Yopp | Word Links: ARuth
Strategy
for Developing
Word Knowledge
Helen
Yopp
page
Word Links: A Strategy for
Developing Word Knowledge
A
quick look through middle school
textbooks reveals that they are
dense with specialized vocabulary.
Indeed, in order to comprehend concepts
and ideas expressed by the texts’ authors,
students must understand a great deal of
terminology (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, &
Watts-Taffe, 2006).
Oftentimes, several specialized words appear in a
single sentence or paragraph, making comprehension even more difficult. Figure 1 shares an example of a paragraph similar to those found in
middle school science textbooks; students need to
be familiar with several content-related words if
they are to understand it. Clearly, one of the
teacher’s primary responsibilities is to support students’ acquisition of word knowledge.
Effective Vocabulary Instruction
Much has been written in the professional literature in recent years about developing students’
vocabulary, and many authorities agree that teachers should immerse students in word-rich environments that promote word consciousness,
provide instruction in word-learning strategies so
Plants contain a system of vascular tissues that
transport water, minerals, and food throughout the
plant. Xylem brings water and dissolved minerals from
the roots to the rest of the plant. Pholem transports
sugars and other organic nutrients to the roots and
other parts of the plant.
Figure 1. Sample paragraph from a seventh-grade
science text
students can learn words independently, and intentionally teach selected words (Blachowicz et al.,
2006; Graves, 2000; Kame‘enui & Baumann,
2004). In this article, I describe a strategy called
Word Links, which I have used to enrich students’
understanding of selected words from texts they
are reading. This strategy is based on the principle that effective vocabulary instruction incorporates four characteristics:
• It provides contextual information as well as
definitional information (Stahl, 1999;
Tannenbaum, Torgesen, & Wagner, 2006).
• It provides repeated exposure to words
under study and multiple opportunities for
students to use and practice the words
(Blachowicz et al., 2006; NICHD, 2000).
• It encourages students to think about
relationships among word meanings
(Blachowicz et al., 2006; NICHD, 2000).
• It involves active engagement in learning
tasks (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002;
Kamil & Hiebert, 2005; NICHD, 2000).
Word Links offers students myriad opportunities to think and talk about the contexts in which
words are used, to revisit words that they have been
learning, to think about relationships among words
as they connect with classmates, and to actively
engage with words as they decide whether or not
to link with peers who have different words.
The Strategy
The first step in the Word Links strategy is to
identify words or terms that are worthy of extended study. Often it is the teacher who selects
the words because he or she has a deep knowl-
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edge of the content and therefore of the importance and usefulness of the word candidates. Sometimes, however, the students select the words. The
words should relate to the content under study or
the book being read and should have been previously taught. For example, before and during the
reading of a chapter on cells in a seventh-grade
life science text, the teacher might have helped
the students build understanding of the words
listed in Figure 2, all of which provide a foundation for further learning about the topic. These
words represent key ideas from the text and are
words that the students likely did not fully understand prior to reading the chapter. Further, the
students are likely to encounter these words again
in their study of life science. The words might have
been introduced by providing student-friendly
definitions or by providing instructional contexts
for discussing word meanings (Beck, McKeown,
& Kucan, 2002). That initial introduction may
have been deepened by having students develop
semantic maps (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2006) or
engage in similar experiences that have been
shown to support learning new words (Stahl,
1999). To further deepen students’ understanding of these words, a teacher using the Word Links
strategy invites students to identify links among
words in various ways.
cell
tissue
organ
organ systems
organism
unicellular
multicellular
population
community
ecosystem
terrestrial
aquatic
cell membrane
organelles
cytoplasm
nucleus
prokaryotic
eukaryotic
bacteria
cell wall
ribosomes
mitochondria
chloroplast
endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
vesicles
vacuole
lysosomes
function
specialized
Figure 2. Words selected from a seventh-grade science
text chapter on cells
In preparation for this strategy, the teacher
writes each word on a large index card or 8 1/2" x
11" piece of cardstock or paper—one for each student in the class. For instance, if there are 24 students in the first-period science class, 24 words
are selected. If there are 29 students in the second-period class, 29 words are selected. The goal
is to provide each student with a word, one no
other student in the class will have.
It usually works well to distribute the word
cards randomly to the students. However, there
may be instances where the teacher strategically
distributes the words so that less complex words
are given to students who have less sophisticated
understandings of the topic and terminology (as
determined by formal or informal assessments of
the students’ content and word knowledge). Once
students have their word, they should spend a few
minutes reviewing their notes or the text to be
sure they know what their word means. The
teacher can provide additional support to any students who might have difficulty by meeting with
them briefly. The goal is to ensure that all students have sufficient knowledge about the word
on their card to be able to talk about it.
Next, students are asked to walk around the
room and find a partner whose word can be linked
to theirs in some way. Ideally, several links are
possible for each word, so students should be able
to find more than one person with whom to partner. Their task, however, is to select only one partner at this time. In the case of an odd number of
students, one triad will form. (It is most efficient
if the teacher designates one student in advance
to find a pair with whom to link.) After pairs (and
possibly one triad) have been established, the
teacher asks the students to prepare an explanation for the class that answers these questions:
What do the words mean? What do they have to
do with each other? How do they go together?
The students then stand alongside their
partner(s) in a large circle around the perimeter
of the classroom. The teacher invites each pair to
display their word cards, say their words, and explain the words’ meanings and relationship. Using words from the list in Figure 2, one pair of
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Figure 3. Two students share their word cards and
explain how their words are linked.
students might say, “Tissue is a group of cells that
work together, and an organ is made up of at least
two tissues working together. These words go together because organs are made up of tissue. You
can’t have organs without tissue.” Another pair
might say, “My word is eukaryotic, and my partner’s
word is nucleus. There are two kinds of cells:
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Only eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, so that’s why we put
these words together. A nucleus is a membranecovered organelle that holds the cell’s DNA.
People are made up of eukaryotic cells.” The
teacher might ask if anyone else considered linking with nucleus and why, and encourage comments
that serve to reinforce how the word fits into the
larger picture of the content under study. Figure
3 shows two students sharing their word cards and
explaining how their words are linked.
After all the students have shared their words
and explained the relationship between them, the
teacher asks the students to form a link with a new
partner, that is, to make a different connection.
Using the example above, the student holding the
word eukaryotic might partner with the student
holding the word bacteria. The students explain
to their classmates that they partnered because
bacteria are not eukaryotic cells. Rather, they are
prokaryotic cells and are much simpler than the
more complex eukaryotic cells.
The process of examining other students’
words in relation to their own words, considering
possible links between words, and articulating the
meanings of the words and the nature of the relationship between them engages students in deep
processing of word meanings. It requires students
to think about contextual information as they reflect on text content in order to determine relationships among words. In addition, it provides
an opportunity for students to use words they were
previously taught as they attempt to make connections with peers around the room. Reviewing
the words in this way usually results in rich conversations about the meanings of the words and is
a motivating and interesting experience for the
students. Negotiating these links with peers enhances students’ understandings of both the words
and the content as meanings and relationships are
clarified or extended.
Word Links generally takes 20–30 minutes of
class time and is a powerful strategy for reviewing
and extending understandings of words. It also
provides the teacher with an opportunity to conduct an informal assessment of the depth of comprehension being achieved. If the students have
difficulty identifying and explaining connections
among the words, they may need more instruction. On the other hand, their ability to make several appropriate connections might reveal
substantial understanding of the words and the
content.
The cards can be used again for further review. For example, students might sort them or
draw pictures representing their meanings on the
reverse side, or the teacher might use them in a
game to review the terms with the students.
Variations on a Theme
Thinking in Concepts
One extension of the Word Links strategy is to
color code the word cards so that superordinate
concepts, if they exist in the word list, are written
on one color of card and subordinate concepts are
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written on a different color. For example, in our
list of life science terms, the words organ system,
ecosystem, organelle, prokaryotic, and eukaryotic might
be written on orange card stock, and the remainder of the words might be written on yellow card
stock. After the students make their Word Links
(with no attention to the color of the card), the
teacher asks those with orange cards to stand in
different areas of the classroom. Those with the
yellow cards are asked to determine which orangecard word best serves to encompass their word,
and to stand near the person holding that card.
Students with the words cell, tissue, and organ might
choose to stand by the person with the term organ
system. These students would explain that organ
systems are made up of organs, which are made
up of tissue, which is made up of cells. Students
with the terms nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, Golgi complex, vacuole, and lysosomes might stand by the student with
the word organelle and then explain that organelles
are structures within a cell and that the terms are
all examples of organelles. These are only two
possible groupings. The students may organize
their words in other ways, which is acceptable as
long as the students can explain the connections
among the terms in accurate ways. The teacher
may conclude this portion of the strategy by asking if there are alternative ways the words could
have been organized. Students are usually happy
to share the other groupings they considered, explaining why those words belong together as well.
If the words are not easily organized into
superordinate and subordinate categories, the
SIDE TRIP: A STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING WORD KNOWLEDGE
Vocabulary is a key pathway to literacy and enjoyment of
literature. If interested in seeking additional information
in this vein, try these Web-based resources regarding
identification of words of importance, personalizing
student vocabulary lists, and other vocabulary ideas. Here
are some favorites:
• http://www.vocabulary.com/ is an interactive site for
intermediate and secondary students containing a
wealth of puzzles and activities.
• http://wordcentral.com/ is Merriam Webster’s Word
Central where students can sign up for a buzz word of
the day, build their own dictionary, and experience
some vocabulary fun.
• http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/reading/
main/buildingvocab.html is part of English Works!
and offers tried and true ideas.
• http://www.studystack.com/frames.jsp reveals the
next generation of interactive flash cards.
• http://www.public.asu.edu/~ickpl/learningvocab.htm
offers additional strategies including mnemonics and
mapping to encourage vocabulary development.
• For help in deciding what words are the most important for our students to learn and for ideas on how to
teach those words, go to Scholastic’s article by
Francie Alexander at http://content.scholastic.com/
browse/article.jsp?id=4509.
• At http://www.readingrockets.org/article/9943, Linda
Diamond and Linda Gutlohn offer a variety of lesson
models to suit a variety of instructional settings.
• For more graphic organizers, word wall basics, and
other very practical ideas, go to http://
www.dpsk12.org/departments/secondary/tip.htm.
For some extra scaffolding ideas for your English Language
Learners, peruse these sites:
• http://www.colorincolorado.org/teaching/
vocabulary.php includes help with pre-teaching
vocabulary, cognates, audio learning, and modeling.
• http://esl.about.com/od/englishvocabulary/ht/
htvocab.htm provides many activities, lists, and
recommendations to enhance vocabulary development.
—Joyce Brigman and Karen Wood
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teacher might instead ask each pair of students to
partner with another pair and create Word Clusters. Student pairs circulate through the room and
talk to other pairs of students to determine
whether and how their words fit together and to
look for the closest fit. After the Clusters are
formed, each small group explains to classmates
how their four words are related. Sometimes, the
teacher might ask students to cluster with the pair
standing nearest them and request that they find
a connection, stretching the students to consider
the interrelatedness of words and perhaps think
more broadly or deeply about their words than
they would have if they were permitted to choose
their own clusters.
Selecting Personal Words
Another follow-up to the Word Links strategy is
to allow students to select a word to discuss in a
journal. After interacting with peers about their
word, students select a word from among those
on the word cards for personal reflection. They
select a word for whatever reason they wish: it is
interesting, confusing, or fundamental to the topic.
The students write about the word, including why
they chose it and what it means. As they write
about the word, students utilize other words from
the list, thus making even more links. Examples
of Personal Words selected by two eighth-grade
students are depicted in Figure 4, along with the
list of words from a chapter on the Civil War used
by their Social Studies teacher. Note the comments
provided by the first student who explains her selection of the word abolitionist. She conveys an
understanding of the word and the content under
study, includes other words from the list in her
writing, and makes personal connections to the
words. The second student’s journal entry likewise communicates an understanding of the word
he selected, as well as an interest in the language
as he compares words that have similar spellings.
Using Word Links with Fiction
Word Links are not the exclusive domain of content texts. The strategy can also be used with fiction. Figure 5 shares Word Links made by three
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secede
execute
resident
blockade
rebellion
hygiene
ironclad
enlist
cavalry
emancipation
liberation
ban
immigration
export
racist
compromise
fugitive
abolitionist
popular sovereignty
boycott
arsenal
platform
Personal Word: I like the word abolitionist because I would
have been an abolitionist if I lived in the 1860s. Slavery
and racism are terrible, and I would have been involved in
banning (or abolishing) slavery. I might have helped
fugitives by helping them hide from the people who were
after them. The Emancipation Proclamation would have
made me happy.
Personal Word: The word secede makes me think of the
word succeed. It is interesting that the Confederate states
did not succeed in seceding from the Union!
Figure 4. Personal Word selections made by two
students from a list based on an eighth-grade social
studies text about the U.S. Civil War
pairs of students after exploring the rich language
used by Edgar Allan Poe in The Tell-Tale Heart
(1983). If there are insufficient words to engage
the entire class in the Word Links strategy based
on a single short story or text selection, the teacher
might use this strategy after reading several of
Poe’s stories. The opportunity to talk to peers
about possible links supports a developing understanding of the meanings of the words and may
also stimulate students to discuss the stories—enhancing their comprehension—or use the words
in other contexts.
Revisiting Words
After engaging in Word Links, the teacher should
retain the word cards developed for this strategy,
not only because of their usefulness in the other
more immediate activities described above, but
also because the cards should be revisited and can
be utilized to make links with words that are important to understanding future content. For ex-
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cunningly
sagacity
“They both have to do with being smart. To do something cunningly means to do it cleverly. Sagacity is wisdom. In The TellTale Heart, the main character thinks he can’t be a madman because he is so clever about sneaking into the old man’s room.”
refrained
audacity
“These words are sort of opposites. To refrain from something means to hold back, but people who behave with audacity don’t
hold back. They are bold. I would probably refrain from arguing with a teacher, but someone with audacity probably wouldn’t.”
vexed
derision
“You would be very vexed, or annoyed, if someone treated you with derision, or ridiculed you. In the story, the narrator was
vexed by the old man’s eye, and he thought the police were treating him with derision. That’s why he confessed in the end.”
Figure 5. Sample word links made by eighth-grade students reading Edgar Allan Poe’s The Tell-Tale Heart
ample, many of the words in Figure 2 used by the
life science teacher might be used in a later study
of organ systems or genetics. Also, word cards from
different subject areas can be intermingled in a
Word Links activity. Students may make interesting links between words in mathematics and science, for instance.
Supporting Vocabulary
Development
The Word Links strategy provides students with
the opportunity to talk with peers about the meanings of words critical to comprehension of the content as they try to establish links among the words.
The students consider the nuances of word meanings as they think about them not only in the larger
context of the text but in the smaller contexts of
their relationships to words held by their classmates. The language-based social interaction with
peers provides support for students’ developing
understandings as they grapple with the words and
the relationships between words. Through Word
Links, students interact multiple times and in
multiple activities with words that have previously
been taught, thus providing broad exposure to the
words, and students are actively engaged in thinking about the language of the text. What better
way to support students’ acquisition of word
knowledge and their understanding of the text than
Word Links?
References
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002).
Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.
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SIDE TRIP: WORD ASSOCIATION WITH A
TWIST
The author describes ways for students to make
connections between vocabulary words. The
ReadWriteThink lesson plan “Focusing Reader
Response through Vocabulary Analysis” presents a
similar idea. Adding one word at a time, students
compile a list of words associated with a novel
they have recently read, ranging from details
about the plot to feelings about a character. Small
groups of students then arrange the collected
words into at least four categories, which they
present and explain to the class. The discussion
ranges from vocabulary and comprehension to
literary analysis and reader response.
To learn more, visit the lesson plan at: http://
www. readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?
id=837.
—Lisa Storm Fink
www.readwritethink.org
33
41, 524–539.
Graves, M. (2000). A vocabulary program to complement and bolster a middle-grade comprehension
program. In B. M. Taylor, M. F. Graves, & P. Van
Den Broek (Eds.), Reading for meaning: Fostering
comprehension in the middle grades (pp. 116–135).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Kame‘enui, E. J., & Baumann, J. F. (2004). Vocabulary:
The plot of the reading story. In J. F. Baumann &
E. J. Kame‘enui (Eds.) Vocabulary instruction:
Research to practice (pp. 3–10). New York:
Guilford.
Kamil, M. L., & Hiebert, E. H. (2005). Teaching and
learning vocabulary: Perspectives and persistent
issues. In E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.),
Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing
research to practice (pp. 1–23). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Life science. (2001). Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based
assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction.
Washington, DC: Author.
Poe, E. A. (1983). The tell-tale heart and other writings.
New York: Bantam.
Blachowicz, C., & Fisher, P. J. (2006). Teaching
vocabulary in all classrooms (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill.
Blachowicz, C. L. Z., Fisher, P. J. L., Ogle, D., &
Watts-Taffe, S. (2006). Vocabulary: Questions
from the classroom. Reading Research Quarterly,
Stahl, S. A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
Tannenbaum, K. R., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K.
(2006). Relationships between word knowledge
and reading comprehension in third-grade
children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 381–
398.
Ruth Helen Yopp, formerly a sixth-grade teacher, currently teaches reading and language arts
methods courses at California State University, Fullerton.
Call for 2008 Hoey Award Nominations
The NCTE Edwin A. Hoey Award for Outstanding Middle Level Educator in the English Language Arts recognizes exceptional English language arts teachers in grades 5–8 who instill their own love of learning in their
students. This award honors Edwin A. Hoey, who brought limitless imagination and creativity to the pages of Read
during his nearly 40-year career as writer, editor, and managing editor of the renowned educational magazine.
Nomination packet information can be found on the NCTE website at www.ncte.org/middle/hoey and must
be postmarked no later than February 1, 2008. Results will be announced in Spring 2008, and the award will be
presented at the 2008 Annual Convention in San Antonio, Texas, at the Middle Level Luncheon.
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