t
THE ROLE AND POSI T I ON
OF UOHEN I N PRECOLONI AL
AND COLONI AL
ZI MBABWE
by
Angel a
|Pr esent ed
at
Dev el opment )
the
Wor k shop
sponsor ed
on
and
The
P.
Ro l e
organi sed
Ch e a t e r
of
by
Women
UNESCO
in
National
and
the
Rehabilitation
Zi mbabwean
f
[Communi t y
De v e l o p me n t
and
Women' s
Affairs.
Harare:
November
1985.
Ministry
and
of
I
THE ROLE AND POSI TI ON
OF WOMEN IN PRECOLONI AL
AND COLONI AL
ZIMBABWE
A • P > Cheat er
Depar t sent
of
Sociology,
University
of
Zi mbabwe
I nt r odu ct i on
At the
outset)
three
faced c o n c e r n i n g
to speak
on
who have
"roles"
of
women,
has
be
its
individual
wi t h
pr ovi de
a
not .
In
this
been
asked
model
of
model s
But
“ modal
to
speak
has
this
in
in
p l u r a l ?9 Why,
C 1e a r l y ,
wo si e n
and
so
on
as
men.
men,
are
each
(1952: 193)
t he
whi ch
case
put s
women,
on
itself
is
shall
resulted
country,
f r o#
of
it,
t he
personality",
I
in
an
t he
we wer e
t he
h e n ,,
do
t he
out come
our
a domi nant l y
ma l e ,
orr
o
of
asked
Surely
this
a bout
sen,
wosen
so
limited,
as
as a soci al
per son,
a1
her
woman'
’" woman"
that
history;
on
social
t he
relations
itself
rc o
ncept
one*
t he
rather
been
c 1<
0f
his
superimposition,
be
5 ci c i e
possibility
of
must
per f or *
i n
that
have
talking
are
i nn d i vv ii dduuaa l1,,
co
ptt
onn c eep
I
singular.
Equal • y
a l1l 1 of
a way
ay
explore
an
t he
a s o c i a11 c ompound
encompas s es
of
t hen,
do
aethodologicai)
Firstly,
a p p r o p r i aatt ee i ft
the
order?
bo t h
t asks)
social
paper ,
women
of
in
women,
as
t wo
paper .
1a b o u r
personality"
others.
of
this
specific
r e 1i g i o u s
"social
r egarded
of
and
own
As R a d c l i f f e - B r o w n
a
position"
social
has
theoretical
content
"positions'
the
whi ch
1 i ke
r ol es.
and
( one
and
and
never
in
occupati onal ,
title
role
woul d
coneep t ua l l y ,
(each
t he
“ t he
singularity
p r o b l e ms
of
t he
that
seems
"man*
title
to
does
I
have
this
singular
indigenous
cultural
Victorian,
British
vi ew
of
s,
women
and
their
The
second
t he
precolonial
appropriate
pr obl em
is
today's
“ c u s t o m"
s o me t i me s
ideal
nor m
we
as
in
wonder
in
in
evi dence:
particular
t he
wh e t h e r
statistical
society.
wi th
"tradition"
existed
may
and
concer ned
situation
classified
pl ace
nor m,
or
past,
it
is
most
indirect,
" c u s t o m" .
as
exists
bet ween
of
Beach
in
what
It
is
not
so
say
at
often
present,
peopl e
evi dence
extrapolated
( 1980)
t he
the
f or
shoul d
all
concerni ng
f r om
certain
infers.
t he
what
gap
happen
is
that
I ndeed,
bet ween
and what
do , »ay be so l a r g e
they act ual l y
the
practice
Shona
of
e x a mp l e :
obligatory
a
" c u s t o m"
t he
"cow
part
of
daught er s
actual ly
as
nor ms
ideal
shoul d,
The
perhaps,
third
in
precolonial
different
easy
to
to
be
per son
my s e I f
The
In
is
and
dat a
i nt er e s t
its
on
Shona
Tonga,
Venda
seems
they
l ook
that
coul d
to
most
first
women
and
at
wer e
di d
" cust omar y" .
y o u ma i )
minority
ng
on
means
in
of
has
ma j o r
and
is
I
traditions
of
ay
an
outsider's
wi t h
we have
by
an
cu 5t
0i 5
and
we
are,
am not
compatriots
into
vi ew
of
obvi ous,
a
t he
definition,
b es t
whi ch
may
women
often
by
the
cultural
about
men,
frequently
perspectives
course,
social
one
mar r i e d
behavi our
concer ned
are
of
per haps
wi t h
1983 ) . C l e a r l y ,
pr od u c e d
biases
gender
take
ost e n s i b 1y
women
information
been
To
f r om
practice.
and
historical
is
i n d i v i dual
issue,
different
yoi i t f i
we
of
t he
t he
f r om
wer e
qualified
I
also
have
not
have
its
distance.
by
in
f r om
1i t e r a t u r e
c r a f t 5 wo me n ,
about
Of
e x a mp l e s
wi t h
to
( wh i c h
in
f or
s ma l l
f r om Shona
l and
of
notably
So wh i l e
Ndebel e!
pr odu c t i on
ac c ess
livestock
t he
is
groupi ngs
p r e c o 1o ni a 1 e r a .
c o mp a r i s o n
my s p e c i f i c
relations
ethnic
t he
o n 1y
know much
exc 1u d e d
invest
in
worsen,
Howev er ,
Lemba,
dr aw
and
on t h i s
women
t o t a l 1y i g n o r e d .
we
of
Ndebel e
and
bi ndi
their
Vet
Zi mbabwe ’ s
coverage
that
a
minority
Zi mbabwe
a 1most
If
t he
is
a snail
1 9 5 2: 352 ; Ch e a t e r
Zi mbabwe
this
based
Precolonial
have
On
but
(mombe
only
“ c u s t o m"
cultural
on
advantages
y et
all
agrees
met hodol ogi cal ,
whi l e
socialised.
to
shall
exactly
colonial
talking
on
everyone
( H o l l e ma n
also
excl ude
mot her hood”
anthropological
and
respect
believe
what
identify,
literature
of
ask
to
necessarily
different
been
concept ual
Women
of
of
t hem
not
culture,
subtleties
l ess
own
ar e
Most
that
bridewealth,
pr obl em
perceptions.
as
there
E n g 1 i sh one
their
mi nor i t i e s
Perforce,
ar e
mi ght
other
roles
such
as
wi t h
some
we l l
are
the
therefore,
I
sources.
in
precolonial
in
their
cour se
uneven
own
Zi mbabwe,
it
r i g h t , a 1 t hough
required
l and
on whi ch
to g r a z e ) ,
(Beach
of
t he
l abour
of
t he
of
production
r easons
and
|oboio),
whi c h
capacity
f r om
f or
not
her
f r om
it
whi c h
is
headwomen
in
(Bourdillon
Howev e r ,
their
own
ov er
women
their
fecundity
skills
wor k ;
t he
t wo
only
mor e
say
in
di d
exercise
pay ment
is
class
equivalence
notable
<1>
was
of
that
(roora^
reproductive
regard
class
to
her
women
of
l abour
explain
precolonial
- that
of
t he
in
in
other
f o r ma !
society
to
this
h o we v e r ,
t han
was
onl y
role
politico-jural
of
( Ch a r e wa )
exceptions
Zi mbabwean
the
allocation
Ne h o r e k a
InformaMy,
Shona
means
i ndemni fi ed
to
helps
One
s y s t e m.
controlled
recorded
and
also
exceptions
t he
t he
bridewealth
t he
compone nt s
and
of
much
1975) .
of
as
control
provi ded
control
but
to
not
Ma c k e n z i e
possible
equivalent
as w e l l
di d
instead
I 960;
husband,
excl uded
L o ma g u n d i ,
but
a woman’ s l a b o u r
it
ethnic
or
the
in
precolonial
authority.
as
daughters;
children;
descendant s
special
Thi s
they
f r om d i r e c t
the
her
functions,
and
in
agricultural
pursuits
l and.
The
chiefship
rule
"it
of
is
formally
in
f e ma l e
probable
admi t t ed"
1976:72).
brothers'
own
other
provide
had
an
systematically
among
a l ways
one
of
in
stores,
( Beach
women
reasons,
separate
political
Shona
especially
wer e
in
active
nor>~agr i c u l t u r a l
metallurgy,
lay
that
production.
- wi t h
of
in
grain
rights
compr i si ng
Mani c a l a n d
f r om
women
f e ma l e
these
district,
exclusion
their
For
true
whi ch,
that
l oss.
the
or
product,
transferred
as
over
exclusion
to
all
women
Hu t o k o
the
labour
occupations
fami l y
to
authority
t he
these
women’ s p o s i t i o n s
reference
control
agriculture
family
of
skilled
economically
own
s y s t e ms
of
some
f or
only
own
wer e
in
f or
society
industrial
society,
had
the
this
precolonial
features
and
required
ma j o r
their
women
production
of
f ami l y
of
Al though
production,
means
Wi t h
pr oceeds
1980).
cr aft
the
the
(in
as
(although
is
less
pottery
mo t h e r s
of
as
yatete,
ancestors,
the
to
t he
f or
daughters
other
whi ch
over
women
or
e x a mpl e) ,
f or
roles:
the
reproductive
as p r o d u c e r s
healing,
mar r i ed
in
particularly
over
degr ee
certain);
or
authority
whom
ov er
roora
mo t h e r s ,
educat i on
capacity
wer e
service
as
abl e
wor ker s
the
had
to
their
control
possessi ng
pr oceeds
been
of
of
of
pai d,
their
ov er
pr oper t y.
But
i ncr easi ng
as
their
(1952: 352)
di spose of
the
necessary
of
a
to
natural
estate
authority
t i me
she
had
r eckoned
acquired
wi t h
tete)
and
women
became
in
her
mysti cal
husband' s
a
type
to
the
do ma i n :
elderly
even
deci si on-mak i ng
only
to
experienced
by
t he
in
a l mo s t
not
much
bo t h
t he
The
same way
ha v e
f r om t h e i r
to
keep
up t r y i n g
to
find
the
distribution
justified
har m ,
as d i d
her
rather
in
her
and
r e ma i n
wi th
t han
but
of
whi ch
of
by
she
women
the
to
had
the
been
t ended
lost
be
( as
in
property.
t he
wor l d
and
bel ong
t he
d o me s t i c
per sonal
cycles
to
t he
to
famil y
authority
bor n
by
force
havi ng
mal e
Wh i l e
p o s t - me n o p a u s a l
sight,
a woman' s
also
home,
a bandoned
acquired
frequent
men.
natal
society,
out
of
a
Commonl y
menstruation,
to
power f ul
become
bot h
village
women,
that
husband' s
normal ly
affecting
expansi on
into
in
had
normal ly
life-cycle,
most
to
lengths
been
t 0 cause
not
her
i ndeed
needs
given
have
mot her -i n-l aw).
younger
Thi s
fami l y
she
wi t h
not
own
the
ma l e "
women
dare.
hav e
t0
authority
( as
t ended
di d
such
p r o p e r * y » h o we v e r ,
mat t er s
“h o n o r a r y
of
set
t han
force
Hen may
j
H0 1 I e #
often
will
extraordinary
a spirit,
no
all
fami l y
wor k
"sore
as
men
a wor ker .
as
influence
t he
her
mar ri ed.
influential
Arguably
in
as
associated
their
had
of
influence
Nonetheless,
she
if
of
to
appear s
grandchildren,
most
responsibilities
not
had
wi ves
husbands
deat h
wi f e
their
t han
f or
increase”.
their
her
t i me,
to
go
after
capacity ,
period)
will
ma t t e r
difficulty
blood-relatives
t i me
as
this
ov er
sore
property,
colonial
other
had
after
capacity
gr ew
newl y-mar r i ed
have
in
my s t i cal
productive
the
and
mo t h e r s
l ong
Even
to
holdings
t oday
school,
her
they
experienced
accumul at i ng
children
property
ca s h .
woman’ s
r eference
t he
in
respect
her
certainly
women
through
before
own
children
Fe s a l e
of
stock
their
l ivestock:
( wi t h
needs
her
conser ved
her
authority
indicates
the e s s e n t i a l
thei r
p r o p e r t y -o w n e r s ,
of
was
of
private
public
related
d e v e l o p me n t
that
into
whi ch
the
most
to
families.
most
interesting
and
a mbi gu ou s
role
of
authority
occupi ed
by women
in the p r e c o l o n i a l
period
a pr oi i nent
in
part
Chai i nuka
and
But
med[urns,
thei r
the
as l i k e l y
to
lediurn of
Nehanda,
her r o l e
in
Asvikino
in
t he
of
who
f or
medi um
service
at
wer e
shrines
(respectively
hossanah
they
mi g h t
districts
and
become
cult
( Da n e e l
and
diviner
bear
will
possessi on
in
t he
^j i eet
the
"spirit
car e
are
children
of
do
undertaken
by
colonial
accept s
while
ma r r i e d
woman. )
or
behaviour
possessed.
The
and
the
children"
caused
she
by
into
and
authority
to
Mu t u n h u ' s
becomes
possessed
of
t he
other
(This
authorities
whi l e
separate
all
( 1976)
had
clearly
spirit
wi th
t he
t he
d o me s t i c
overrides
the
sexual
or der
chor es
portray
her
spirit,
prior
outlying
f r om
whi ch
a
through
life
is
activity
better
to
s o me t i me s
and
child
who i s
Neusu
( 1983)
as
nor mal
even
that
social
into
medi ums
Char we)
whi ch
and
position)
me d i u m' s
fitted
distinguished
mal e
out"
(although
children)
to
1983:1))
become
in
and
a " nor ma l "
in
"come
quarters
certainly
two
wer e
sympt oms
to
cease
peopl e
incorporated
terminate
" nor mal "
f or
1898
( Neusu
later
made)
shoul d
a t t e mp t
identified
is
living
pattern
have
want i ng
been
in
l ead
officials
who
effectively
Reproduction
assistants.
medi um
t hen
has
the
a similar
behavioural
a spirit
Char wei
d a n c e r s t bot h
( mi d z i mu )
peopl e
t hose
diagnosis
will
move
by
cult
are
f e ma l e )
never
in
ma l e .
and
f r om n o r ma l
mhondor o
are)
spirits
many
wer e
as
c h i mu r e n g a .
and
and
young
senior
exhibiting
this
appear!))
to
ancestral
spirit.
rejecting
The
or
( and
However f
bei ng
he
wer e
f or
after
spouse
needs
reported
her
But
mbonga) ,
first
mal e
specific
the
such
course)
apart
age
cult
spirits
living)
of
t he
bo t h
Mwar i
mar r i ed
before
as
Ideally
of
and
to
who p l a y
administration
a life
early
spirits
pr edomi nantl y
the
isf
duri ng
children)
dedicated
t he
be
e x a mpl e
lives
are
to
colonial
f r om a v e r y
of
medi ums
t he
still
some
1970:49-52).
trance.
role
later
di agnose
"sacralised".
and
are?)
central
al t hou gh
mar r y
( and
by
chiefst
messages
f amous
Those
autochthonous
dec ea s e d
c o m mi s s i o n e r
lived
religious
whi l e
thi s
a native
med i umsh i p .
bot h
spirits’
executed
I ndeed)
binga;nyika
femal e
of
of
The most
wor l d.
life:
t he
was
spirit
doma i n)
the
as men.
deat h
of
spirits
relay
who
spirit
that
public
mhondor o
"profane"
are mar ked
the
be women
the
was
a
t hou gh
his
when
not
identity
of
the
medi um;
and
i mp o r t a n c e ,
In t he
to be
is
in
role
it
the
of
when
these
par t s
of
rol es,
the
possible
spiritual
spirit
irrelevant
because
is
to
interfere
of
the
wi t h
women
per haps
are
a bu s e,
goods
speci al tr eatment
( Lewi s
and
1971) .
continue
f emal e
power
to
“soci al
as
intriguing
position
of
of
or
bei ng
spiritual
spirit
to
that
an
Bake
are
in
as a u t h o r i t y ,
are
based
nal e
of
into
influence
gi ven
part)
this
legitimate)
even
of
to
f or
nornal
s y s t e ms
byan
conf or m
naterial
expectations
to
t he
standard
positions
A
societal
early
their
t h e r e f o r e afforded
religion.
on
other
es ca pe
hu s ba n ds
their
In
t h e i r "nornal*
individualised
traditional
is
in
" woman*.
terns
to
1976) .
least
of
on t h e i r
refuse
route
women' s
At
t he
was and c o n t i n u e s
spirits
belief
who
(Fr y
f e ma l e
in
part
i ncrease
definition
and,
not
on
authority,
by
denands
escape
spirit
personality*
by
women,
nay even
authority.
traditional
Zi n babwe of
religious
of
fact
possession
exceptional
ex a mpl e i n
her
t o use
personality",
wel l
or
his
reported
roles
afford
of
social
identity,
Religious
medi um
"nodal
their
f e ma l e
askilled
t he
nal e
t he
standardised
and
thent
exercise
denands
Africa)
hierarchy)
nediunf
the
that
of
particularly
natters
f r om a
colonial
( ma l e )
administrator:
" As
already
wanyur a.
ar ound
In
t he
spirit.
as
his
me n t i o n e d ,
a bout
district
interests
prepared
to
named Wanawo
1914
a mal e n a t i v e
he
was
t he
t he
wi t h
to
Kativu
She
me.
had
tribe.
allow
I
had
Naturally
peopl e,
and
that
present
Wa mv u r a
She
was
to
t he
her
medi um)
named
power
and
an
exercised
has
newana
f or
by
t he
all,
abeneficial
good
ancestral
influence
cease
Wanawo
and
and
in
I
had
t he
was not
satisfactory
influence
or
news
hi m t o
present
or
associated
demur . . .
all-powerful
f or
was
discretion
respected
t he
the
or der ed
without
spoil
tswikiro
spr ead
Wanawo
up and
wi t h
j'! At.vr
present
Kativu
position
brought
i n t e r f e r e and
has
the
medi um or
whose
popul ar
maybe
is
c o mp l i e d
tswikiro
influence
( f emal e
He
wi el ded
Kativu
ar r angement .
pr oper
f e ma l e c h i e f
representations.
herself.
of
woman
year
that
c o mp l a i n e d
fraudulent
behav ed
the
Char ewa Et he
medi um]
a
evil.
on
on
t he
That
t he
her
peopl e
there
is
little
al i enabl e
tribes
influence
of
t he
of
woman.
amount
annual
of
this
that
Ther e
wer e
in
this
was
the
I
this
is
are
on
by
coul d
br ought
write
is
day
through
to
justice
this
that
l aws
the
in
full
the
all
pr oper
the
whol e
c r i me s
authority
least
interesting
the
t he
that
Al so
and
to
n ot e
t he
wi t h
due
to
demanded.
reported
a bou t
her
payi ng
is
l aw-abi di ng
measur e
pleasing
it
to
dost
a great
pr ompt l y
i mmedi at el y
and
the
in
it
t he
of
declared
and
ex a mpl e
t hem
arrested
societies)
it
instance)
t han
and
is
ma l e )
who
society
One
mi g h t
also
was
often
it
a
not e
not
that
associated
Among
f e ma l e
possible
character..."
so
the
Karuva’ s
the
or
Clearly,
coul d
normally
chiefship)
interesting
of
the
mhgndgr g
accor dance
his
as
her
was
some
wi el ded
by
men,
that
as
(in
bo t h
much
wi t h
at
essentially
a t t e mp t
<2 > I n
to
Shona
cases)
in
public
opinion
who
this
continues
wi t h
least
political
she c o mp l a i n e d
a mal e
and
change
to
secular
c o mmu n i c a t i o n
there
to
or
and
medi ums h i p .
successor;
wield
therefore
overrode
interpreted
f e ma l e
the
one
political
to
chiefly
context
in
authority)
labelled.
women' s
wi t h
be
chief's
through
women
is
whet her
and
authority
i n c u mb e n t
in
dec ea s e d
it
coul d
of
define
Ne h o r e k a
and
syikirg
chief.
whi c h
was
what
to
tradition)
authority
the
chooses>
living
in
of
a woman)
the
authority)
the
that
political
case
in
validation)
becau s e
interesting
particular
was
1977).
religious
the
precisely
(Heinrich
because
secular
vested
religious
a position
rather
over
traditional
least
of
in
about
ultimate
ancestors)
defenders
authorities
usually
ancestral
t he
the
also
hersejj
exercise
obey ed)
by
one
mo n d o r o has
paradoxically
not
colonial
control
due
much
det er mi ned
authority
t he
are
shows)
tradition)
However >
set
section
is
e x a mpl e
extent
be
and
are
1 9 3 0 : 1 3 ).
medi ums)
that
tax
delinquents
( No r k e I
mal e
in
Ha b u j a
The
aust
followers...
delay.
as
this
The
Hashonal and)
iaaediate
and
to
in
Go v e r n me n t
c o mmi t t e d
As
doubt .
power f
rain)
Shona)
as
including
mal e
r ai n-maki ng
f e ma l e
among
spirits
capacity
5E L L i i § r a t h e r
the
also
ca u s e s
Tonga
as
bring
hi m
to
t han
medi ums)
mgande
r ai n >
be
but
spirits
it
is
regarded)
in
par t s
of
t he
northeast)
many e x a mp l e s
Mu r e r i .
her
The
was
her
to
critical
to
significant
of
such.
was
of
e x a mp l e s
whi t e
to
areas,
(1940:3)
not es
by
t he
wer e
t he
t he
settlers
a bou t
i ndependence
difficult
f or
how
by
t he
the
of
f r om
spirits
by
one
of
t he
l egend
of
was a n g e r e d
by
his
action
in
becaus e
she
t hem
l egend
mitigated
requested.
rain-aaking
Of
Mur er i
the
but
when
ordinary
says,
her
Ra i n
therefore
control
rain,
they
provide
an
and
Mur er i
action
is
is
woaen
among
that
authority
t he
a
that
of
who
do
whi t e
the
a
of
by
cour se
sour ce
of
contradict
alternative
it
forced
Ga i d z a n wa
fit
on
was t h e
by
in
their
the
not es
( 1985)
vi ew
1890s ,
bridewealth
weak
economi c
set
situation
explicit
these
by
a bout
to
i nf or ms
black
the
Ranger
extent
mak i ng
native
be
bad
among
Sl o a n
the
woaen,
common
personality".
p a y me n t s .
amongst
area
"extreaely
fairly
horrified
and
of
as
explicitly
wi t h
now a l s o
social
Nu t a s a
not
as
was
shows,
wer e
but
saw
authority
the
mor al s"
he
" modal
"morally
in
further,
"loose
This
administrators
hi gh
headwosen
whi c h
the
political
(possibly,
and
(1940:4).
Ndebel e
of
He
chiefs,
not
wi elded
Ny ama ndot a
custoas"
of
woaen"
as
also
woman?) .
aarriage
insisting
present,
woaen
be,
and,
early
fact
h o we v e r ,
aedi ua
Ma n y i k a
women
feaale
are,
not ed
on
meat
1978: 242).
one,
insulted
retaliation,
f e ma l e
only
cattle,
herself,
and
daughters
generally
has
r e ma r k e d
to
"irregular
( 1985)
mor e
In
use
and
f a t h e r ’ s peopl e
Wher e
spirit
l egends
all
stereotypes
stray
cooked
and
position
of
t he
whoa
shall
(Bourdillon
capabilities.
the
disapproval,
child
society.
I
cattle
t he
agriculture,
in
minority
in
t hose
of
her
Dz i v a g u r u
spirits,
1946:60).
to
power l ess
legitiaated
all
rain
power
Bazel ey
not ed
(Barr
of
who s p o t t e d
of
f r a g me n t
dryland
feaale
a saall
a chief
brother’ s
bring
generally
model
stall
"wife"
r ai n-maki ng
of
won a n 11
bo t h
p r o mi s i n g
t he
a
a
the
appropriation
her
"only
hanged
f e ma l e
daughter
brother's
offerring
In
of
as
t he
of
divorce
( 1923:61)
woaen
who
l eaders
of
woman’ s t h o u g h t " .
‘But
if
their
mo r a l s
wer e
weak,
their
capacity
f or
g o v e r n me n t
was
exceptionally
8
st r ong",
as
Bazel ey
(now Mu t a r e )
and
not
after
r epl aced
t hree
wer e
were
( 1940: 3)
In
summar y ,-
deat h
primarily
because
not
replaced
“ an
The
t hen,
it
differentiated,
notwi t hstandi ng
reserved
f or
s u p e r i Hp o s e
their
Hen.
on
wonen
characteristic
Zi mbabwean
Wonen
In
Colonial
one
on
colonial
t he
issue
I
h a n d ,i
shall
Many
factors
t he
colonial
religious
( eg.
and
in
the
fanily
syst em
of
here.
external
to
period.
the
forces
cha nge,
rapidly
that
least
t i mes,
religious
fro»
areas
to
t he
that
taken
by
authority
at
c o 1o n i a l
of
been
the
t wo
wer e
by w h i t e s t
Hen;
was,
Untali
and
as
t wo
Bazel ey
disappearing".
in
sone
women' s
and
of
interrupt
nai n
whi ch
aut hor i t y,
d e c i s i on-ma k i ng
this
cause
has
hav e
not
r o l e s wer e
political
secular
i n
situations
story
p e r s o n a l i t y ” whi ch
cha n ges
and
appear s
been
to
to
be
ideological,
affected
wonen
in
period.
to
must
be s e p a r a t e d
indigenous
i mmi g r a n t
wonen
traditional
Education,
wo n e n ’ s
( Hol l enann
of
predoninantly
( eg.
concerning
opposed
although,
to
as
girls)
van
to
On s e l e n
1890 -1980:
on t h e
other,
t he
inpact
cultures.
The
latter
wonen
duri ng
diverse
the
in
We
bachel or
to
(I960)
indigenous
t o wn s ,
their
shoul d
housi ng
relative
combi ned
period
influenced
roles
1958),
the
and
f r om many
society
t he
during
women;
nigration
affected
econony
attitudes
as
history
all
provision
boys
argue
colonial
happened
what
educating
of
of
ignore
and
replaced
"social
material
the
wer e
happened
f eHal e
s howi ng
t wo
f e ma l e
in
Rh o d e s i a
conversion
groupings,
shall
duri ng
strands
on t h e
has
n odal
inportant
society
i mpor t ant
Two
I
t hose
exclusion
what
the
today?
notwithstanding
included
into
e x a mp l e s ,
had
that,
ext ended
headwonen
l and
of
is
a ppe a r
gener al
So
whi c h
ni ne
their
deat h;
tradition
woul d
but
specific
after
institution
pr ec o 1o n i a 1 Zi mbabwe, i whi ch
onl y
ex a mi n e d
as
alive.
it,
He
districts
still
put
not ed.
I nyanga
si»ply
t hen
(1940:4)
urbanisation
fanilies,
not e
on
nines
benefits
l essen
to
f eHal e
indicates,
that
larger
bo t h
and
be
and
in
ki n
policy
t owns )
gai ned
f r om
exposure
to
these
a minority
of
women
responded
to
these
basi cal l y
marxist
examine
in
themes:
women' s
changes
interests,
detail
t wo
acce s s
to
and
on
the
other,
seems
t0
me
that
t he
women wer e
Here
I
t he
rendered
mor e
not
l and
dwel l
rights
to
Nat i ve
Land
rights
to
wi dows
and
women' s
landholdings
wi ves,
whet her
holding,
the
similar
or
head.
practices
Instead
areas,
whi c h
at
( and
The
of
wer e
in
l a ws .
introduced
wi s h
to
These
the
of
are)
r egarded
on
l ook
f or ms
l egacy
part
of
of
new
t i mes
of
colonial
the
f or ms
foreign
property
period
to
and
and
un de r
in
whi ch
of
" pr obl e m"
l aws
of
of
clearly
how
t hose
At
the
of
case
of
the
the
of
all
as
size
husband.
ca r d
of
best
co n f i r me d
f or
of
In
each
member s
of
t he
jurisdiction
of
t he
as
t he
as
wel l
women.
production
including
traditional
governing
therefore,
t he
holdings
dipping
the
mal e
as
as
in
wer e
practices,
Zi mb a b we ' s
mi g h t ,
i t
"social
Act .
and
subordinate
property,
the
For
such
wel l
The
name
relations
of
men,
one
of
these
one
whe r e by
very
ca[cu[ation
only
today's
"traditional"
at
in
falling
the
ways
this
marri ed,
holdings
as
as
exist.
the
issuing
t he
shown
by
of
into
registered
livestock
constitute
not
wel l -wor n
on
legislation
has
t hose
di d
to
f e ma l e
peasantry
curtailed
of
entered
the
precolonial
during
was
in
( 1981)
polygynously
wi ves
to
polygynously,
size
si mpl y
or
practice
concentrating
I
they
ideological
t h ems el v es,
here
new
still
the
chosen
men.
women
wer e
my
relations.
modal
related
wi t h
these
subsistence,
t he
upon
have
f r o#
Zi mb a b we ' s
of
mar r i ed
dependant s,
itself
the
among
t hose
of
keepi ng
I
property
be
dependent
wi ves
t he
must
S a i d z a n wa
one-third
t hough
by
period
and
their
in
paper
different
d e v e l o p me n t
1951.
wi ves,
househol d,
wer e
househol d
wer e
holding
fashion,
"family"
family
even
governing
against
of
this
production
me cha n i s ms
monogamous l y
f or
of
Howev e r ,
of
influences
economi cal l y
wi t h
subsequent
secondary:
pur poses
means
l aws
peasant
divorcees
inception.
t he
colonial
Act
among
or
the
uphel d
Hu s b a n d r y
seventh
the
on t h e
wer e
l and
f or
ideological
during
shall
their
interconnected
hand;
per sonal i t y H
f r om
have
in
peasant
freehold
cultures;
t hem
been
wer e
l a n d,
and
bot h
expect ed
to escape c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
as
" cust omar y" ,
as di d
Christian
mar r i age:
but
they
property
relations
and t he
di d
not .
There
is,
and
of
course,
Bourdillon
" c u s t o ma r y "
such
that
t hat
all
as
cu s t o ma r y
coul d
l aw
I
mani pul at i on
has
not
in
significant
during
do.
This
one
f or
i nduced
by
noting
the
that
is
flexible.
the
property
in
relations
Shona
of
r ema i n der
of
the
of
to
ways
principles
e x a mpl e
f r a me wo r k
Shona
t he
foreign
In
l aw,
administration
general
i mpor t ant
within
period,
ci r cumst ances
rigidity
ext remel y
the
colonial
mani pul at ed
particularly
achieved
consequences
the
societal
in
application
was
and
changi ng
testifies
e x a mi n e
" c u s t o m"
how,
to
normally
their
bet we en
rigidified
( 1 3 5 2 : x)
shall
of
shown
adjust
s y s t e ms
wer e
connection
generally
Hol l enan
paper ,
wi t h
was
legal
cust om,
this
( 1975)
l aw
it
a cl ose
of
how
this
statutory
of
bl ack
women
who
l aw,
women
in
mar r i ed
by
Zimbabwe.
Let
me
start
Christian
by
noting
rites
under
contributed
that
a
they,
mor a l )
to
be
to
famil y
his
estate
when
the
1930
Land
f or
Wills
Act
by
c u s t o ma r y
was
will:
l aw.
their
blacks,
legal
property
to
up
to
devol ved
rights
building
l aw
cl aim
require
a will,
statute
t ha n
specifically
Native
particularly
rather
recognise,
woul d
that
and
adj ust ment
passed
in
it
not
t he
Thi s
property
after
wi t h
his
an
respect
1933.
But
change
the
currently
Act
to
this
change
today,
u n de r
in
me r e l y
woul d
but
review
these
in
our
( as
felt
wel l
legislators
l and
property
In
is
title
why
t he
to
absence
of
the
of
di d
property
devolve
issues
as
relations
whi ch
per mi t ted
still
who
often
freehold
inheritance.
children
case
Colonial
and
hav e
a legal
inheritance,
c u s t o ma r y
of
have
created
Act
Act )
husbands,
shoul d
i mpor t ant
wi t h
Marri ages
their
deat h.
Ap p o r t i o n me n t
such
bl ack
African
property
guardianship
r e ma i n s
are
(the
husband’ s p a t r i k i n ,
that
di d
educat ed
according
inheritance
( predomi nantl y
mal e)
legislature.
Of
many
cases
of
disputed
inheritance,
one
in
particular
illuminates
colonial
at t i t udes
to
t N 697,
- an
African
1957)
also
iaportant
case i n
t he
In
a
1955)
Twel ve
f ar #,
l aw,
managed
but
ma r r i a g e
civil
and
had
will.
t he
f r om
The
been
property.
to
i mmo v a b l e
divorce.
the
se cond,
In
turn,
because
eldest
her
then
Co u r t
t he
si gned
son.
property.
first
t he
relatives
Master' s
to
native
father,
b e l o w,
administration
but ,
failed
achieve
on t h e
"It
of
was
the
change
reported
Hi gh
Co u r t
at
this
f or
one
in
u r ba n
owned
a
f arm
the
Hi gh
the
was
his
of
leaving
finally
t he
f or m
a
awar ded
heir
to
man ceded
the
and
and
first
mar r i age
therefore
firstly
in
second
his
the
mov abl e
distribution
phases,
Cour t ,
Hi s
without
this
a
per mi t ted
first
gratuity
the
woaen
bought
c u s t o ma r y
himself,
this
appendi cectoay.
e mp l o y me n t .
as
to
enancipation.
jointly
estate
a cash
three
exaai ne
dissolution
his
against
in
had
f r om
it
subordinated
intestate,
of
we
owner
t wo
brother,
appeal ed
of
the
di ed
who r e c e i v e d
c o mmi s s i o ne r ,
submi t t ed
1
legal
a t t e mp t e d
colonial
to
younger
If
(R
of
t he
to
the
native
to
t he
Appeal
distribution.
professional
verbatim
he
intended
e me r g e n c y
only
The Ma s t e r
further
wi f e
daughters,
occurred
Ma s t e r
t he
w i d o w' s
s ou ght
r epr oduce
appeal
an
following
and
already
their
second
administrator
estate,
the
his
v s.
attitudes
per B i t t e d
becaus e
s ons ,
as
he
and
three
The wi dow,
This
to
a ppe a l ,
by
no
country.
following
church,
had
this
he c o n t i n u e d
man' s
husband’ s
co mmi s s i o ne r ,
The
in
c o mmi s s i o n e r
hav e
nat e
while
but
de c e a s e d
against
his
He
the
in
hospital,
wi fe
to
his
property
his
in
in
of
Dokot er a
adainistration
how c o l o n i a l
st ood)
he
clarity.
colonial
l aw
it
contracted
by
native
f ar m
f ar m
by
case
1943,
registered
mar r i a ge
one
di ed
in
- as t h e
precisely
as
earlier,
fr eehol d
exceptional
the
see
coul d)
policeaan
years
in
we s h a l l
l aw
with
established
pr ecedent
detail)
even when
wo sen
as
me e t i n g
her
advice.
to
the
basis
on
t ook
initiate
native
of
that
distribution
the
and
a
memor andum
she
memor andum,
Thi s
a rational
commi ssi oner ' s
legal
before
b eh a 1 f
<3 >
of
whi ch
discourse
comment s
and
wi t h
her
I
the
< 4 > show,
rationality.
estate
explained
was
l odged
that
any
wi t h
estate
t he
Ma s t e r
ov er
12
the
val ue
Lav
of
£200
al so.
At
Execut or
over
is
this
Dative
the
not
aeeting
of
estate
the
and
I
Law and
coul d
the
it
hav e
be
by
Native
Native
Estate.
wher e
representatives
Cu s t o a
admi ni stered
I
Law
believed
now coae
to
H or
t he
t he
adainistered
but
Coaaissioner
understand
was
only
in
Hartley
his
son
Native
conclusion
t he
estate
cot es
that
of
was
was
Law
in
appointed
declared
t ook
there
the
Eu r o p e a n
heir
place.
is
late
My
no N a t i v e
Dokot er a
as
I'
the
following
Law and
1.
Cust oa.
Dokot er a
demanded
of
facts
Law and
the
The c o a a i s s i o n e r
by
the
Christian
owner
gr ounds
of
y ounger
" 2.
money
death.
take
f arm
-
if
f or
M and
of
his
Dokot er a
buyi ng
of
discuss
lobola.
does
not
a
the
following
of
Native
seriatia:
number
Dokoter a
constitute
of
head
di d
not
the
of
pay
cattle
these
validity
of
as
head
Native
exception)."
was
his
deserted
proaised
as
This
had
to
and
girl
"Lobola
Lobol a
non-pa y me nt
1943
the
strong
replied:
brother
In
his
rites.
of
H’ s d a u g h t e r
of
(I
Dokoter a
be i n t e r e s t i n g
father
until
Cu s t o a
prove.
will
mar r i ed
by
cattle
It
will
is
not
finally
wi fe
essential
pai d
and
lobola,
an
at
offspring
the
f ar m
t he
r equi r ement
dat e
wer e
woul d
of
death.
taken
still
to
Dokot er a
away
evolve
a mar r i a ge
froa
[sic]
hia
to
is
on
D’ s
offspring."
buys
the
f ar m
f a r m.
in
conjunction
Thi s
is
not
in
wi t h
his
wife,
conformity
bo t h
wi t h
contribute
Native
Law and
Cust oa. ”
On
this
point
"Dokot er a
is
she
in
pai d
the
commi ssi oner ’ s
"appointed"
money
-
owner
but
and
response
M [his
this
is
not
his
wi f e
wi dow!
a
shows
mi g h t
material
legal
have
irresponsibility:
trouble
point
to
proving
that
issue."
(My
himsel f
was
the
e mp h a s i s . )
" 3.
Dokot er a
worki ng.
Hi s
Experi mental
and
appoi nted
wi f e
Far m
as
attended
good
as
to
manage
many
many
f ar m
the
agricultural
ma n a g e r s .
f ar m
while
courses
This
is
he
in
against
Gov er nment
Native
Cust oa. "
O
Law
Itre t h e
lor
a
c o HMi s s i o n e r ' s
wi f e
i ppoi nt ed
‘ 4.
to
wor k
manager
On
the
cattle
on
the
This
not ed
t he
endearing:
doi ng
suppplies
they
is
hardly
light
"It
is
good
agricultural
nat i ve
cust oi
and to
be
suppl i es
al l
wor k
evolution".
Dokot er a
f ar #,
is
fields
a natural
f ar#
ma i n t e n a n c e .
" Cor r ect "
in
is
the
answer
do
against
only
i #pl e#ents.
ploughing)
Native
c o m mi s s i o n e r
silking)
Law and
" no
The
wi f e
practical
[sic]
whol e
far#
Gu s t o # . "
cattle
on
the
f ar#
-
but
agai n
not
■at er i a I . *
two parties
The
" 5.
'Whether
the
l aw
n#at er i a I
t he
present
Law and
Native
c u s t o ma r y
Thi s
s ay s ".
Cour t s
I aw
narried
parties
Mar r i ages
Native
wer e
night
are
of
Act
( no.
Christian
living
response
Act
be
by
1952)
by
according
t he
appear s
33 of
in
to
native
c o mmi s s i o n e r ,
to
19 3 7 ) ,
inapplicable
rites."
ignore
whi ch
cas es
invoking
section
envi saged
wher e
cu s t o#
4(1)
the
traditional
or
not >
section
of
the
is
14 of
earlier
possibility
that
culture
been
had
abandone d.
" 6.
Buyi ng
To t h i s
s i mpl e
"Therefore
of
All
There
shown
of
t he
the
estate.
no
while
case
They
not
in
offerred
light
of
these
to
are
why
Cour t )
who
We
L a w. "
no a n s w e r ,
facts
it
f or
bee ones
deny
that
been
Native
Law.
ma nagi ng
a p pe a l
of
fell
solicitors)
had
that]
to
Dokotera's
first
fir#
Native
there
there
can
narriage
is
be none.
by
consunal
existence
of
the
[sic]
Native
ca s e .
has
a
ar gued
et c.
repugnant
r eason
this
un de r
is
this
she
cone
there
partnership)
abov e )
Hi gh
t he
facts
is
property
t ook
in
Cust o#
these
does
l and
truth)
property)
Law or
As
of
to
since
appr ove
wi f e
the
on
shoul d
f ar m
deaf
f or
custosary
the
ears)
who e n t e r e d
t he
not
the
di d
not
wi dow
dispute
commi ssi oner ’ s
l aw
to
husband' s
14 y e a r s . "
so
into
succeed
cover
wi t h
and
t he
distribution
t he
her
ki n
Mast er
of
t he
o wn e r s h i p
and
r ansmi ssi on
st at ut e
thi s
rather
l egal
cover
The
l aw
The
wi dow' s
of
provisions
to
I
common
was,
Successi on
say
itself
native
as
t he
Ma s t e r
not
shoul d
effected
of
t he
Hi gh
Co u r t
inherit
the
f ar m
becau s e
that,
in
cases
individual
ext ended
be
in
of
to
terns
concurred
the
i mmo v a b l e
specific
way
by
of
wi t h
section
intestacy,
capacity
a very
in
7 of
heir
at
property.
statute
to
ci r cumst ance.
ar gued
Native
the
that,
Wills
Deceased
in
Act
of
Estates
accor dance
1933
had
in
Successi on
wi t h
t he
nor mal
effect
been
amended
Amendment
Act
of
1954.
you
that
this
this
Estates
Act
out
the
that
Law
that
relating
am of
Successi on
indicates
Roman-Dut ch
point
provision
the
to
on
it
was
of
Native
to
ie.
but
Act
has
appl y
provisions
and
not
are
intended
of
only
peopl e
to
and
desi gned
to
to
affect
to
in
the
the
the
in
to
codify
intended
been
a st udy
Europeans,
its
was not
Hills
Act ,
meant
intestacy,
wh o l e
that
t he
Amendment
it
intestacy,
vi ew
in
this
amend
the
l aw
native
l aw
intestacy..."<5>
There
to
I
di d
his
been
Deceased
l aw
The
l and
instructive:
by
the
generally.
of
t he
of
connection
the
is
in
t he
of
t he
specified
t hen
statutes,
by
subject
1933
unknown
reply
wi dow
had
of
l aw.
succeed
cust om
cont ended
modi f i e d
the
of
p a s s a ge
Master' s
is
but
solicitors
later
"It
c u s t o ma r y
shoul d
a previously
the
distribution
Act
wor ds ,
pr ecedence
by
t ha n
Hills
cust omar y
other
l and,
opinion,
the N a t i v e
In
of
wel l
in
fact,
Amendment
that
t he
5 hows
as
the
celebre"
As t h e
Ma s t e r
in
on
f or
t hose
pointed
out
mi nd
the
reference
a p pe a l
j udge
t he
[ Deceased
was
not
v s.
The
Mast er ,
who
to
di d
t he
not
a letter
value
of
the
later
not ed:
by
the
the
wi dow' s
Hi gh
Cour t .
the
to
see
native
assets
in
Deceased
"it
Successi on
R & N 1957,
wi s h
to
r ace
Estates
concei ved
previously,
a ppeal
in
no
the
Act
di scussed
decision
"cause
As
of
( Dokot er a
t hose
Master' s
Act .
l anguage
that
spouses"
"Bearing
absolutely
is
704) .
a ppeal
c o mmi s s i o n e r
estate
this
deci ded
was t o
cust om m o d i f i e d
the
to
For
solicitors
Thi s
possible
Amendment ]
legislature
p.
not
Estates
t oo
Act
in
appl y
to
r eason,
to
take
become
a
greatly.
concer ned:
and
also
that
t he
point
and
raised
also
is
to
this
individually)
When
this
Cour t )
even
out
by
I
a p pe a l
mor e
the
“ l oses
of
its
an
ab
heir
Successi on
intestato,
provisions
wh i c h
(the
the
statute...
A perusal
of
doubt
to
term
pp.
a p pe a l
1954
I
spouses.
It
women
finally
of
surviving
of
t he
appl y
think,
concerning
whi c h
is
in
t ook
native
l and
case...*
<6 >
t o t he
Hi gh
decision
ar gument
laid
provisions
surviving
of
(the
spouse
variations
of
in
1933f
Amendment
ha v e
natives)
Ac t ]
in
that
child's
vi ew
(Dokot er a
a gr i ma
statute
portion"
of
v s.
and
essentially
creates
intended
"a
is
t he
the
as
similar
E s t a t e s S u c c e s s i o n Act ]
wh e t h e r
life..."
a
wi t h
effect
coul d
clear
bet we en
own
l ower
The
the
favouring
Successi on
not
the
itself.
Deceased
legislature
mar r i ages
j udge
to
mu mmi f i e d
women.
the
of
Ac 1 3 f
to
appeal )
uphol d
that
e n a c t me n t
1829
a test
De p a r t me n t
said)
Act!)
(the
as
of
to
appreciated
an
Estates
wh e t h e r
1933
1e g i s t a t i o n
continue
in
Kills
to
is
phase
Nat i ve
to
is
a
we l l - k n o wn
Ma s t e r )
R Si N
703-4).
rights
He r e ,
to
status
provisions
the
as
it
t he
per mi t t ed
it
decision
judge
really
Deceased
appropriate
1957,
t he
(the
native
inferior
The
Native
decision
Amendment
are
existed
therefore
later
when
his
to
bei ng
regard
final
original
appeal
are
and
in
the
the
force
per haps
third
t han
i mpor t a nc e
Africans
we s h o u l d
its
wi dow’ s l awy er s )
legal
that
j u d g e ’ s reasoning
Estates
appl y
that
instructive
most
now
entered
Deceased
facie
considerable
office)
feel
dispute
the
was
one of
to
we
i mmo v a b l e
Three
white
that
spouses,
Native
made
1929
wh i c h
Kills
no
the
Act
spec i f i c
Act
wer e
when
made
general
overridden
applied
by
t 0 blacks;
me n t i o n
of
r ace ,
evidence
of
precisely
the
provision
the
f or
specific
and
that
si nce
1933
Act
woul d
blacks.
have
" c u s t o m"
deci ded
-
incontrovertible
i ndeed,
property
men,
t wo
how
it
created
- against
in
the
executive
previously
wi shes
post s
of
and
non-existent
blacks,
one
how c o l o n i a l
in
" c u s t o m"
especially
the
l aw
judiciary,
bl ack
not
shar ed
inly
a
tone of
their
in
and
l aw
not ed
comment s
c o mmi t t e e
want
who
to
this
a
l aw
conf or m
Select
to
also
and
position"
colluded
Two
to
decades
of
the
Co mmi t t e e
century,
same,
whol esal e
para.
and
and
on
of
black
entrench
later,
process
women,
their
the
of
Testate
as
t he
perceptions
Rhodesi an
socio-cultural
and
to
be
racial
practices."
of
by
resources,
In
it
Intestate
by
this
t he
co n t e mp o r a r y
havi ng
t he
same
by
the
Front
cha nge,
Successi on
ties
of
p.
has
sees
social
connect ed
administration,
i ndependent
whi ch
me r e l y
to
make
of
as
personality
wi t h
but ,
women
capacity
become,
women
that
59)
subordination
subordination
contained
we r ecommend
direction
para.
do not
action...
r e c o mme n d a t i o n s
and
of
restrictive,
Authorities
integrally
the
women’ s
and
number
legislative
l aw,
colonial
increased
undifferentiated
by
the
23,
was
increasing
Tribal
legislative
t he
ideology
an
i r k s o me
c u s t o ma r y
" c u s t o m"
restricting
of
none
(Report,
also
turn,
ties
these
African
differences
society,
of
changed
creation
nowaday s
women. . . [but ]
[Therefore]
appl y
not
is
tribal
severance
57).
shoul d
there
African
side-effect,
part
that
famil y
" west er n
of
i mpor t ant
productive
awa r e
shoul d
manipulation
African
is
22,
report
perpetuation
the
but
distortion
professional
p.
c u s t o ma r y
in
this
find
see
(Report,
very
role
practice.
Parliamentary
particularly
This
'the
that:
Africans
it
of
reveals,
r econf i r med
1976
" Yo u r
in
vi ew
administrative
legislature
when t h e
certain
to
duri ng
the
as
to
men
control
t he
past
somehow b e i n g
of
a
all
"femal e" .
Concl usi on
This
paper
affected
and
bo t h
to
has
women,
colonial
in
their
indicate
women' s
a t t e mpt e d
roles
bet we en
to
to
present
f or m
and
several
property
contexts;
the
do
its
some
and
reference
in
wi t h
bet we en
society.
the
to
political
identify
connections
positions
and
things:
of
the
show
the
control
fallacies
to
material
relationship,
in
past
ideological
it
precoionial
concerni ng
a different
and
bot h
as
" c u s t o m" ,
reality;
aspect s
and
of
I
hope
I
hav e
outright
lies
status
of
r anked
l o we r
of
this
- of
black
African
either
shown
reflected
very
whi ch
specified
to
representations
me n > but
is
an
and
when
there
Chi l d
evolutionary
n a i v e > or
the
in
and
the
the
process
f or ewar d
to
of
consci ousness
the
that
l aw
in
women
emanci pat i on
controls
he
contradiction
of
his
superiors)
his
own
later
Southern
was
bet ween
whi c h
book .
Rhodesi a)
as
social
whi c h
‘ the
cannot
the
or
traditional
situations
perceive
practices
occupation
of
alleged
whi ch
not
false
Many
(1958:69)
he d i d
policy
explicitly
wer e
as
wer e
The
Roy al
Nicolle
sai d>
that:
tribe
Thi s
colonial
"legitimised"
“...careful
or
whet her
Certainly
singularly
st at ement
Charter
women.
women
inaccuracy
official
t han
bei ng
the
regard
or
wi s e
nation
therefore
and
have
expect ed
in
civilisation
whi ch
gave
not
the
s h o wi n g
a l way s
to
provision
preserve)
country
shall
t he
a l ead
African
to
the
subsequent
and
c u s t o ms
that
cause
cu s t oms
tribal
is
l aws
to
to
whi ch
l aw
the
of
the
those
the
or
belong...
sought
cust om. . .
tribes
changes
influences
evolve
class
a l way s
and
various
reflecting
subject
and
of
l a ws
respectively
legislation
African
yet
and
parties
Cust oms
cha nge;
society
whi c h
to
withi
Laws
basi c
had
[disputing]
interfere
little
any
be
in
He
the
normal ly
of
moder n
change..."
( Chi l d
19 6 5 : i ) .
In
s howi ng
how w h i t e
flexibility)
was
of
averred
on t h e
It
part
had
rights
some
this
I
attitudes
have
during
those
mal e
shown
t he
of
women)
basis
at
in
the
those
of
construct
construct
was
-
and
of
and
in
precolonial
potential
in
i ndeed
modal
period.
least
also
colonial
how t h e
anthropologists
accept ance
bl ack
and
colonial
a basi c
against
ideological
of
hope
constructed
writings
who
I
mal e
t he
its
black
Thi s
( see
legislation
"social
construct
Gel f and
satisfaction
areas
f e ma l e
1973
wi t h
was
f e ma l e
interests
reinforced
their
and
by
by
c u s t o ma r y
personality"
as a c l a s s i c
"unaffected"
situation)
distorted
status
the
e x a mp l e ) )
in
west er n
by
society
influence.
strengthening
their
competitors)
this
particular
of
Their
accept ance
accept ance
bl ack
by
men.
many
women
-
has
been
graphically
denonstrated
society's
values.
together
that
wi t h
its
women can
It
by
Ga i d z a n wa
therefore
legal
and
participate
( 19 8 5) ,
r e ma i n s
material
fully
in
if
f or
literature
this
i ndeed
ideological
underpinnings)
national
does
to
be
construction)
di smant l ed
reconstruction
in
reflect
the
in
or der
new Zi mbabwe.
Not es
I
at
grateful
presented
to
at
Rudo
Ga i d z a n wa
1.
But
the
2.
hav e
sone
later
3.
an
I
access
religious
become p a r t
f ar m
Memor andum)
5.
Ma s t e r
6.
of
t he
extant
the
who r ead
(Krige
the
the
of
earlier
of
Sociology)
t he
Krige
Ne h o r e k a
who
contained
of
and
this
in
p a pe r )
particular
itself.
nay
be
an
early
its
i n c u mb e n t
Shona
1943) .
and
vested
(chiefship)
of
draft
nanuscript
chiefship
previously
Ministry
whi ch
an
Transvaal)
and
Char ewa
f o r me r
on
Depart nent
aspects
f ar m
Hi gh
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21
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