ПЕТРОЗАВОДСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
И. Э. Хлызова
С. В. Кондратьева
A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN FACTS AND NAMES
Петрозаводск
Издательство ПетрГУ
2017
Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета Петрозаводского
государственного университета
Издается в рамках реализации комплекса мероприятий Программы стратегического
развития ПетрГУ на 2017 — 2018 гг.
Авторы
И. Э. Хлызова,
старший преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков естественно-технических
направлений и специальностей ИИЯ ПетрГУ
С. В. Кондратьева,
преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков естественно-технических направлений и
специальностей ИИЯ ПетрГУ
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Введение
Данное пособие предназначено для студентов I и II курсов медицинских
направлений и специальностей ВУЗов. В пособии прослеживается история развития
медицины от античности до наших дней и рассказывается об известных людях,
оставивших свой след в истории научной и практической медицины. Пособие направлено
на развитие навыков чтения, перевода и устной речи.
В пособие включены тексты, описывающие прогресс медицинской науки в
конкретный период времени: Древние века, Средние века, 16 век, 17 век, 18 век, 19 век и
20 век. Первый текст в каждом разделе является вводным и содержит общую
информацию; последующие тексты рассказывают о великих людях — врачевателях,
врачах и ученых, внесших вклад в развитие медицинской мысли. Тексты взяты из
оригинальных источников и Интернета, адаптированы и сопровождаются различными
заданиями, предназначенными для контроля понимания и для инициации обсуждения,
дискуссии или монологического высказывания. Большинство вопросов и заданий
составлены так, чтобы обучающийся смог выразить свое мнение по определенной
проблеме, то есть активизируют мыслительную деятельность и развивают навыки устной
речи, помогая преодолеть языковой барьер. Тексты очень познавательны, содержат
большое количество полезной и интересной информации, много важных фактов,
способствующих формированию у студентов общего представления и понимания того,
как развивалась медицинская наука с момента зарождения человеческой цивилизации до
современности. Пособие носит практический, общеобразовательный, коммуникативный, а
также воспитательный характер и может быть использовано на занятиях по английскому
языку как дополнительный материал и для самостоятельной работы студентов.
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I. MEDICINE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
1. Read the text and answer the questions. Retell the text to each other.
MEDICINE AMONG PRIMITIVE PEOPLES
Pic.1
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, anthropologists studied primitive societies. They came
to the conclusion that primitive treatment was a mixture of common sense and magic. People
knew that falls cause broken bones, fire causes burns and animal bites cause wounds. Primitive
people had simple treatment for these things. Australian Aborigines, for example, covered
broken arms or legs with clay (глина), which hardened in the hot sun. It was a primitive plaster
of Paris (гипс). Cuts were covered with fat and bound up with animal skins. However, primitive
people had no idea what causes illness. They believed in evil spirits or magic. The “cure” was
magic too. The best “treatment” for primitive people was to drive out (изгонять) evil spirit out
of the body.
1. What did primitive people know about health problems?
2. What did the primitive treatment look like?
2. Read the text. Answer the questions and discuss the text.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN MEDICINE
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Pic.2
In about 3,000 B.C. there was Egyptian civilization. In Egyptian society some people did
specialized jobs. One of them was the doctor. Much of Egyptian medicine was based on the
magic. However, the doctors of Ancient Egypt could keep written recordings of treatment: what
helped and what did not. The earliest known medical book is the Ebers Papyrus which was
written in about 1,500 B.C. Egyptian doctors used many drugs obtained from herbs (травы) and
minerals. They were drunk with wine or beer. The doctors also used ointments (мази) for
wounds. The Egyptians believed that the human body was full of passages that acted like canals.
These canals can sometimes be blocked, what causes a disease, and must be open. To open them
the Egyptians used laxatives (слабительное) and induced vomiting (рвота). The Egyptians had
some knowledge of anatomy from making mummies. They had surgical instruments like scalpels
and scissors. They also knew that honey helped to prevent infections in wounds (it a natural
antiseptic).
1. What is the first Egyptian medical book?
2. What did Egyptian doctors think about the causes of diseases?
3. What did Egyptian doctors know about treatment of diseases?
3. Read the text and answer the questions.
ANCIENT GREEK MEDICINE
Our modern medicine arises from ancient Greece. On the one hand most Greeks credited
(почитали) many gods and goddesses. Apollo was the god of disease and healing. Later, his
mythical son Asclepius with his daughter Hygea replaced Apollo. Hygea was the Greek goddess
of health. The cup of Asclepius, entwined with a serpent (обвитая змеей) is still the symbol of
medicine. The cult of Asclepius was the most famous religious – medical cult in history. On the
other hand Greek doctors developed a rational theory of diseases and cures. So the cult of
Asclepius and Greek medicine existed side by side. The Greeks knew how to stop bleeding.
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They also could diagnose illness. Such great philosophers as Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle contributed to the development of science and medicine in Greece.
However, the most prominent Greek doctor is Hippocrates.
1. Tell about the most famous religious medical cult of ancient Greece.
2. What could the Greeks do?
3. What is the symbol of medicine?
4. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions.
HIPPOCRATES — THE FATHER OF MEDICINE
Pic.3
Hippocrates (460 — 337 B.C.) was born in 460 B.C. on the island of Cos. He was the son
of a doctor. He studied medicine and went from town to town where he practiced the art of
medicine. It is known that he drove out the plague (изгнал чуму) from Athens by lighting fires
in the streets of the city.
Hippocrates was known as an excellent doctor and a teacher of medicine. He founded
medical schools in Athens and other towns. That is all we know about Hippocrates himself. But
we have his written works which are called the Hippocratic Collection (собрание). This
collection consists of more than a hundred books. From these works we know that he was a great
practitioner and a talented teacher. He taught his pupils to examine the patient attentively and
give him quick help. He created medicine on the basis of experience (опыт). Hippocrates treated
diseases by physical exercises, massage, salt water baths and diet. He observed such diseases as
pneumonia, tuberculosis and malaria and introduced in medicine such terms as “chronic”,
“crisis”, “relapse” and “convalescence” (выздоровление). He was also a good surgeon. He
could set the fractures and even trephined the skull (производить трепанацию черепа).
Hippocrates is called “the Father of Medicine” because he made medicine an art, science
and profession. Some of his ideas are still modern and important. On leaving the medical
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institutions young doctors swear an Oath which is called “the Hippocratic Oath”. This is a
collection of promises which forms the basis of the medical code of honour (кодекс чести).
1. What do we know about Hippocrates’ biography?
2. What facts in the text prove that Hippocrates was:
a) a talented teacher
b) a talented surgeon
c) a talented practitioner
3. What medical terms did he introduce?
4. Why is Hippocrates called “the Father of Medicine”?
5. What do we know about Hippocrates’ collection?
6. What Oath do young specialists swear before working as doctors?
5. 1. Read the text. Express the main ideas of the second and third
paragraphs in your own words.
THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH
1. I swear by Apollo the physician, by Aesculapius, Hygeia and Panaces, and I take to
witness all the gods, and goddesses, to keep according to my ability the following
oath.
2. I will prescribe regimen for the good of my patient according to my ability and never
do harm to anyone. I will not prescribe a deadly drug, nor give advice which may
cause him death.
3. In every house where I come I will enter only for good of my patients, I will keep
myself far from all intentional ill-doing, and especially from the pleasures of love
with women or with men, be they free or slaves. All that may come to my knowledge
in the exercise of my profession or outside of my profession, which must not be
spread abroad, I will keep secret and will never reveal.
4. If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practise my art, respected by all
men and in all times, but if I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my lot.
2. Read the Russian version of the modern oath of a young doctor.
КЛЯТВА ВРАЧА
«Получая высокое звание врача и приступая к профессиональной деятельности, я
торжественно клянусь:
честно исполнять свой врачебный долг, посвятить свои знания и умения
предупреждению и лечению заболеваний, сохранению и укреплению здоровья человека;
быть всегда готовым оказать медицинскую помощь, хранить врачебную тайну,
внимательно и заботливо относиться к больному, действовать исключительно в его
интересах, независимо от пола, расы, национальности, языка, происхождения,
имущественного и должностного положения, места жительства, отношения к религии,
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убеждений, принадлежности
обстоятельств;
общественным
объединениям,
а
также
других
проявлять высочайшее уважение к жизни человека, никогда не прибегать к
осуществлению эвтаназии;
хранить благодарность и уважение к своим учителям, быть требовательным и
справедливым к своим ученикам, способствовать их профессиональному росту;
доброжелательно относиться к коллегам, обращаться к ним за помощью и советом,
если этого требуют интересы больного, и самому никогда не отказывать коллегам в
помощи и совете;
постоянно совершенствовать свои профессиональные навыки, беречь и развивать
благородные традиции медицины.
1. Say in English the main principles of the oath.
2. Do you agree with all these principles?
3. Why is the oath called the medical code of honor?
6. Read the text and answer the questions.
ANCIENT ROMAN MEDICINE: GALEN
Pic.4
The Romans conquered (завоевать) Greece, so the doctors in the Roman Empire were
often Greeks. Many of them were slaves. Doctors had a low status in Rome. However, the
Romans also had hospitals. The most famous doctor of the Roman times was Galen. He lived in
130 — 200 AD (anno domini — нашей эры). At first he worked treating wounded gladiators.
Then in 169 AD he was the doctor of the Roman Emperor’s son Commodus. Galen was also a
writer and wrote many books. He believed in treating illness with the opposites, for example, if a
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patient had a cold, Galen gave him something hot like pepper (перец). Galen was interested in
Anatomy. Unfortunately, by his time dissecting of human bodies was forbidden. So he had to
dissect animal bodies including monkeys. But animal bodies are different from human bodies.
That is why some of Galen’s ideas were quite wrong. Galen believed the theory of the four
humors (жидкости) or fluids. He thought that in our body there were four fluids: blood, phlegm,
yellow bile and black bile. Illness resulted when you had too much of one humor. For centuries
this theory dominated medicine.
The Romans created a system of public health, encouraged cleanliness, drank only clean
water and built public lavatories in their towns. Unfortunately, the development of Roman
medicine was slow.
1. How do you understand “to treat illness with the opposite”? Do you agree with this
method?
2. What did the Romans contribute to the development of medicine?
3. Why were some of Galen’s ideas wrong?
4. What theory dominated medicine for centuries?
II. MEDICINE IN THE MIDDLE AGES
7. Read and translate the text.
MEDICINE IN THE MIDDLE AGES
In the Middle Ages learning flourished (процветать) in Europe. Greek and Roman books
were translated into Latin. Several medical schools were founded in Italy and France where
women were allowed to study as well as men. Another development during the Middle Ages was
the foundation of Universities. Many of them were established in the 13 — 14th centuries.
Students were taught medical and biological sciences, the human body and some diseases.
Medicine became a profession again.
One more important development during the Middle Ages was the hospitals. The first
hospitals appeared in Ceylon in the 5th century B.C. and in India in 206 B.C. Later they were
founded in Italy, France, England, Spain and other European countries. The fact is that usually
great beds were used in the hospitals and four or six patients were put on one bed. Doctors
prescribed regular blood letting because they thought that regular bleedings would make you
healthy. Doctors also examined patient’s urine, its color, smell and even taste. Medieval
medicine also believed in Astrology. People tried to protect the health during the Middle Ages.
Epidemics of diphtheria, typhoid fever, leprosy (проказа), bubonic plague took millions of lives.
Leprosy was spread for hundreds of years. Lepers lived in special colonies away from other
people. They were isolated from the healthy persons and it was an important advance in public
health.
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1. Answer the questions:
a. What facts prove that in the Middle Ages medicine became a profession again?
b. What advances in medicine were made during the Middle Ages?
2. Finish the sentences according to the text:
a. The foundation of schools and Universities was…
b. The foundation of hospitals was…
c. An important advance in public health was…
8. Read the text, translate it and answer the questions.
IBN SINA (AVICENNA)
Pic.5
Muslims took their knowledge of medicine from the Roman Empire. In the 9th century
Greek books on medicine were translated into Arabic. Gradually Muslim society became very
advanced in science, technology, power and military. At that time in 980 in the province of
Bokhara, in the village called Afshana was born a well-known politician, physician, military
strategist, philosopher, zoologist, astronomer, librarian, poet Ibn Sina, known in the West as
Avicenna. His full name is Abu Ali al-Husain Ibn Sina. He had displayed great abilities since
early childhood. By the age of 10 he was familiar with the Arab classics and holy (святой)
books. During the next 6 years he was reading and memorizing all the scientific books he could
get in both Arabic and Greek. At 17 he began to practice the art of a doctor. The last Samanid
ruler Nuh ibn Mansur granted him a wonderful reward — free access (доступ) to the royal
library. At 26 he began to deliver lectures on Astronomy and Logic. Over 100 works are
attributed to his pen. The most widely known is the Canon of Medicine. It is a real encyclopedia
of medicine. The book describes 760 drugs, the infective nature of some diseases, the
distribution of diseases by water and soil, anatomy, gynecology and child health. Ibn Sina died at
the age of 58 years old in 1037. He left all his wealth to the poor and freed all his slaves. He was
buried in Hamadan, which is in Iran. A monument to the life and works of the man, who became
known as “the doctor of doctors”, still stands outside Bukhara museum, and his portrait hangs in
the Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.
1. What sciences was Ibn Sina interested in?
2. When did he begin to practice medicine?
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What reward was he given for his work?
How many works were written by Ibn Sina?
What does his book “The Canon of Medicine” include?
What kind of person was Ibn Sina? Characterize him.
What is his role in the development of Arab science and literature?
Ш.MEDICINE IN THE 16TH CENTURY
9. Read the text. Translate it. Answer the questions.
MEDICINE IN THE 16TH CENTURY
During the 16th century medicine remained basically the same as in the Middle Ages,
however, there were some improvements. Galen’s ideas and the theory of four humors
(жидкости) continued to dominate medicine and surgery in the beginning of the century and
were being gradually discarded by the end.
In 1564 a man Girolamo Fracastory published a book called “On Contagion” (О
заразном начале болезней). He suggested that infectious diseases were caused by “disease
seeds” (зерна, семена) which were carried by the wind or transmitted by touch. Unfortunately, it
was impossible to test his theory.
Surgery became a little more advanced in the 16th century. The first effort to study the
anatomy of the human body was made by Renaissance (Возрождение) artists such as
Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo (1452 — 1513) wished to draw the human
body with more realism. He dissected over 30 human bodies and made accurate drawings of
what he saw. He carefully examined the shape of bones and muscles and he also drew pictures of
many internal organs, the veins and arteries.
The greatest surgeon of the century was Andreas Vesalius (1514 — 1564). He did many
dissections and realized that Galen’s ideas were wrong. In 1543 he published his book “The
Working of the Human Body” which contained accurate diagrams of a human body. He based
anatomy on real observations but not on the authority of writers like Galen.
The art of surgery was improved by Ambroise Pare. He learned to treat wounds with a
mixture of egg whites, rose and turpentine (скипидар). Pare also designed artificial limbs
(конечности).
1. What did medicine in the 16th century look like in the beginning of the century and by the
end of the century?
2. What famous people contributed to the progress of medicine as a science?
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10. Read and translate the text. Say what new facts about A. Vesalius you
have learned.
ANDREAS VESALIUS
Pic.6
Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the
most important books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric
(структура) of the Human Body). Vesalius is often called the founder of modern human
anatomy. He was born in Brussels. He was a professor at the University of Padua and later
became Imperial physician at the court (двор) of Emperor Charles V. He also delivered lectures
at Bologna and Pisa. Vesalius performed dissection (вскрытие) as the primary (основной)
teaching method, doing the actual work himself and instructing students to perform dissection
themselves. Direct observation (наблюдение) was considered the only reliable (надежный)
source (источник) of knowledge. Vesalius realized the need for illustrations and visual aids
(пособия) to help his students understand anatomy. He made detailed illustrations of anatomy
for students in the form of six large woodcut (гравюра на дереве) anatomical posters. When he
found out that some of these were being widely copied, he published them all in 1538 under the
title Tabulae anatomicae sex (анатомические таблицы). In 1543, Vesalius performed public
dissection of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler, a notorious (известный) criminal from
the city of Basel, Switzerland. He assembled (собрать) the bones and finally gave the skeleton to
the University of Basel. This model ("The Basel Skeleton") is Vesalius' only well-preserved
(хорошо сохранившийся) skeletal model today, and is also the world's oldest surviving
anatomical model. It is still displayed (выставлять) at the Anatomical Museum of the University
of Basel. Vesalius was 28 years old when the first edition (издание) of Fabrica was published.
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IV. MEDICINE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
11. Read the text. Translate it and answer the questions.
MEDICINE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
In the 17th century medicine continued to advance. In the early 17th century an Italian
called Santorio invented the medical thermometer to measure the temperature. Doctors also
discovered how to treat malaria with bark from the cinchona tree (кора хинного дерева) as it
contains quinine. The Chinese invented the toothbrush. Toothbrushes arrived in Europe and
became very popular with the wealthy in England in the 17th century.
In 1628 William Harvey, the English physician to King James I, discovered the
circulation of the blood. Harvey realized that the heart is a pump (насос). Each time it beats, it
pumps out blood. The blood circulates around the body. Harvey also estimated how much blood
was being pumped each time.
One of the most famous doctors of the 17th century was Thomas Sydenham (1624 —
1689). He is sometimes called the English Hippocrates. He developed the science of internal
medicine and paid great attention to careful examination of the patient and his symptoms.
But a real advance in the medical development was the invention of the microscope. In
1671 Antony van Leeuwenhoek from the Netherlands invented the microscope and observed
bacteria and protozoa. He also described microscopic organisms. Microscope marked a new era
in the development of medicine.
1. What important facts in the text prove that medicine continued to advance in the 17th
century?
2. Why was the invention of the microscope so important for the development of medicine?
12. Read the text and translate it. Look through the text again and say:
what statement is true (T), false (F) or no information (0).
1. It was Harvey who described blood circulation in the body correctly.
2. Harvey confirmed (подтвердить) Galen’s views.
3. Harvey proved that the heart is the main organ in the body.
4. Pulmonary circulation was described by other physicians.
5. Harvey came to the conclusion that the two ventricles contract independently.
6. Harvey found out that the arteries allowed blood to flow to the heart.
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WILLIAM HARVEY
Pic.7
William Harvey was the first physician to correctly describe blood circulation in the
body. He showed that arteries and veins form a complete circuit. The circuit starts at the heart
and leads back to the heart. The heart’s regular contractions make the blood flow around the
whole body.
He was born in Folkestone, England, where he began his education. He also studied in
Canterbury and Cambridge. After that he travelled through France, Germany and Italy. In 1602
Harvey graduated as a Doctor of Medicine at the age of 24 from the University of Padua and
returned to England. He was appointed (назначить) as physician to King James I and then to
King Charles I. Harvey often accompanied King Charles during his hunting expeditions. These
expeditions gave Harvey an opportunity (возможность) to make his observations and theories
based on studying many deer carcasses (туши оленей). In 1628 he published in Frankfurt his
treatise (трактат) “On the Motion (движение) of the Heart and Blood”. The book contained
observation of the blood circulation. At the time of Harvey’s publication, Galen had been an
influential (влиятельный) medical authority for several centuries. Galen believed that blood
passed between ventricles by means of invisible pores (поры). According to Galen’s views, the
venous system was quite separate (отдельный) from the arterial system. Harvey stated that it
was extremely important to study the heart when it was active in order to fully understand its true
movement. Harvey made a detailed analysis of the structure of the heart and the arteries. He also
came to the conclusion that the two ventricles contract simultaneously (одновременно) and not
independently (независимо). This discovery was made while observing the heart of such
animals as the eel (угорь) and several other types of fish. Harvey estimated the capacity
(вместимость) of the heart, how much blood is expelled (выталкивать) through each pump of
the heart, and the number of times the heart beats in a half an hour. He did some experiments
first on fish and serpents (змеи) and then on the human body. Tying (перевязывать) the veins
and arteries in separate periods of time, he noticed that the heart would become empty (пустой),
while as he did the same to the arteries, the organ would swell up (наполняться). Harvey found
out that the veins allowed blood to flow to the heart, and the valves maintained (поддерживать)
the one way flow (ток). Pulmonary circulation was described by Renaldus Columbus, Andrea
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Cesalpino and Vesalius, but it was Harvey who gave a complete (полный) description of the
circulatory system.
V. MEDICINE IN THE 18TH CENTURY
13. Read the text. Answer the questions.
MEDICINE IN THE 18TH CENTURY
During the 18th century medicine made slow progress, but other sciences connected with
health developed rapidly. New discoveries were made in Anatomy, Biology, Physiology,
Bacteriology and other sciences. Doctors still did not know what caused diseases and believed in
the theory that disease was caused by “miasmas” (вредные испарения) — odorless (без запаха)
gases in the air.
However, surgery made some progress. The famous surgeon of the 18 th century John
Hunter (1728 — 1793) performed a new surgical manipulation such as tracheotomy. In the 18th
century many soldiers suffered from scurvy (цинга). Scurvy is vitamin C deficiency. A Scottish
surgeon named James Lind discovered that fresh fruit or lemon juice could cure or prevent
scurvy. He published his findings in 1753 in his work called “A Treatise on the Scurvy”
(Трактат о цинге). In 1792 Luigi Galvani discovered that frogs twitch (судорожно
подергивать) legs if given an electric shock. His experiments showed that electricity plays an
important role in the nervous system. In the 18th century many people died of smallpox (оспа).
But in 1796 in England a man named Edward Jenner (1749 — 1823) invented vaccination.
Though nobody knew how vaccination worked, the mankind gained immunity to smallpox. With
slight modification the same method is still used to provide smallpox immunity today. The first
great pathologist Giovanni Battista Morgagni explained the connection of the symptoms of
disease in the living body with anatomical findings at autopsy. The first stethoscope was
invented by the French physician Rene Laennec. In 1779 Humphry Davy discovered that nitrous
oxide (закись азота, веселящий газ) helped to relieve pain when breathed into the lungs. Forty
years later Michael Faraday determined that ether (эфир) had the same effect. In 1846 an
American surgeon John Warren carried out an operation on the patient’s throat and used ether as
an anaesthetic.
During the 18th century a number of hospitals and dispensaries (аптеки для бедняков)
were founded. They were charities (благотворительные учреждения) where the poor could
obtain free medicines. In 1792 a Frenchman named Dominique-Jean Larrey created the first
ambulance service for wounded men.
One of the most common treatments was bathing or drinking spa water. It was believed
that spa water could cure all kinds of illness. During that time superstition (суеверие) declined,
but people still believed that a monarch’s touch could heal or, for example, mentally ill people
were not regarded (рассматривать) as “truly” humans. It was thought that they did not have
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feelings. Such people were confined in chains (заковать в цепи) and were shown for money as
if they were animals in a zoo.
1. How was medicine developing during the 18th century?
2. What examples in the text prove that the influence of superstition was still great during
the 18th century?
14. Read the text. Translate it.
EDWARD JENNER
Pic.8
Edward Jenner is often called "the father of immunology". Jenner (1749 –1823) was an
English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox (оспа) vaccine, the world's first
vaccine.
He earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792. Vaccination was already a
standard practice, but involved serious risks. It was not until Jenner's work that the procedure
became widely understood. Observing that milkmaids (доярки) were generally immune to
smallpox, Jenner stated that the pus (гной) in the blisters (волдыри) that milkmaids received
from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from
smallpox. On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by vaccinating James Phipps, an eightyear-old boy who was the son of Jenner's gardener. He scraped (скоблить) pus from cowpox
blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had picked up cowpox from a cow called
Blossom. Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a
fever and some malaise (недомогание), but no full-blown (полный) infection. Later, he injected
Phipps with variolous (оспенный) material, the routine method of immunization at that time. No
disease followed. The boy was later injected with variolous material and again showed no sign of
infection. Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society. After revisions
(проверка) and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases. The medical
establishment discussed his findings for some time before accepting them. Eventually,
vaccination was accepted.
16
Agree or disagree:
1. Before Jenner’s work vaccination was already a safe procedure.
2. Jenner based his hypothesis on the observation that milkmaids were generally immune to
smallpox.
3. Jenner’s findings were accepted at once.
TH
VI. MEDICINE IN THE 19
CENTURY
15. Read the text. Translate it and answer the questions.
MEDICINE IN THE 19TH CENTURY
During the 19th century medicine made a rapid progress. In 1896 Rene Laennec invented
the stethoscope. At first he used a tube of paper, later he used a wooden version. One of the
greatest discoveries was cocaine, which was very effective as a local anaesthetic. Surgeons
learned to inject cocaine into a necessary place of the body and kill the pain during the operation.
When the problem of pain was solved (1884), surgeons could perform long and complicated
operations. Also microbiology was being advanced at that time.
The 19th century presented the world many great names. Among them is a French
chemist, physicist and bacteriologist Louis Pasteur. He is known as the founder of “the germ
theory of disease” (теория возбудителя заболевания). He discovered fermentation and
developed the process of pasteurization — a way of sterilizing liquids by heating them. This
method was first used for wine in 1864 and later for milk. Milk is treated in this way today to
make it safe to drink. Pasteur and his coworkers created a vaccine for chicken cholera, anthrax
(сибирская язва) and rabies (бешенство).
A prominent German bacteriologist Robert Koch is called the founder of modern
microbiology. In 1875 he isolated the germ that causes anthrax, in 1882 he isolated the causative
agent (возбудитель) of tuberculosis and in 1883 the germ that causes cholera in humans.
In the 19th century were also discovered causative agents of leprosy (1879), typhoid fever
(1880), diphtheria (1882), tetanus (столбняк) (1884) and pneumonia (1884). Immunization
against diphtheria was invented in 1890, for typhoid in 1896.
In 1865 Joseph Lister discovered antiseptic surgery. He prevented infection by spraying
carbolic acid over the patient during surgery. German surgeons developed a better method. They
began to sterilize hands, clothes and instruments. Rubber (резина) gloves were first used in
surgery in 1890. Anaesthetics and antiseptics made surgery safer and allowed to perform more
complicated operations.
In 1850 — 1851 Herman von Helmholtz invented the ophthalmoscope. In 1895 X-rays
were discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen. He placed his hand in front of the apparatus and saw that
17
the rays passed through the hand and gave a shadow (тень) of bones on the screen. Because he
did not know those rays he called them X-rays. In 1895 aspirin was invented.
Nursing was improved by two nurses, Florence Nightingale (1820 — 1910) and Mary
Seacole (1805 — 1881) who both nursed soldiers during the Crimean War (1853 — 1856). In
1864 Jean Henry Dunant founded the international Red Cross.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Why did the discovery of cocaine improve the development of surgery?
What is pasteurization?
The causative agents of what dangerous diseases were discovered in the 19th century?
What vaccines were discovered in the 19th century?
What progress was achieved in surgery?
Why can the discovery of X-rays be called a new era of diagnostics?
16. Read the text and translate it. Answer the questions.
LOUIS PASTEUR
Pic.9
Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) is popularly known as the "father of microbiology”. He was
a French chemist and microbiologist famous for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination,
microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax.
He is best known to the general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and
wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization. He is remembered for
his remarkable breakthroughs (прорыв) in the causes and prevention of diseases, and his
discoveries have saved numerous lives ever since. Only two of his five children survived to
adulthood; the other three died of typhoid. These personal tragedies were his motivations for
curing infectious diseases.
Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth of micro-organisms, and
the emergent (возникающий) growth of bacteria in nutrient broths (питательный бульон) is
due not to spontaneous generation (размножение), but rather to biogenesis. Pasteur's research
18
also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as
beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk
were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 C. This killed most bacteria and moulds
already present within them. Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that microorganisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed (предлагать) preventing
the entry (попадание) of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop
antiseptic methods in surgery. Lister's work in turn inspired Joseph Lawrence to develop his own
alcohol-based antiseptic, which he named in tribute (в честь) Listerine.
1. Why is Pasteur called “the father of microbiology”?
2. What did he invent?
3. How did his discoveries help to develop antiseptic methods in surgery?
17. Read the text and answer the questions.
ROBERT KOCH
Pic.10
Robert Heinrich Hermann Koch (1843 – 1910) was a celebrated German physician and
pioneering microbiologist. As the founder of modern bacteriology, he is known for his role in
identifying the specific causative agents of tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax. In addition to his
trail-blazing studies on these diseases, Koch created and improved laboratory technologies and
techniques in the field of microbiology, and made key discoveries in public health. His research
led to the creation of Koch’s postulates, a series of four generalized principles linking specific
microorganisms to specific diseases that remain today the "gold standard" in medical
microbiology. As a result of his groundbreaking research on tuberculosis, Koch received the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905.
Robert Koch is widely known for his work with anthrax, discovering the causative agent
of the fatal disease to be Bacillus anthracis. In the 1880s, Robert Koch became interested in
19
tuberculosis research. At the time, it was widely believed that tuberculosis was an inherited
disease. However, Koch was convinced that the disease was caused by a bacterium and was
infectious, and tested his four postulates using guinea pigs (морские свинки). Through these
experiments, he found that his experiments with tuberculosis satisfied all four of his postulates.
In 1882, he published his findings on tuberculosis, in which he reported the causative agent of
the disease to be the slow-growing Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
1. What is Koch known for?
2. What did he receive the Nobel Prize for?
18. Read the text and translate it.
JOSEPH LISTER
Pic.11
Joseph Lister (1827 – 1912) was a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery.
Lister successfully introduced carbolic acid (now known as phenol) to sterilize surgical
instruments and to clean wounds, which led to a decrease in post-operative infections and made
surgery safer for patients.
Before Lister's studies of surgery, a surgeon was not required to wash his hands before
examining a patient because such practice was not considered necessary to avoid infection.
While he was a professor of surgery at the University of Glasgow, Lister became aware of a
paper published by the French chemist, Louis Pasteur, showing that food spoilage (порча) could
occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Lister confirmed Pasteur's
conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic
techniques for wounds. In 1834, Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered phenol, also known as
carbolic acid. Lister began to test the efficacy of carbolic acid when applied directly to wounds.
Lister tested the results of spraying instruments, the surgical incisions (разрез), and dressings
(повязки) with a solution of carbolic acid. He found that the solution remarkably reduced the
incidence of gangrene. He instructed surgeons under his supervision to wear clean gloves and
wash their hands before and after operations with 5% carbolic acid solutions. Lister continued to
develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis. This led to the rise of less primitive
20
surgery. On the anniversary of his death, in 2012, Lister was considered by most in the medical
field as "The Father of Modern Surgery".
Answer the questions:
1. What did Lister successfully introduce?
2. What was carbolic acid used for?
3. Whose findings did Lister use to develop antiseptic techniques?
19. Read the text and answer the questions.
NIKOLAY PIROGOV
Pic.12
Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov (1810 – 1881) was a prominent Russian scientist, doctor,
pedagogue, public figure, and corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences
(1847). He is considered to be the founder of field surgery, and was one of the first surgeons in
Europe to use ether as an anaesthetic. He was the first surgeon to use anaesthesia in a field
operation (1847), invented various kinds of surgical operations, and developed his own
technique of using plaster casts (гипсовые повязки) to treat fractured bones. He is one of the
most widely recognized Russian physicians.
Pirogov was accepted as a student at Moscow State University at the age of 14. Despite
limited experience at medical school, Pirogov decided to specialize as a surgeon when he
completed his studies in 1828. In October 1840, Pirogov took up an appointment as a professor
of surgery at the academy of military medicine in Saint Petersburg, and did three years of
military service in this period. He first used ether as an anaesthetic in 1847, and
investigated cholera. Around this time he compiled his anatomical atlas, Topographical anatomy
of the human body.
21
He worked as an army surgeon in the Crimean War, arriving in Simferopol on December 11,
1854. He is considered to be the father of field surgery. He followed work by Louis-Joseph
Seutin in introducing plaster casts for setting broken bones, and developed a new osteoplastic
method for amputation of the foot, known as the "Pirogov amputation". He was also the first to
use anaesthesia in the field, particularly during the siege (осада) of Sevastopol, and he
introduced a system of triage (установление очерёдности оказания помощи раненым или
пострадавшим) into five categories. Apart from his developed foot amputation techniques,
several anatomical structures were named after him, such as the Pirogoff angle (угол); the
Pirogoff aponeurosis, a structure from fascia and the aponeurosis of the biceps; the Pirogoff
triangle, a triangular area located between the mylohyoid muscle (челюстно-подъязычная
мышца), the intermediate tendon of the musculus digastricus (двубрюшная мышца ) and the
hypoglossal nerve (подъязычный нерв).
1. What did Pirogov first use in a field operation?
2. What technique did he develop?
3. Why is he considered to be the father of field surgery?
20. Read the text and translate it. Say what you have learned about P.
Lesgaft.
PETER LESGAFT
Pic.13
Peter Franzevich Lesgaft (1837 – 1909) was a Russian teacher, anatomist, physician and
social reformer. He was the founder of the modern system of physical education and medicalpedagogical control in physical training, one of the founders of theoretical anatomy. Lesgaft
National State University of Physical Education, Sport and Health in St. Petersburg is named
22
after him. Unity and integrity (целостность) of all organs in human body was the basis of Peter
Lesgaft system of the pointed exercises for both physical development and intellectual, moral
and aesthetic education.
Peter Lesgaft was born on 21 September 1837 in Saint-Petersburg. In 1861 he graduated
from Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg and remained there as a teacher of
anatomy. In 1869 he became a professor at the University of Kazan. In 1872-1874 he supervised
a group of Russian women for the first time allowed to be employed in the Imperial MedicalSurgical Academy. He also became known for publication of a descriptive history of sport in
Europe and ancient Greece and an article on naturalistic gymnastics. As a result, he was put in
charge (поставить во главе) of the physical training of military cadets. In 1875 he was
sponsored by the Russian Military Ministry to spend two summers in Western Europe, studying
the systems of physical education. During that time he visited 26 cities in 13 European countries.
He carefully studied British system visiting English public schools, the Central Army
Gymnastics School at Aldershot, the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich and Oxford
University. In 1877 he published ‘‘Relationship of Anatomy to Physical Education and ‘‘The
Major Purpose of Physical Education in Schools”. He organized courses for physical education
instructors for the military academies. In 1893 Peter Lesgaft organized Biological laboratory
which in 1918 was transformed into P.F.Lesgaft Institute of Natural Science.
Finish the sentences according to the text:
1. Peter Lesgaft was…
2. The basis of Peter Lesgaft system was…
3. Peter Lesgaft became known for…
4. Lesgaft carefully studied…
5. In 1877 he published…
21. Read and translate the text. Ask 3 questions on the contents of the text.
Ask each other to answer them. Work in pairs.
VLADIMIR BEKHTEREV
23
Pic.14
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857 –1927) studied in St. Petersburg Medicosurgical
Academy. It was here where Bekhterev took an interest in neuropathology and psychiatry. After
graduating, Bekhterev worked at the Psychiatric Clinic in St. Petersburg, where he began
studying the anatomy and physiology of the brain. Throughout his career, Bekhterev conducted a
large amount of research which greatly influenced the current understanding of the brain. In
1886 he established the first laboratory of experimental psychology to study the nervous system
and the structures of the brain. Bekhterev assumed that there were zones within the brain and
each of these zones had a specific function. Bekhterev also identified Bekhterev’s disease, a
degenerative arthritis of the spine. Bekhterev wrote “Foundations for Brain Functions Theory” in
1903. It described Bekhterev's views on the functions of the parts of the brain and the nervous
system. He also formulated the Energetic Inhibition Theory which states that there is an active
energy in the brain which moves towards a center, and when this happens, the other parts of the
brain are left in an inhibited state. Bekhterev is considered to be the founder of objective
psychology. Objective psychology is based on the principle that all behavior can be explained by
objectively studying reflexes.
Vladimir Bekhterev’s contributions to science and especially psychology were impressive.
Bekhterev was a huge force in the science of neurology; greatly contributing to our knowledge
on how the brain works as well as the parts of the brain. Bekhterev’s works laid the groundwork
for the future of psychology. His ideas regarding Objective psychology as well as his views on
reflexes were the cornerstone (краеугольный камень) of Behaviorism and as a result, the future
of psychology.
22. Read and translate the text.
24
IVAN PAVLOV
Pic.15
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 –1936) studied at the University of St. Petersburg where he
enrolled in the physics and math department and took natural science courses. In 1890, he was
appointed the professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy and occupied the
position for 5 years. While working at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg
he carried out his classical experiments on the digestive glands, which is how he eventually won
the Nobel prize. Pavlov investigated the gastric function of dogs, and later, children, so he could
collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different
conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered
(доставлять) to their mouths.
Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. He performed
and directed many experiments on the digestive system. Pavlov also began to study the body's
natural reaction of shutting down (отключение) when exposed to overwhelming
(подавляющий) stress or pain by electric shock. This research showed that all temperament
types responded (реагировать) to the stimuli the same way, but different temperaments move
through the responses at different times. Pavlov was one of the first scientists to show the
association between environmental stimuli and behavioral reactions.
The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex". Pavlov's work with
classical conditioning (психологическая обработка с использованием условных рефлексов)
was of huge influence to how humans perceive (воспринимать) themselves, their behavior and
learning processes, and his studies of classical conditioning continue to be important to modern
behavior therapy.
1. Answer the questions on the text:
a. What did Pavlov investigate?
b. What did his research show?
c. Why is his work important?
25
2. Your idea:
a. Do you know the difference between unconditioned and conditioned reflexes? Try to
explain this difference.
b. Try to give some examples of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.
23. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions.
ILYA MECHNIKOV
Pic.16
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov was born in May 1845 in a village near Kharkov. He went to
school in Kharkov and even as a little boy he was greatly interested in natural sciences,
especially in botany and geology. After school he entered Kharkov University to study natural
sciences and completed the four-year course in two years. Later he worked at the Universities of
St. Petersburg, Odessa and in a private laboratory in Messina where he discovered the
phenomenon of phagocytosis with which his name will always be associated. His life in Odessa
was very difficult and in 1888 he left Odessa and went to Paris where he remained for the rest of
his life. In Paris Louis Pasteur gave him a laboratory and an appointment in the Pasteur Institute.
Besides his work on phagocytosis, Mechnikov published many papers on the embryology
of invertebrates (беспозвоночные), embryology of insects and Medusae. He was one of the
founders of theory of cellular immunity. Mechnikov also proved that syphilis could be
transmitted to monkeys. Later he began to study the flora of the human intestine. In 1908 I. I.
Mechnikov was awarded the Nobel Prize for his investigations in Physiology.
Photographs taken on him when he was working at the Pasteur Institute show him with
long hair and beard. He usually wore overshoes (галоши) in all weathers and carried an
umbrella; his pockets were full of scientific papers, and he always wore the same hat and often,
when he was excited, sat on it.
From 1913 Mechnikov began to suffer from heart attacks and died on July 16, 1916.
26
1. What is Mechnikov’s contribution to the development of medical science?
2. How is Mechnikov shown in the photographs? How does his appearance (внешний вид)
characterize him as a person?
24. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions.
DMITRI IVANOVSKY
Pic.17
Dmitri Iosifovich Ivanovsky was born in Gdov, Russia in 1864. He attended the
Gymnasium of Gdov and later graduated from the Gymnasium of St. Petersburg in 1883 as a
gold medalist. At the University of St. Petersburg he joined the department of natural sciences
and studied under several prominent Russian scientists. While a student, he became interested in
diseases that destroy tobacco plants. In 1888 he graduated from the University after presenting
his thesis (диссертация) “On Two Diseases of Tobacco Plants” and began to study the
physiology of plants and microbiology. The following year he continued to study tobacco plant
diseases. A new tobacco disease, called tobacco mosaic disease, had affected plants in the
Crimean region. Ivanovsky had to carry out many experiments. He passed the juice of the
diseased plant through a Chamberland bacterial filter that could catch all bacteria. Then he
introduced the filtrate of the diseased plants to healthy ones, and they became infected. It was
strange because at that time it was considered that bacteria were the smallest living organisms.
But if plants became infected, there had to exist an agent many times smaller than bacteria. This
new kind of infectious pathogen was called a virus. Nobody had been able to prove the existence
of viruses before Ivanovsky. He was the first scientist who established a new branch of
microbiology — virology. Scientists began to investigate viruses, and it helped to develop new
drugs and save many lives.
1. How was the virus discovered?
2. What branch of microbiology was founded by Ivanovsky?
3. What do you think: why was the discovery of a virus very important for the future of a
medical science?
27
Agree or disagree:
1. The filtrate of diseased plants did not infect healthy plants.
2. A bacterium is smaller than a virus.
3. Ivanovsky’s discovery was very important for the development of medical progress.
25. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions.
IVAN MICHAILOVICH SECHENOV — THE FOUNDER OF THE RUSSIAN SCHOOL
OF PHYSIOLOGY
Pic.18
I.M. Sechenov was born on August, the 13th 1829 in a village called Tyoply Stan (now
Sechenovo) near Simbirsk in a family of a military man and a peasant (крестьянка). He spent
his childhood in a village and studied at home. At the age of 14 he went to St. Petersburg to
make a career of a military engineer. But he disliked this profession and entered the Medical
faculty of Moscow University where he became interested in physiology and philosophy. After
graduation from the University he worked abroad with famous physiologists, and this branch of
medicine became the sense of his life. Later he became the professor of St. Petersburg Medical
Academy where he organized a laboratory in which he carried out his investigations and made
his great discoveries. Sechenov studied the physiology of brain, the mechanism of inhibition
(торможение) of the nervous system, reflexes, cortical associations and the process of
signalization. After leaving the Academy in St. Petersburg Sechenov worked in Novorossiisk
University as a professor. There he researched a new poorly studied problem of blood gases and
their role in the respiratory process. He isolated blood gases and found out that they combined
with erythrocytes. Sechenov was able to determine the role of hemoglobin in the process of
respiration and originated the theory of solutions (растворы). In 1889 he returned to Moscow
and continued his research on the exchange of gases between blood and tissues, and between
organism and the environment.
Sechenov died in Moscow on the 5th of November, 1905.
The range of his scientific interests is really great. 106 scientific works were written by
Sechenov.
28
I.M. Sechenov is called the founder of Russian physiology and scientific psychology. His
work laid the foundations for the study of reflexes, animal and human behavior, and
neuroscience. Today the Medical Academy in St. Petersburg is named after I.M. Sechenov.
1. What was the range of Sechenov’s scientific interests?
2. Why is I.M. Sechenov called the founder of physiology and psychology school?
VII. MEDICINE IN THE 20TH CENTURY
26. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions.
MEDICINE IN THE 20TH CENTURY
Medicine made huge (огромный) advance in the 20th century. In 1901 Karl Landsteiner
discovered the blood groups. In 1914 the first non-direct blood transfusion was performed; in
1922 the insulin was first used to treat a patient; in 1929 the electrocardiogram (ECG) machine
was tested.
Many new drugs were discovered that were effective in treatment of syphilis, blood
poisoning, diabetes. In 1912 vitamins were discovered.
In 1928 Dr. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin and became the founder of the
modern science of antibiotics. Penicillin was used in hospitals to reduce wound infections.
Another antibiotic, streptomycin, was isolated in 1944. It was used to treat tuberculosis. They
were followed by many others.
In 1935 a drug known as sulphanilamide was discovered. It helped to treat pneumonia.
The iron lung was invented in 1928; in 1943 Wilhelm Kolf built the first artificial kidney
machine. The first kidney transplant was in 1963. The vaccines for poliomyelitis and measles
were discovered in 1953 and 1963.
Surgery made a great progress. The most difficult surgery was on the brain and the heart.
Both of these branches of science — neurosurgery and cardiosurgery developed rapidly in the
20th century. The external pacemaker (кардиостимулятор) was invented by a Canadian called
John Hopps in 1950. The first implantable pacemaker was given to a patient in 1958. The first
heart transplantation was performed in 1967 by Christiaan Barnard. The first artificial heart was
installed in 1982; the first heart and lung transplant was performed in 1987.
The laser was invented in 1960; in 1964 it was used for the first time in eye surgery.
Nowadays the laser is widely used in medical practice. The invention of fiber optics in the 1950s
made possible the development of endoscopes. Treatment for infertility (бесплодие) also
improved in the late 20th century. The first tube baby was born in 1978. In 1983 Magnetic
29
Resonance Imaging or MRI was introduced. Synthetic skin was developed in 1986 and gene
therapy in 1990.
During the two world wars and later, great advances were made in the field of plastic
surgery, in which skin, bone or muscle was taken from one part of the body and transplanted to
an injured area in another part.
Great progress was achieved in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases,
cancer, bacterial and viral infections, kidney disorders.
1. What new drugs were discovered in the 20th century?
2. What facts prove that cardiovascular surgery made a great progress?
3. In what other fields of medicine was the great progress achieved?
27. Read the text and say what N. Burdenko is famous for.
NIKOLAY BURDENKO
Pic.19
Nikolay Nilovich Burdenko (1876 –1946) was a Russian and Soviet surgeon and the
founder of Russian neurosurgery. He was Surgeon-General of the Red Army (1937–1946), an
academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, an academician and the first director of the
Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (1944–1946), Colonel General (генерал-полковник)
of medical services.
Nikolay Burdenko was born in 1876 in the village of Kamenka of Penza Governorate
(губерния). In 1891 he entered the theological seminary and after graduation in 1897 he went to
Tomsk where was admitted to the recently opened Tomsk State University. After finishing two
courses, Burdenko was expelled from the University for taking part in the student revolutionary
movement and was forced to leave Tomsk. In 1906 he graduated from the University of Tartu. In
1923 he became a professor of the medical department of Moscow State University. In 1934 he
set up the first ever neurosurgical institute which developed a new field of medicine –
30
neurosurgery. Nikolay Burdenko was one of the first to introduce into the clinical practice the
surgery of central and peripheral nervous system. He investigated the reason for appearance and
the methods of treating shock. He made a large contribution to the study of the processes which
occur in the central and peripheral nervous system in connection with a surgical operation. He
invented bulbotomy – a surgery in the upper part of the spinal cord, which required incisions of
the nerve tracts attached to the brain. Burdenko created a school of surgeons. Research in the
field of the oncology of central and vegetative nervous system, pathology of the fluid circulation,
cerebral blood circulation was a valuable contribution of Burdenko and his school to the theory
and practice of neurosurgery.
Finish the sentences according to the text:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nikolay Burdenko was…
He was one of the first to…
He investigated…
He made a large contribution to…
Bulbotomy is a surgery…
28. Read the text and say what A. Bakulev is famous for.
ALEKSANDR BAKULEV
Pic.20
Aleksandr Nikolayevich Bakulev (1890 — 1967) was a Soviet surgeon and one of the
founders of cardiovascular surgery in the USSR.
Born in Nevenikovskaya in a peasant family which belonged to the old Vyatka clan of Bakulevs,
Bakulev attended the medical faculty of Saratov University after graduating from high school.
During the First World War he served as a regimental (полковой) medical officer on the
Western Front. In 1938 Bakulev performed a successful lobectomy in a case of chronic lung
disease. In 1939 he earned the academic degree of Professor and the same year conducted a
successful lobectomy in a case of pulmonary actinomycosis. In 1943 Bakulev became head of
the surgical department of the 2nd Pirogov Moscow Institute of Medicine. On the Eastern Front
of World War II, Bakulev was the chief surgeon of Moscow evacuation hospital. In 1948 he
31
pioneered the surgical treatment of congenital heart disorders in the Soviet Union. He was the
President of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1953 to 1960.
In 1955 he suggested the foundation of the Thoracic Surgery Institute (now the Bakulev
Scientific Center of Cardiovascular Surgery) and then became its first head. In 1958 Bakulev
was elected as a member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences.
Bakulev died in Moscow in 1967. A medical prize was named after him.
Finish the sentences according to the text:
1. Alexandr Bakulev was one of the founders…
2. In 1938 Bakulev performed …
3. During the Second World War Bakulev was…
4. In 1948 he pioneered…
5. Bakulev became the first head of…
29. Read the text. Translate it.
CHRISTIAAN BARNARD
Pic.21
Christiaan Barnard (1922 – 2001) was a cardiac surgeon who performed the world's first
successful human-to-human heart transplantation. Barnard grew up in Beaufort West, Cape
Province, South Africa. One of his four brothers, Abraham, died of a heart problem at the age of
five. Barnard went to study medicine at the University of Cape Town. Following the first
successful kidney transplantation in 1953, in the United States, Barnard performed the second
kidney transplantation in South Africa in October 1967. Barnard experimented for several years
with animal heart transplants. More than 50 dogs received transplanted hearts. Several surgical
teams were ready for the human heart transplantation. Barnard had a patient willing to undergo
the operation, but he needed a suitable donor. He performed the world's first human heart
32
transplantation on December 3, 1967. During the operation he was assisted by his brother,
Marius Barnard. The operation lasted nine hours and used a team of thirty people. The patient,
Louis Washkansky, was a 54-year-old grocer (бакалейщик), suffering from diabetes and
incurable heart disease. The donor heart came from a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had
been brain damaged in an accident on December 2, 1967, while crossing a street in Cape Town.
Washkansky survived the operation and lived for 18 days. However, he died of pneumonia as he
was taking immunosuppressive drugs. Although the first patient with the heart of another human
being lived for only a little more than two weeks, Barnard had passed a milestone (преодолеть
веху) in a new field of life-extending surgery.
1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:
a. Barnard performed the world’s first successful human-to-human
transplantation.
b. Barnard could not find a suitable donor for the human heart transplantation.
c. The patient with a heart transplant lived for 18 days.
2. Explain in English:
a. a donor
b. a recipient
c. transplantation
3. Answer the questions:
a. When was the first human heart transplantation performed?
b. Who was the recipient?
c. Who was the donor?
d. What was the result of the operation?
e. Can this operation be called successful? Why do you think so?
kidney
30. Read the text and ask 3 questions on its contents. Answer your
questions. Work in pairs.
ALEXANDER FLEMING
Pic.22
33
Sir Alexander Fleming (1881 – 1955) was a Scottish biologist, pharmacologist and botanist. His
best-known discoveries are the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the world's first antibiotic
substance benzylpenicillin (Penicillin G) from the mould Penicillium notatum in 1928, for which
he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst
Boris Chain. He wrote many articles on bacteriology, immunology, and chemotherapy.
Fleming was knighted (посвящать в рыцари) for his scientific achievements in 1944. Named in
Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century, in 2002 he was
named among the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons.
By 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties (свойства) of staphylococci. He
was already well-known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant
researcher, but his laboratory was often untidy (в беспорядке). On 3 September 1928, Fleming
returned to his laboratory having spent August on holiday with his family. Before leaving, he had
stacked (складывать) all his cultures of staphylococci on a bench (скамья) in a corner of his
laboratory. On returning, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated (заражать) with a
fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been
destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal. Fleming grew the
mould (плесень) in a pure culture and found that it produced a substance that killed a number of
disease-causing bacteria. He identified the mould as being from the Penicillium genus (род),
and, after some months of calling it "mould juice", named the substance penicillin on 7 March
1929. Fleming's accidental (случайное) discovery and isolation of penicillin in September 1928
marks the era of modern antibiotics.
31. Read the text and translate it. What are the main achievements of
Landsteiner?
KARL LANDSTEINER
Pic.23
34
After graduating from a Vienna secondary school, Landsteiner (1868 — 1943) began to
study medicine at the University of Vienna and wrote his doctoral thesis in 1891. While still a
student he published an essay on the influence of diets on the composition of blood. In his
studies he focused on the mechanism of immunity and the nature of antibodies. He published 75
papers, dealing with issues in serology, bacteriology, virology and pathological anatomy.
Landsteiner discovered the infectious character of poliomyelitis and isolated the polio virus.
In 1900 Karl Landsteiner discovered that the blood of two people under contact
agglutinates, and in 1901 he found out that this effect was due to contact of blood with blood
serum. He succeeded in identifying the three blood groups A, B and O of human blood.
Landsteiner also came to the conclusion that blood transfusion between persons with the same
blood group did not result in the destruction of blood cells, whereas this occurred between
persons of different blood groups. Based on his findings, the first successful blood transfusion
was performed by Reuben Ottenberg at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York in 1907.
Today it is well known that persons with blood group AB can accept donations of the other
blood groups, and that persons with blood group O can donate to all other groups. Individuals
with blood group AB are called universal recipients and those with blood group O are known as
universal donors. These donor-recipient relationships occur due to the fact that type O blood
has neither antigens of blood group A nor of blood group B. Therefore, the immune systems of
persons with blood group A, B or AB do not reject the donation. In 1937 Landsteiner also
identified the Rhesus factor. This discovery allowed the physicians to transfuse blood without
endangering the patient’s life.
In 1930 Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these
achievements. For his pioneering work, he is recognized as the father of transfusion medicine.
1. Finish the sentences:
a. Universal donors are…
b. Universal recipients are…
c. Landsteiner discovered…
d. The first successful transfusion…
e. The Nobel Prize…
2. Try to explain in English:
a. blood transfusion…
b. to agglutinate
c. antigen
d. the Rhesus factor
32. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions.
35
ALEKSANDR VISHNEVSKY
Pic.24
Aleksandr Vasilievich Vishnevsky (1874 — 1948) is an outstanding clinician, surgeon
and the founder of Russian neurosurgery. In 1899 he graduated from the medical faculty of
Kazan Imperial University and remained in Kazan. In 1905 Vishnevsky went abroad to study the
methods of urologic research. His activity reached its prime (расцвет) in the period from 1923 to
1934. During this period he published more than 40 scientific papers on surgery of biliary tracts,
urinary system, thoracic cavity, neurosurgery, surgery of war injuries and abscesses. Vishnevsky
built up a concept of influence of the nervous system on inflammatory process. Thus, he created
new treatment techniques of inflammatory processes, septic lesions (поражения) and traumatic
shock. Vishnevsky’s method of anaesthesia became one of the leading for Soviet surgeons.
Observing the effect of Novocain Vishnevsky came to the conclusion that it acts not only as an
anaesthetic but also speeds up the healing process. Oil and balmy patch (Vishnevsky’s ointment),
developed in 1927, is still used to treat wounds. The combination of Novocain and oil and
balmy patch resulted in a new treatment mode of inflammatory processes in spontaneous leg
gangrene, trophic ulcers, thrombophlebitis, abscesses, carbuncles and other diseases. New
methods of anaesthesia and wound treatment, developed by Vishnevsky, played a huge role
during the Great Patriotic War. They saved the lives of many Soviet soldiers.
1. What new methods did Vishnevsky create?
2. Why was the development of ointment so important?
33. Read and translate the text.
36
BORIS PETROVSKY
Pic.25
Boris Vasilievich Petrovsky (1908 — 2004) is a famous Soviet and Russian surgeon,
scientist, clinician and public figure. He was a Minister of Health in the USSR from 1965 till
1980.
In 1930 he graduated from Moscow State University. While a student he became
interested in surgery. Petrovsky studied clinical subjects and physiology, spent a lot of time at
the anatomy theatre and performed his first operations. In 1932 he began his research activity.
Treatment of breast cancer, transfusiology method and shock were investigated by Petrovsky. In
his research work he focused on blood transfusion, especially on methods of blood injection into
the body and the influence of blood transfusion on body functions. During the World War II he
tested his theory of blood transfusion methods performing blood injections into the carotid artery
and then into the aorta. Petrovsky defended his Doctor thesis in 1947. In 1949 his thesis was
published as a monograph “Surgical treatment of vascular injuries”. In 1964 he performed the
first successful mitral valve prosthesis surgery with mechanical fixing. In 1965 he was the first to
perform human-to-human kidney transplant in the USSR.
While a Minister of Health, he implemented (осуществить) many joint (совместный)
health projects with such countries as France, Finland, USA, Great Britain, Sweden, Canada and
others. He reformed the system of medical education. It was he who introduced internship for
medical graduates.
Answer the questions:
1. What did Petrovsky investigate?
2. What methods did he develop?
34. Read and translate the text.
37
SVYATOSLAV FYODOROV
Pic.26
Svyatoslav Nikolayevich Fyodorov (1927 – 2000) was a Russian ophthalmologist, politician,
professor, full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Russian Academy of Medical
Sciences. He is considered to be a pioneer of refractive (преломляющая) surgery. Fyodorov
graduated from Rostov Medical Institute and began his career as a practicing ophthalmologist in
a small town in Rostov region. In the 1960s he studied the pioneering work of the English
ophthalmic surgeon Sir Harold Ridley, the inventor of the intraocular lens (IOL). Fyodorov
began to use Ridley's intraocular lenses in the treatment of cataract. At first he used lenses
manufactured by the Rayner company in England but then had his lenses manufactured inside
the Soviet Union. In 1973 he developed a new surgical technique to cure the early stage of
glaucoma. It is called Scleroplasty. In the 1970s he developed the surgical technique he is most
famous for — the radial keratotomy. It allowed him to change the shape of the cornea and cure
myopia. In 1986 Fyodorov designed the first posterior chamber phakic IOL (заднекамерная
интраокулярная линза) in the "collar-button" (запонка) or "mushroom" configuration and
manufactured the pIOL from silicone. In 1980 he became the head of the Moscow Research
Institute of Eye Microsurgery. In 1988 he founded the Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex.
Fyodorov was a member of the Congress of People's Deputies in 1989-1991. He was elected to
the lower house of the Russian parliament, the State Duma, in 1993 and ran for president in
1996. Returning from an academic conference in 2000, Fyodorov died in the crash of his clinic's
four-seater helicopter on the outskirts (окраина) of Moscow.
Complete the sentences according to the text:
1. Fyodorov was…
2. He is considered to be…
3. Scleroplasty is…
4. The radial keratotomy is…
5. Fyodorov designed…
38
Список источников:
1) En.wikipedia.org [Электронный ресурс]: Электронная энциклопедия. - Электрон. дан.2016.-URL: https://en.wikipedia.org - (14.11.2016).
2) En.academic.ru [Электронный ресурс]: Электронные словари и энциклопедии. Электрон. дан.-2016.-URL: http://en.academic.ru-(14.11.2016).
Иллюстрации:
Ил.1 http://polpoz.ru/umot/pervie-lyudi-na-zemle-poyavilise/
Ил.2 https://about-yoga.ru/magic/post/1412188/drevnie_egiptjane_klonirovali_ljudej/
Ил.3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates#/media/File:Hippocrates.jpg
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=164808
Ил.4
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD#/media/File:Ga
len_detail.jpg
Автор: Pierre-Roch Vigneron - [1] [2] [3] [4],
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4672199
Общественное
достояние,
Ил.5
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B1%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0
%B0#/media/File:Avicenna-miniatur.jpg
Автор: неизвестен - http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Avicenna-Miniatur.jpg, Общественное
достояние, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4925110
Ил.6
_c.png
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius#/media/File:Vesalius_Portrait_pg_xii_-
By Attributed to Jan van Calcar (circa 1499–1546/1550) - Page xii of De humani corporis fabrica
(1534 edition), showing portrait of Andreas Vesalius. Original scan of page cropped to show
portrait alone, contrasted slightly to 70 in Microsoft Photo Editor. The original book from which
the scan arises is a copy of the 1543 edition stored in the collection of the U.S. National Library
of Medicine, a division of the National Institutes of Health (NIH)., Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=425785
Ил.7
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B9,_%D0
%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC#/media/File:William_Harvey-Foto.jpg
CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1339473
39
Ил.8
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1
%80,_%D0%AD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4#/media/File:Edward_Jenner
2.jpg
Автор: Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 – 1830) - [1], Общественное достояние,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=371316
Ил.9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur#/media/File:Louis_Pasteur,_foto_av_F%C3%A9lix
_Nadar_Crisco_edit.jpg
By Nadar - File:Louis Pasteur, foto av Félix Nadar.jpg, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28039885
Ил.10
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%85,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D
0%B5%D1%80%D1%82#/media/File:Robert_Koch_BeW.jpg
Автор: неизвестен - http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B16692, Общественное достояние,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5495788
Ил.11
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister#/media/File:Joseph_Lister_1902.
jpg
By Unknown - Weltrundschau zu Reclams Universum 1902, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9647607
Ил.12
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%
B2,_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B
2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#/media/File:Nikolay_pirogov.jpg
Автор: К. Адт - Малис Ю.Г. Н.И. Пирогов - Санкт-Петербург : тип. и хромолит. П.П.
Сойкина,
1893.
URL:
http://dlib.rsl.ru/view.php?path=/rsl01003000000/rsl01003633000/rsl01003633539/rsl01003633
539.pdf#?page=2,
Общественное
достояние,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16533692
Ил.13
http://wiki.uspi.ru/index.php/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Lesgaft_743063462_tonn
el.gif.jpg
Ил.14
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B
5%D0%B2,_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_
%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1
%87#/media/File:Bulla_bekhterev_v.jpg
Автор: Карл Карлович Булла - http://www.emc.komi.com/01/12/027.htm, Общественное
достояние, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2111388
Ил.15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov#/media/File:Ivan_Pavlov_NLM3.jpg
40
By
Unknown
http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B21072,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19270394
Public
Domain,
Ил.16
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Mechnikov#/media/File:Ilya_Mechnikov_nobel.jpg
By
Unknown
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/mechnikov.html,
Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18335182
Public
Ил.17 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanovsky#/media/File:Ivanovsky.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2472759
Ил.18
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0
%B2,_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%
B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#/media/File:Sechenov.jpg
Общественное достояние, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1122668
Ил.19 http://fgou-vunmc.ru/pobeda/burdenko_nn.php
Ил.20
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0
%B2,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8
0_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%
D1%87#/media/File:Bakulev_AN.jpg
Автор: неизвестен - Сайт - http://www.rhistory.ru/Bakulev.html, Добросовестное
использование, https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2308173
Ил.21
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Barnard#/media/File:Christiaan_Barnard_1969.jpg
By Mario De Biasi (Mondadori Publishers) - http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/newsphoto/the-heart-surgeon-christiaan-barnard-sitting-on-a-sofa-next-news-photo/482266987,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=41279001
Ил.22
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0
%B3,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8
0#/media/File:Alexander_Fleming.jpg
Автор: Calibuon из английского Викиучебника - Перенесено с en.wikibooks на
Викисклад участником Adrignola при помощи CommonsHelper., Общественное достояние,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11012517
Ил.23 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner#/media/File:Karl_Landsteiner_nobel.jpg
By
The
Nobel
Foundation
Bachrach
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1930/,
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34680539
Studios
-
Ил.24 http://likrus.ru/abc_database/object/3761
41
Ил.25 https://med.wikireading.ru/52834
Ил.26 http://perta.ru/person/fedorov_svyatoslav_nikolaevich/
Обложка: «Чаша со змеей» (эмблема).
http://www.funlib.ru/img/355061/
42
Contents
Введение…………………………………………………………………………………………3
I.
Medicine in the Ancient World………………………………………………………………4
Medicine among Primitive Peoples……………………………………………………………….4
Ancient Egyptian Medicine……………………………………………………………………….4
Ancient Greek Medicine…………………………………………………………………………..5
Hippocrates — the Father of Medicine…………………………………………………………...6
The Hippocratic Oath……………………………………………………………………………..7
Ancient Roman Medicine: Galen…………………………………………………………………8
II. Medicine in the Middle Ages………………………………………………………………...9
Medicine in the Middle Ages……………………………………………………………………..9
Ibn Sina (Avicenna)……………………………………………………………………………...10
III. Medicine in the 16th Century………………………………………………………………..11
Medicine in the 16th Century…………………………………………………………………….11
Andreas Vesalius………………………………………………………………………………...12
IV. Medicine in the 17th Century………………………………………………………………..13
Medicine in the 17th Century…………………………………………………………………….13
William Harvey…………………………………………………………………………………..13
V. Medicine in the 18th Century………………………………………………………………..15
Medicine in the 18th Century…………………………………………………………………….15
Edward Jenner…………………………………………………………………………………...16
VI. Medicine in the 19th Century………………………………………………………………..17
Medicine in the 19th Century…………………………………………………………………….17
Louis Pasteur……………………………………………………………………………………..18
Robert Koch……………………………………………………………………………………...19
Joseph Lister……………………………………………………………………………………..20
Nikolay Pirogov………………………………………………………………………………….21
43
Peter Lesgaft……………………………………………………………………………………..22
Vladimir Bekhterev………………………………………………………………………………23
Ivan Pavlov……………………………………………………………………………………....24
Ilya Mechnikov…………………………………………………………………………………..26
Dmitri Ivanovsky………………………………………………………………………………..27
Ivan Michailovich Sechenov — the Founder of the Russian School of Physiology…………....28
VII. Medicine in the 20th Century………………………………………………………………..29
Medicine in the 20th Century…………………………………………………………………….29
Nikolay Burdenko………………………………………………………………………………..30
Aleksandr Bakulev……………………………………………………………………………….31
Christiaan Barnard……………………………………………………………………………….32
Alexander Fleming………………………………………………………………………………33
Karl Landsteiner…………………………………………………………………………………34
Aleksandr Vishnevsky…………………………………………………………………………...35
Boris Petrovsky…………………………………………………………………………………..36
Svyatoslav Fyodorov…………………………………………………………………………….37
Список источников…………………………………………………………………………….39
44