalence of the
measures. The pilot participants did not distinguish between filial behaviors directed at their father versus mother; thus,
a measure of filial behaviors toward both parents was used in the study.
Demographics
A measure assessing demographic and descriptive information designed for the present study assessed the participant’s
age, gender, religion, birth order, parental occupation, and his or her family’s general financial situation.
Children’s perceptions of parents’ filial investments and emotions
Based on Greenberg’s (1980) and Hayashi’s (1974); as cited in Aikawa (1990) research on factors that impact the
magnitude of indebtedness, a measure was constructed to assess participants’ report of their parents’ filial sacrifices for them
with regard to: (1) the parents’ investment in their child (e.g., time, money); and (2) the parents’ costs with regard to these
investments. The parents’ costs in giving in the following areas were assessed for mothers and fathers separately: hardship,
sacrifice of an easy life and happiness, and financial cost. Sample questions include: “My mother/father works hard because s/he
wants to provide me a good living; My mother/father gives up what s/he likes for my benefit; My mother/father spends a lot of
money on my education and training.” Participants rated how much they agreed with each of these items on a Likert scale
ranging from “1” (strongly disagree) to “4” (strongly agree). Reliability for perceived received investments from mother was
a ¼ .71, and father was a ¼ .70.
Participants were also asked about his/her emotional reaction to receiving such filial investments from his/her mother and
father separately based on Silverstein et al. (2002) research on reciprocity in parent-child relations in order to assess their
filial emotions. Participants rated how much they agreed with positive (happy and grateful) and negative (angry, and sad)
emotions in response to their parents’ investments in them as described above on a Likert scale ranging from “1” (strongly
disagree) to “4” (strongly agree). Responses to negative filial emotions were reversed and an average was calculated in order
to create a total positive filial emotion variable. Reliability for positive filial toward mother was a ¼ .71, and father was a ¼ .84.
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Parental warmth and support
The adapted version of the Children’s Reports of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI; Schuldermann & Shuldermann, 1988)
was used to assess adolescents’ perceptions of their parents’ behavior toward them (e.g., expressions of affection, emotional
support, and sharing) with their mother and father separately using 14 items. Sample questions include: “My mother/father
always speaks to me with a warm and friendly voice;” “My mother/father gives me a lot of care and attention.” Participants rated
how much they agreed with each of these items on a Likert scale ranging from “1” (strongly disagree) to “4” (strongly agree).
This measure has been shown to be reliable with Asian samples (e.g., Chen, Liu, & Li, 2000; Padmawidjaja & Chao, 2010; and Tam,
2009). In the present study, Cronbach alpha for the perceived maternal warmth was a ¼ .87, and paternal warmth was a ¼ .88.
Filial piety behavior scale toward their parents
Participants’ filial piety behaviors were assessed using Yang et al.’s Scale of Filial Behavior (1989) which was modified to be
developmentally appropriate for the age of our sample. The 31-tems assessed the following contents of filial piety: (1)
Financially and emotionally assisting the parents (e.g., the child should support their parents (to the extent possible) and
make their lives comfortable); (2) Avoid making parents worry (e.g., the child should report to the parents before going out
and after arriving home, so that the parents would not worry); (3) Bringing honor to the parents (e.g., the child should do the
thing that will make the parents proud of him/her); (4) Be polite to the parents (e.g., the child should speak gently and politely
to the parents); (5) Staying with parents (e.g., the child should avoid moving from home when the parents are still alive); (6)
Obeying the parents (e.g., when making career choices, the child should follow the parents’ opinion); (7) Cover up for the
parents (e.g., if the parents have done something illegal or inappropriate, the child should cover up for them). Participants
rated how often they display each of the filial behaviors in their daily lives on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from “0” (Never) to
“3” (Almost Always). An overall score of filial behaviors was created by calculating the mean of all 31 items, with a ¼ .89.
Results
Participants’ birth order was examined as a potential covariate, but it was not associated with the outcome variable (e.g.,
filial behavior) or the predictor variables (e.g., perceived investments from parents, filial emotions toward parents, and
parental warmth and support). Therefore, birth order was not included in further analyses.
Inter-correlations among the study variables
The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among the study variables are presented in Table 1. As
expected, all predictor variables were significantly correlated with adolescents’ perceived filial behaviors. Specifically,
adolescents were less likely to report filial behaviors with increasing age. On the other hand, their perceptions of filial
investments from mothers and fathers, feelings of positive filial emotions toward mothers and fathers, and the perceived
parenting warmth and support received from each parent were positively correlated with their filial behaviors. Consistent
with our hypothesis, girls (M ¼ 1.80, SD ¼ .37) did not differ from boys (M ¼ 1.89, SD ¼ .46) in their reported filial behaviors, t
(118) ¼ 1.21, p > .05. Moreover, they did not statistically differ in their levels of perceived investment received from their
parents, filial emotions in response to parents’ investments, and the warmth and support received from each parent. The
results also revealed that all predictor variables were significantly correlated with each other except: (1) age and investment
received from both mothers and fathers; (2) age and feelings of filial emotions toward fathers.
Mediating effect of parent–adolescent relationship quality
Following Baron and Kenny’s (1986) guideline, path analysis was used to test the mediating effect of perceived parental
warmth and support in predicting filial behaviors from adolescents’ age, perceptions of parental filial investment, and filial
emotions toward parents. Maximum likelihood (ML) estimation was applied to test the mediation models using MPlus 4.2
(Muthen & Muthen, 2007). To evaluate overall model fit, several fit indices were used: (a) chi-square estimate of model fit, (b)
the Bentler’s Comparative Fit Index (CFI; values > .90 indicate good fit), (c) the root mean square error of approximation
Table 1
Means, standard deviations (SD), and correlations for variables (N ¼ 122).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Child age
Investments from mother
Investments from father
Filial Eotions toward Mother
Filial Emotions toward Father
Warmth and support from mother
Warmth and support from father
Adolescent filial behaviors
*p < .05; **p < .01.
M (SD)
1
13.14
3.19
3.18
3.49
3.39
3.08
2.82
1.85
–
(2.22)
(.40)
(.39)
(.50)
(.65)
(.48)
(.53)
(.42)
.056
.109
.276**
.066
.399**
.267**
.185*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
–
.578**
.298**
.136
.366**
.148
.262**
–
.225*
.345**
.271**
.423**
.233*
–
.468**
.595**
.395**
.412**
–
.256**
.327**
.219*
–
.589**
.558**
–
.516**
–
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Table 2
Unstandardized path coefficients, standard errors, and t-values for mediation model.
Path
Estimate
SE
z
P
Investments from mothers to mothers’ warmth and support
Filial emotions toward mothers to mothers’ warmth and support
Age to mothers’ warmth and support
Investments from fathers to fathers’ warmth and support
Filial emotions toward fathers to fathers’ warmth and support
Age to fathers’ warmth and support
Mothers’ warmth and support to adolescents’ filial behavior
Fathers’ warmth and support to adolescents’ filial behavior
.27
.46
.076
.52
.16
.06
.34
.10
.10
.09
.019
.13
.08
.02
.08
.07
2.64
5.31
3.93
3.98
2.00
2.74
4.35
1.43
<.05
<.05
<.05
<.05
<.05
<.05
<.05
>.05
(RMSEA; values < .08 indicate acceptable fit, and (d) Standardized Root Mean Residual (SRMR; values < .06 indicate
acceptable fit; Hu & Bentler, 1999).
In our initial model, the covariances between the predictors, the paths from predictors to the mediators, and mediators to
the outcome variable were estimated. No direct path from predictors to the outcome, and covariance between the two
mediator variables were tested. The model yielded a significant chi-square value, c2 (10) ¼ 27.86, p ¼ .002, suggesting a poor
model fit. Inspection of modification indices suggested that adding a correlated error between mediator variables (e.g.,
perceived maternal and paternal warmth and support) would improve model fit. Indeed, studies reported that children’s
reports of mother and father relationship quality and behaviors (including warmth) are positively associated (Fuligni & Zhang,
2004; Yeh & Bedford, 2004). The modified model yielded good fit indicated with a non-significant chi-square model fit value,
c2 (9) ¼ 10.78, p ¼ .29 and acceptable relative fit index values (CFI ¼ .99, RMSEA ¼ .04, SRMR ¼ .04). Chi-square difference test
suggested that adding this correlated error improved the model fit significantly, Dc2 (1) ¼ 17.08, p < .001. The unstandardized
parameter estimates and standard errors for the full mediation model are presented in Table 2. The standardized parameter
estimates are presented in Fig. 1.
In the full mediation model, all directional paths between the predictors and mediators were in the expected directions
(see Fig. 1). Specifically, perception of investments from mothers (b ¼ .19) and fathers (b ¼ .33), as well as filial emotions
toward mothers (b ¼ .40) and fathers (b ¼ .33) positively predicted the perceived warmth and support received from the
respective parent. Moreover, child age negatively predicted perceived warmth and support from both mothers (b ¼ .29) and
fathers (b ¼ .23). As for the associations between the mediators and outcome variables, perceived maternal warmth and
Fig. 1. The mediating role of perceived parental warm and supportive behaviors on the associations between adolescents’ age, perceived parental investments,
filial emotions, and filial behaviors. Note: The correlations between exogenous variables were estimated in the path model above. However, in order to have
a parsimonious figure, the double arrows and correlation estimates were not included in to the figure.
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support positively predicted filial behaviors (b ¼ .39). In contrast, the path coefficient from paternal warmth and support to
filial behaviors was not significant. Supporting our hypothesis, the test of indirect effects revealed that perceived warmth and
support from mother significantly mediated the effect of: age, z ¼ 2.92, p < .05, b ¼ .12, perception of investments from
mother, z ¼ 2.26, p < .05, b ¼ .07, and filial emotions toward mother, z ¼ 3.37, p < .05, b ¼ .16, on filial behaviors. However,
contrary to our hypothesis, perception of investment from and filial emotions toward fathers did not have an indirect effect in
predicting filial behaviors.
Finally, in order to test for direct effects of perceived investments from and filial emotions toward mothers and fathers in
predicting filial behaviors, we fit a partial mediation model where all direct effects from the predictors (i.e., child age,
perceived parental investment, and filial emotions toward parents) to the outcome were specified in addition to the indirect
effects. Chi-square change test suggested that adding these direct effects did not significantly improved the model fit, Dc2
(5) ¼ 3.52, p ¼ .62. Moreover, none of the direct paths were statistically significant.
Mothers versus fathers
A series of pair-wised t-test were conducted to examine whether adolescents’ perceptions of investment, filial emotions,
and warmth and support differed for mothers versus fathers. As hypothesized, adolescents reported more warmth and
support received from their mothers than fathers, t (120) ¼ 6.11, p < .001. Interestingly, adolescents’ perceived investments
from, t (120) ¼ .49, p > .05, and feelings of positive filial emotions, t (120) ¼ 1.60, p > .05, toward their mothers versus fathers
were not significantly different.
Discussion
The present study aimed to explore filial piety in Chinese Malaysian adolescents. We examined predictors of filial
behaviors, specifically, age, gender, perceived investment of parents in children, positive filial emotions toward parents in
response to these investments, and perceived parental warmth and supportive behaviors. Importantly, the child’s perceived
investment of parents, emotions toward, and warmth and support from each parent were examined separately. Moreover, to
study the processes underlying filial piety, we assessed the mediating role of the adolescent’s perceptions of the warmth and
support received from each parent in the association between age, level of parental investment, and filial emotions, and the
child’s self-reported filial behaviors.
As predicted, reports of filial behaviors decreased across children aged 9–18 years old. As children enter adolescence, the
process of individuation may conflict with the adolescent’s obligation to support, assist, and respect the family. This finding
also complements the existing developmental literature showing an increase in autonomy and decrease in obedience as
Chinese children enter adolescence (e.g., Juang & Cookston, 2009). It appears that despite being in a traditionally authoritarian
culture, similar to their Western peers, Chinese Malaysian adolescents may question the demands for their absolute
obedience and the authority of parents which may be reflected in decreased filial behaviors (Zhang & Zhang, 2004). On the
other hand, greater development of self-reliance and awareness of social roles may result in an increase in filial behaviors
during young adulthood. Indeed, Fuligni and Pedersen (2002) reported an increase in family obligations such as supporting,
assisting, and respecting family from late adolescence to young adulthood. Thus, future research should examine the
trajectory of filial piety across the developmental transition from childhood to adolescence and from adolescence to
adulthood.
As hypothesized, adolescents reported receiving more warm and supportive behaviors from their mothers than fathers,
supporting previous research indicating that Chinese fathers were rated as more harsh, demanding, and less concerned,
responsive and communicative than mothers (Shek, 2000). Our findings are also consistent with traditional Chinese parental
role regulations where mothers are the primary caregivers and more encouraged to express their emotions, be affectionate,
kind, and protective toward their children than fathers. Greater childcare involvement has also been observed among
mothers versus fathers in Chinese-Malaysian families (Roopnarine et al., 1989). Interestingly, despite differences in perceived
warmth and support, there were no differences in adolescents’ perceptions of each of their parents’ investments in them, or
their feelings of positive filial emotions toward their mothers versus fathers as a result of these investments. These results
support the traditional focus of filial piety ethic on both parents (Ho, 1986). Moreover, it is important to note that that despite
being related to the overall perceived warmth and supportive behaviors received from each parent, aspects of the parentchild affiliation surrounding the filial piety ethic is distinct in Chinese families. Indeed, Wong et al. (2010) found that
Chinese adolescents’ filial piety attitudes played a significant role in their feelings of closeness and level of conflict with their
mothers beyond the general parenting dimensions of maternal warmth and control.
Although researchers have proposed that a child’s sense of the investments and sacrifices that parents have made for
them may be related to their engagement in filial behaviors, no previous research has directly examined this hypothesis
(Tu, 1998). Here, we explored how children and adolescents’ perceptions of the investments that their mothers and
fathers have made in them and the child’s filial emotions in response to these investments toward their fathers and
mothers were associated with their self-reported filial behaviors. The results revealed that the more that children
perceived that their parents had invested in them (e.g., parents working hard because they want to provide the child
opportunities for better education; parents spending a lot of money on the child’s education and training), and the more
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happy and grateful they felt about these investments and sacrifices, the more likely they were to report engaging in filial
behaviors.
In the present study, we were specifically interested in a mediation model that examined the mechanism through which
child age, and perceived investments from and positive filial emotions toward each parent were related to child filial
behaviors. Supporting our expectations, the associations between age, perceived investments from and filial emotions toward
mother, and filial behaviors were mediated by the child’s perceptions of the mother’s warm and supportive behaviors. These
findings support previous arguments on the positive effects of filial beliefs and emotions on familial relationships, and the
financial and emotional support of parents (Ishii-Kuntz, 1997). Internalization of filial beliefs and emotions through socialization may lead to greater perceptions of warm and close parenting behaviors and adolescents’ identification with parents,
and thus their willingness to support, assist, and bring honor to the parents.
However, this mediating role was found only for the mother–child relationship, not for father–child relationship. Interestingly, although fathers’ warm and supportive behaviors were significantly and positively correlated with child filial
behaviors, paternal warmth ceased to have an effect on child filial behaviors after controlling the effect of maternal warmth
and adolescents’ perceived investments from and filial emotions toward each parent. Although traditionally, special emphasis
was placed on the filial relationship and obligations between the father and son (Chuang & Yang, 1989), contemporary
Chinese culture also places strong emphasis on the daughter’s filial behaviors (Fuligni & Zhang, 2004). Indeed, we also found
no differences in daughters’ versus sons’ reported filial behaviors. However, the child’s filial relationship with the father
versus mother may continue to be differentiated in Malaysia and should be explored further. Moreover, although the
adolescents’ age and SES were not found to moderate their reported filial behaviors in post-hoc analyses, future research
should consider other potential moderators that may reveal gender differences.
Filial emotions toward mothers’ filial sacrifices were more predictive of child filial behaviors than emotions toward fathers
possibly because of mothers’ traditional role as the nurturer and provider of emotional comfort which emphasizes the
mediating role of perceived maternal warmth and support (Shek, 2000). In contrast, although children’s perceived investments from and positive filial emotions toward fathers were positively related to their perceptions of their fathers’ warmth
and support (as with mothers), children’s filial obligations to their parents may be less dependent on fathers’ warm and
supportive behaviors due to the less central role that fathers play in their emotional lives. Thus, the need to examine the
child’s perceptions of the behaviors of each parent separately was highlighted. There is some evidence that Chinese fathers
are becoming more involved in child rearing (Chao & Tseng, 2002) and future research should continue to examine the
changing role of the child’s relationship with each parent separately over time.
Limitations and future directions
Several limitations of the present study should be noted. First, the generalizability of the results of the present study was
constrained due to the lack of variability in the socioeconomic level of the participants in our sample, and our inability to
obtain detailed information regarding their socioeconomic status. As previous research has reported associations between
socioeconomic status and filial behaviors (Fuligni & Zhang, 2004; Zhang & Zhang, 2004), future studies should examine the
role of the family’s socioeconomic level in these associations.
Moreover, as we have emphasized throughout this paper, our results were correlational in nature. Therefore, although we
proposed that perceived investments and filial emotions would promote more positive perceptions of parenting behaviors,
which in turn would lead to greater endorsement of filial behaviors based on traditional Confucian ethic, the direction of
causation in these analyses cannot be inferred. It is possible that children who perceive warmer and more supportive
behaviors from their parents would be more aware of their parents’ investments and have positive emotions regarding these
investments. Although we tested this alternative model post-hoc and did not find support for it in our sample, the correlational nature of our data precludes any final conclusions. Moreover, in order to further understand these associations, we
considered the possibility that perceived investments and or filial emotions might be more likely to predict filial behaviors
under conditions of more positively perceived parenting. However, in testing the moderating role of perceived parental
warmth and supportive behaviors on the associations between perceived investments from parents and filial emotions and
child filial behaviors, none of the interaction tests were significant. However, future longitudinal design studies are needed to
disentangle these associations.
Another limitation stems from our conceptualization of filial piety as one overall construct (Chen et al., 2007; Cheung &
Kwan, 2009). Recent discussions in the field highlight that filial piety might be better conceptualized in two factors, reciprocal
and authoritarian, which have distinct connotation and functions (Yeh, 2003; Yeh, 2009; Yeh & Bedford, 2003). Thus, future
research should examine these processes separately for the two types of filial piety, which may be particularly relevant for
understanding potential changes in filial piety across childhood and adolescence.
Finally, but importantly, only child reports were obtained on all the variables in the present study. Although adolescents’
perceptions of parenting in general have been found to be more predictive of their socio-emotional outcomes compared to
their parents’ reports (e.g., Cottrell, Li, & Harris et al., 2003; Latendresse et al., 2009) even in studies where adolescents’
developmental outcomes were obtained from a different source (e.g., Pelegrina, Garcia-Linares, & Casanova, 2003), the use of
multi-source data from parents or other independent observers is important. Whether adolescents’ or their parents’
perceptions of these constructs are more predictive of their filial behaviors, and the role of potential discrepancies between
reporters on adolescents’ developmental outcomes could be assessed.
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Despite these limitations; however, the present study extended previous literature in several ways. First, the present study
involved Chinese Malaysians who are an understudied group in psychological research. Second, we examined specific
predictors of adolescents’ filial behaviors, including child age, perceived parental investments, filial emotions, and parenting
behaviors. Moreover, we conducted a preliminary empirical test of the indirect roles of these variables in predicting filial
behaviors through perceived parenting behaviors. We also included children and adolescents, which allowed for a concurrent
examination of these variables across a wide developmental period. Finally, we assessed the child’s perceptions of parental
investments, filial emotions toward, and behaviors of each parent separately, and illustrated the uniqueness of each parentchild dyad. Together, our findings shed light on important familial processes for children and adolescents from a cultural
perspective.
Acknowledgments
A portion of this paper was presented at the Biennial Meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 2010 and the Biennial Meeting of International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development,
Melbourne, Australia, July 2006. We are grateful to the adolescents in Malaysia for their valuable time and information. We
would also like to thank Kung Soo Hui for her assistance with the initial conceptualization of the study, and Lily Thong and
Cheah Kam Thong for data collection.
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