International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World
(IJLLALW)
Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION
APPREHENSION AND LEARNERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT
LANGUAGE LEARNING WITH EFL UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS’ WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE
Hamidreza Fatemipour, Ph.D
Assistant Professor, ELT Department, Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages,
Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran (Corresponding author)
(Email: [email protected])
Vahideh Shirmohamadzadeh
MA in TEFL,ELT Department, Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign
Languages, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran
(Email: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between communication
apprehension (CA) and learners’ beliefs about language learning (LB) with English as a foreign
language (EFL) university students’ willingness to communicate. Besides, the purpose was to
examine whether students who were learning English as a foreign language in the Iranian context
were willing to communicate when they had an opportunity. Furthermore, the research
investigated the differences between males and females. In this Regard, researchers used
quantitative data collection and analysis procedures. Three questionnaires which were
willingness to communicate (McCroskey, 1997& McCroskey & Richmond, 1987),
communication apprehension (McCroskey, 1997), and learners’ beliefs about language learning
(Birjandi & Mohammadi, Impress) administered to 358 randomly selected university students of
Applied Science and Technology majoring in Hotel Management, Hospitality, Cooking, and
Tourism in Iran. The results revealed that, in both communication apprehension and learners’
beliefs there is a significant relationship with willingness to communicate. On the whole, the
results of this study indicated that there is a strong positive relationship between Learners’
Beliefs and Willingness to communicate. If students' LB increases, the students' WTC increases as
well, and on the other hand, if CA increases, students' WTC decreases, that there is a negative
correlation between these two variables. Regarding the participants gender, the males showed a
slightly higher correlation between CA and WTC. Also, males showed a higher correlation
between LB and WTC. The results of the study inform foreign language teachers of their students’
psychological, communicative, and linguistic needs. Teacher trainers may apply the findings to
develop more effective teacher education programs in order to increase the students’ interest in
language learning and reduce their communication apprehension.
KEYWORDS: Communication Apprehension, Learners’ Beliefs about Language
Learning, Willingness to Communicate.
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org INTRODUTON
According to Strevens (1992), English language is being used by numerous people around the
world for communication purposes. So, the main aim of teaching English has shifted from
themasteryofsyntaxtotheabilitytousethelanguageforcommunicativepurposes. Thus, the issues of
whether learners would communicate in English when they had the chance and what would affect
their willingness to communicate gain importance. Willingness to communicate” (WTC) was first
developed by McIntyre et al. (1998) to explain and predict second language communication.
WTC was first regarded in L1 context, as a stable personality train. Regarding L2 context, it was
seen different because it is related to communicative competence in L2 and it is different from
person to person. Also, communicative competence can vary from 0% to 100% (MacIntyre et al.,
1998).
According to McCroskey (1997), “WTC refers to the probability of engaging in communication
when the opportunity is given” (p. 129). For the first time, MacIntyre and Charos (1996) applied
the WTC to second language contexts and conceptualized the construct of WTC as the tendency
of an individual to engage in communication when free to do so. McCroskey and Baer (1985)
advanced the concept of willingness to communicate and defined it in L1 as an individual’s
general personality orientation towards communication and speaking.
Samovar and Porter (1985) state that culture shapes human communication behavior, the
engagement of a person to talk would be dependent, at least in parts, on the person’s “culture
orientation”. Also, they stated the role of communication orientations such as willingness to
communicate; communication apprehension and communication competence play in
interpersonal intercultural communication is almost unknown” (qtd. in Bar Taclough et al., 1988,
pp. 187-8).
Besides, while some learners have a good command of English, they feel worried in
communicating with people in a foreign language. It is about contribution called Communication
Apprehension (CA). Communication apprehension was defined by McCroskey and Richmond
(1987) as a kind of anxiety experienced in interpersonal communicative situations where learners
have little control over the communicative setting. The degree and relation between CA and
WTC is various according to learners age and culture. McCroskey and Richmond (1990) found
that the degree of willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, communication
competence, and introversion differed among countries as well as the degree of relations among
these variables. They also proposed that any kind of generalization should be done with reference
to culture.
There are many factors and attributes affecting WTC and CA. These factors are communication
competence (as stated by McCroskey & Richmond, 1990) and introversion (as stated by
McCroskey and Richmond, 1990). Learners’ belief (LB) also has a crucial role in WTC. Beliefs
about language learning were defined as “opinions on a variety of issues and controversies
related to language learning” (Horwitz, 1987, p. 120). Wenden (1999) considers learners’ belief
as metacognitive knowledge from a wider perspective, and defined them as “learners’ acquired
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org knowledge about learning: the nature of learning, the learning process, and humans as learners,
including themselves” (p. 435).
Yang (1999) examined the relationship between learners’ beliefs and their use of language
learning strategies. He discovered a strong relationship between learners’ belief about language
learning and their use of learning strategies, especially functional practice strategies. Peacock
(1998) also found a significant association between learners’ belief and their language
proficiency in the sense that incorrect beliefs were associated with lower proficiency levels. The
result showed that the learners with a lower proficiency level could not understand the rationale
behind the tasks they were carrying out in class because of frustration and disappointment.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Is there any significant relationship between communication apprehension and EFL
university students’ Willingness to Communicate?
2. Is there any significant relationship between learners’ belief about language learning and
EFL university students Willingness to Communicate?
3. Regarding the students’ gender, is there any significant relationship between
communication apprehension and EFL university students’ Willingness to
Communicate?
4. Regarding the students’ gender, is there any significant relationship between learners’
beliefs about language learning and EFL university students Willingness to
Communicate?
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
In order to investigate the mentioned questions of the study, the following hypotheses are
considered:
H1. There is no significant relationship between Communication Apprehension and EFL
university students’ Willingness to Communicate.
H2. There is no significant relationship between Learners’ Belief about language learning
and EFL university students’ Willingness to Communicate.
H3. There is no significant relationship between the participants’ gender in Communication
Apprehension and their Willingness to Communicate.
H4. There is no significant relationship between the participants’ gender in Learners’ Belief
about language learning and their Willingness to Communicate.
METHODOLOGY
Design of the Study
The study was conducted within a quantitative paradigm using three kinds of questionnaires. The
quantitative aspect of the study involved the statistical analysis of questionnaire results to the
description of the relationship between learners’ beliefs and their willingness to communicate, the
description of communication apprehension with willingness to communicate, the relationship
between the participants’ beliefs, communication apprehension and willingness to communicate,
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org and finally the effect of gender on the mentioned variables. The main reason to use quantitative
research was that the relationships among CA, WTC, LB and WTC were measurable by applying
questionnaires. Also, the descriptive and inferential statistics were applicable in the description of
the findings of the study.
Participants
The population of the study consisted of 472 students. The research sample randomly selected
from the population was three hundred and fifty eight (358) participants chosen based on
Cochran’s formula. Through applying this formula, the sample size which is representative for
proportion in a large population is determined (Cochran, 1977). The participants in this study
were from University of Applied Science and Technology majoring in Hotel Management,
Hospitality, Cooking, and Tourism in Iran. All participants were Iranian native speakers who
were learning English as a foreign language. The reason to choose the mentioned university
students was that they represent a population which can receive the maximum amount of
instruction in English. All of the participants attended a general English course, once a week for 4
hours. The material was selected by the university instructions that is Basic Grammar in Use
(Murphy & Smalzer, 2011) and Tactics for Listening (Richards, 2011).
Instrumentation
The instruments used in the present quantitative study were three questionnaires. The first
questionnaire measured the students’ willingness to communicate (McCroskey, 1997&
McCroskey and Richmond, 1987). This scale consisted of 20 items. The participants were
supposed to respond by determining the percentage of times they would choose to communicate
with each type of situation ranging from 0 for ‘never’ to 100 for ‘always’. In the second
questionnaire, which is communication apprehension (McCroskey, 1997), there were 20 items
concerning feelings about communicating with others, again designed in Likert-type format. The
participants were to select their responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The third questionnaire measured the learners’ beliefs about language learning (Birjandi &
Mohammadi, Impress) which consisted of 34 items and it was designed in Likert-type format.
The participants were supposed to choose the responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree).
Data Collection Procedure
Data were gathered by a quantitative data collection procedure using questionnaires about the
students’ willingness to communicate (WTC), learners’ beliefs about language learning, and
communication apprehension. At the outset of the research, a pilot study was conducted to detect
any possible problems that participants might encounter in the main study. The participants of
the pilot study were 30 students with similar characteristics to those in the main study. The
procedure of piloting was the same as its actual administration in the main study. The alpha
indexes of reliability for WTC, CA, and LB questionnaires appeared to be 0.90, 0.71, and 0.80
respectively. Therefore, the research tools had acceptable internal consistency.
After obtaining the permission from the academic authorities of the targeted university,
willingness to communicate, learners’ beliefs and communication apprehension questionnaires
were administered to participants once, and the researchers first introduced themselves and the
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org purpose behind administering the questionnaires, as well as the necessary instruction regarding
how to fill the questionnaires out. After that, the questionnaires were administered to the
subjects. It took two weeks to complete the data collection as some students were absent in
classes. The time allocated for filling the three questionnaires was 120 minutes. Participants were
also asked to complete the demographic part of the questionnaires seeking information
concerning their age, gender, etc. To ensure the accuracy of learners' given responses, they were
briefed on how the answers were to be provided. In order for students to understand every
statement vividly and to avoid any difficulty related to learners' possible lack of foreign language
proficiency, the researchers helped them with the possible questions. Before analyzing the data
the researchers numbered the question from 1 to 358. Then a score was supposed to be given to
each student and the results were discussed in order to find out whether there were any
significant relationships between CA with WTC and, LB with WTC. Also, to find out whether
there were any differences in the obtained data resulting from the genders of the participants.
The Pearson’s correlation coefficient test was used in order to understand whether there were
any relationships, between EFL students’ willingness to communicate, communication
apprehension and, Learners’ beliefs.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Participants Demographics
This section summarizes the demographic characteristics of the 358 Iranian university students
who participated in this study. As shown in Table 1, the majority of the subjects who answered
the survey questionnaires were females.
Hotel Management
Table 1: Participant’s Information
Cooking
Hospitality
Female
Female
Male
41
56
Male
92
88
According to Cochran's
sample size formula
According to Cochran's
sample size formula
118
78
Female
Male
51
45
According
to
Cochran's sample
size formula
77
Tourism
Female
Male
63
46
According to Cochran's
sample size formula
85
Descriptive Statistics
The present data were analyzed first through the descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics of
the three questionnaires scores of these people are shown in Table2.
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics
No.
Mean
Std. Deviation
Variance
CA
358
18.8156
3.55975
12.672
WTC
358
16.5307
2.73332
7.471
LB
358
28.7765
3.24453
10.527
Valid No.
358
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org Reliability
The indexes of alpha Cronbach's reliability for CA, WTC and LB questionnaires are presented in
Table 3.
Table 3: Reliability
CA
WTC
Cronbach's Alpha
0.713
0.898
LB
0.804
The reliability indexes for the WTC, CA, and LB are 0.898, 0.713, and 0.804 respectively; so,
they are acceptable.
Results
The data analysis done through applying statistical software (SPSS) has been presented in the
following section.
Research Question One
The first research question examined weather there was a significant relationship between
communication apprehension and EFL university students’ willingness to communicate or not.
The results of applying the Pearson correlation (r (358) = 0.32, P < 0.05, representing a moderate
effect size) indicated that there was a moderate and significant relationship between
communication apprehension and EFL university students’ willingness to communicate. Thus,
the first null-hypothesis was rejected. So, it can be concluded that if CA increases WTC of the
learners decreases and Vic versa.
Table 4: Pearson Correlation: WTC and CA Variables
Communication
Apprehension
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
WTC
0.326**
0.000
358
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Research Question Two
The second research question inspected weather there was any significant relationship between
learners’ beliefs about language learning and EFL university student’s willingness to
communicate? The results of applying the Pearson’s correlation (r (358) = 0.57, P < 0.05,
representing a large effect size) indicated that there was a significant relationship between
learners’ beliefs about language learning and EFL university students’ willingness to
communicate. Thus, the second null-hypothesis was rejected. It is concluded that if learners’
beliefs about language learning increases the WTC also increases.
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org Table 5: Pearson Correlation” WTC and Learners’ Belief Variables
WTC
Leaners’ Belief
Pearson Correlation
0.570**
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
0.000
358
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Research Question Three
Regarding the gender, the third research question (Table 6) investigated whether there was a
significant relationship between males and females’ communication apprehension and EFL
university students’ willingness to communicate.
As displayed in Table 6, the male subjects showed a slightly higher correlation between WTC
and CA (r (356) = 0.36, P < 0.05, representing a moderate effect size) than female subjects (r
(356) = 0.32, P < 0.05, representing a moderate effect size). So, the third null-hypothesis which
stated that there was no significant relationship between communication apprehension and
students’ willingness to communicate regarding the students’ gender was rejected.
Table 6: Pearson Correlations: WTC and CA Variables by Gender
CA
Gender
Pearson Correlation
0.323**
WTC (Female)
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
WTC (Male)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
180
0.360**
0.000
N
178
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Research Question Four
Regarding the gender, the fourth research question (Table 7) investigated whether there was a
significant relationship between males and female learners’ believes and EFL university students’
willingness to communicate. As displayed in Table 7, the male subjects showed a slightly higher
correlation between WTC and LB (r (356) = 0.571, P < 0.05, representing a large effect size) than
female subjects (r (356) = 0.563, P < 0.05, representing a large effect size). So, the Forth nullhypothesis which stated that there was no significant relationship between learners’ beliefs and
students’ willingness to communicate regarding the students’ gender was rejected.
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org Table 7: Pearson Correlations: WTC with LB Variables by Gender
Gender
CA
Pearson Correlation
WTC (Female)
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
WTC (Male)
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
0.563**
0.000
180
0.571**
0.000
178
So, the fourth null-hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between
Learners’ belief and students’ willingness to communicate regarding the students’ gender was
rejected.
Discussion
Considering the mentioned research questions and obtained results, the findings are discussed as
follows:
The first hypothesis sought to examine if there was any significant relationship between
communication apprehension and EFL university students willingness to communicate. The
results showed that there was a significant relationship between students’ communication
apprehension and willingness to communicate. The first null-hypothesis was rejected, so, it is
concluded by the researcher that if CA increases WTC of the learner’s decreases and vice versa.
The second hypothesis investigated to see if there was a significant relationship between learners’
beliefs and EFL university students’ willingness to communicate. The results showed that there
was a significant relationship between learners’ beliefs and students’ willingness to
communicate. The second null-hypothesis was also rejected, thus it is concluded that if LB
increases, WTC of the learners will increase as well. The third null-hypothesis investigated the
relationship between communication apprehension and willingness to communicate regarding the
participants’ gender. The results showed that CA degree in male participants was slightly higher
than female participants. So, the third null-hypothesis was rejected. And it can be concluded that
males have higher communication apprehension. The fourth null-hypothesis investigated the
relationship between learners’ beliefs and willingness to communicate regarding the participants’
gender. The results showed that LB degree in male participants was slightly higher than female
participants. So, the fourth null-hypothesis was rejected. And it can be concluded that males have
higher degree in learners’ beliefs. Willingness to communicate is offered to account for the
individuals differences in their first and second language communication (Zakahi & McCroskey,
1989). It is supposed that WTC is an indicative factor of weather individual will turn into an L2
speaker or not. There are some numbers of factors contributing to the quality and quantity of
WTC in the EFL context (Clement, et al., 2003; Peng, 2007), including communicative
competence, language anxiety, risk-taking, learners’ beliefs, classroom climate, group
cohesiveness, teaching support, and classroom organization. Research in WTC is not old. It has
originally developed in first language acquisition (Richmond & McCroskey, 1992, qtd. in
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org McCroskey, 1997). So, factors contributing to WTC are highlighted when other impeding factors
such as communication apprehension and learners’ beliefs are taken in to account.
CONCLUSION
Regarding the findings of the study, the following conclusions are inferred. There is a significant
relationship between EFL students’ communication apprehension and willingness to
communicate. If communication apprehension in EFL students increases willingness to
communicate will decrease. Previous studies by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) showed high
correlation between L2 WTC on the one hand and communication apprehension and perceived
competence on the other. The results of this study also emphasized that there was a significant
correlation between English WTC and students’ CA. Moreover, in line with the findings of the
study by Aida (1994), Kitano (2001), and Horwitz et al., (1986) which revealed that the students
with high anxiety were afraid of speaking in the target language and became nervous when
speaking, the present study also showed a negative significant correlation between WTC and the
rate of students’ CA. Furthermore, despite Brewer's findings (2008) which indicated that females
are significantly more prone to experiencing anxiety than males, the findings of this study
showed a higher relationship between males CA and WTC. The present study also inspected the
relationship between learner’s beliefs and willingness to communicate and found that there is a
significant relationship between learners’ beliefs and EFL students’ willingness to communicate.
It means that if EFL Learners’ beliefs increase their willingness to communicate also will
increase. Many other similar studies inspected the relationship between LB and with many other
factors such as, L2 attitude and motivation, gender differences on self-reported beliefs (i. e.,
Dornyei & Otto, 1998; Bacon & Finnemann, 1992) and found similar results. Regarding the
students’ gender, the present study found that the relationship between CA and WTC, and also
LB and WTC was higher among male participants.
What can be concluded from the literature is that the researchers working in this area totally agree
on the importance of willingness to communicate and the key role it can play in promoting one’s
ability to communicate effectively. Since Willingness to communicate is a comprehensive model
that involves psychological and communication variables, the results have implications for
teachers, parents, teacher trainers, students and material designers. Then, the aim of language
teachers is to train language learners to become autonomous enough to be able to communicate
and make themselves free of communication apprehension, and fostering learners beliefs in order
to communicate easily and confidently both inside and outside the language classrooms. So, it is
important to encourage them to increase their WTC and decrease their communication
apprehension and get rid of other obstacles. As MacIntyre et al. (1998) emphasizes, it is really
necessary to figure out why some language learners are more eager than others to speak up in
language classrooms. With such knowledge in hand, teachers get to know the factors affect
learners willingness to communicate and should take actions to develop those factors that
encourage communication, while trying to eliminating those that hinders students’ willingness to
speak.
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Volume 7 (4), December 2014; 112-­‐122 Fatemipour, H., & Shirmohamadzadeh, V EISSN: 2289-­‐2737 & ISSN: 2289-­‐3245 www.ijllalw.org What follows is a list of some techniques that language teachers can employ in order to enhance
learners’ willingness to speak in the class. As mentioned in the review of literature, one of the
most important damaging factors that hinder communication is apprehension. Then the burden is
on teachers who should identify the source of anxiety and then make efforts to eliminate them in
their classrooms. One useful technique to achieve this goal is to run pair and group activities
instead of getting students to talk individually in class. Teachers also can stress on the importance
of oral practice in learning a language. They need to emphasize that classroom is the best place
they can use their language. In this regard, Fatemipour and Nourmohammdi (2014) carried out an
experimental study to investigate the impact of activities in EFL classes on the students’ WTC.
The results showed the significant effect of information-gap activities on improving EFL
elementary students’ WTC. This occurs more in an EFL environment where learners have little, if
any, contact with foreign language outside the classroom. In such an environment, the importance
of practicing language in classroom is more obvious. To sum up, the results of the study inform
foreign language teachers of their students’ psychological, communicative needs, and linguistic
needs. Teacher trainers may apply these findings to develop more effective teacher education
programs in order to increase students’ interest in language learning and reduce their
communication apprehension. As the scope of the study was limited to the students at the tertiary
level, other similar studies carried out in high schools or English language institutes can provide
complementary data. The paper focused on three fields of study which need the mastery of
English language as a prerequisite to their success in the workplace. Further research about other
fields of studies may shed light on different aspects of the subject.
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