Long-term effects of discharges to sea
from petroleum-related activities
The results of ten years’ research
Program
The Oceans and Coastal Areas
Long-term effects of discharges to sea
from petroleum-related activities
The results of ten years' research
A sub-programme under the Oceans and Coastal Areas (Havkyst)
programme, PROOFNY, and the concluded PROOF research programme
© Research Council of Norway 2012
Research Council of Norway
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NO-0131 Oslo
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Translation: Allegro Language Services/Douglas Ferguson
Graphic design, cover: Jentestreker AS
Photo/ cover illustration: Vidar Vassvik (profile photo),
Kristin Stand By and Shutterstock
Oslo, February 2012
ISBN 978-82-12-03027-5 (pdf)
2
Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 7
2. Discharges of produced water ................................................................................................ 8
2.1 What is produced water? .............................................................................................. 8
2.2 Measuring produced water components in water and organisms ................................ 9
2.3 Biological effects of produced water.......................................................................... 11
3. Discharges from drilling activities ....................................................................................... 14
3.1 Description of the discharges ..................................................................................... 14
3.2. Environmental impacts of today's water-based discharges ....................................... 16
3.3. Discharges of cuttings in deep waters ....................................................................... 19
3.4. Environmental impacts of old cuttings piles ............................................................. 19
4. Discharges of oil................................................................................................................... 21
5. Effects of discharges from the petroleum industry in the Arctic ......................................... 21
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 21
5.1. The significance of temperature ............................................................................... 22
5.3. The significance of light............................................................................................ 22
5.4. Sensitivity in key Arctic species ............................................................................... 23
5.5. Effects of drilling discharges in the Arctic................................................................ 23
5.6. Will the effects of discharges in the Arctic be different than further south? ............ 24
6. Ecological long-term effects and risk assessment................................................................ 25
7. Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 27
7.1. Knowledge gain, operational discharges................................................................... 27
7.2 Knowledge gain, effects in the Arctic ........................................................................ 29
8. References ............................................................................................................................ 31
9. List of projects under PROOF and PROOFNY ................................................................... 38
3
Preface
Discharges of produced water are the source that leads to the introduction of the greatest
amount of oil and a number of other chemicals into the sea. Ten years' research into the longterm effects of discharges to the sea from petroleum-related activities shows that components
of produced water can have a number of negative effects on the health, functions and
reproduction of fish and invertebrates. The main impression is nonetheless that the risk of
long-term environmental harm as a result of these discharges is moderate.
The research in the projects that have been presented has contributed to improved models for
environmental monitoring. On the Norwegian continental shelf, monitoring has reduced
concerns about previous deposits of oil-polluted waste (cuttings) on the seabed around oil
installations. Experiments have shown that the cuttings that are discharged today are cleaner,
but that they nonetheless can have serious effects on exposed organisms.
The ecosystem in the Barents Sea differs from areas further south on the continental shelf.
The temperature is lower, light conditions are different and there is ice. More knowledge has
been gained about how discharges from the petroleum industry affect Arctic organisms.
Research results show that there are only small differences between the sensitivity of Arctic
and temperate marine organisms to oil-related pollution. At the same time, however, it is
important to be aware that factors such as discharge conditions, climate, ecological seasonal
variations and the distribution of populations in time and space can also have a bearing on
whether the Arctic ecosystem reacts to discharges in the same way as temperate ecosystems.
The last of the four topics addressed in the report is research on the effects of drilling
discharges.
The goal of the programme 'Long-term effects of discharges to sea from petroleum-related
activities' is to increase our knowledge about the long-term effects of discharges from
offshore activity. This knowledge is necessary if the authorities are to be able to control the
development of the oil and gas activities and coordinate exploitation of the resources. It is an
important consideration that the overall impact on the marine environment must not have
serious consequences for marine organisms. This report will be an important contribution to
understanding the impact of offshore activity on the marine environment and avoiding
significant negative effects.
The research programme 'Long-term effects of discharges to sea from petroleum-related
activities (PROOF)' was initiated in autumn 2002, and it has been continued as a separate subprogramme, PROOFNY, in Oceans and Coastal Areas. The sub-programme is funded by the
Norwegian Oil Industry Association (OLF), the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy and the
Ministry of the Environment.
The report has been written for the Research Council of Norway by Torgeir Bakke, the
Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Jarle Klungsøyr, the Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research and Steinar Sanni, International Research Institute of Stavanger AS (IRIS).
Oslo, February 2012
Fridtjof Unander,
Executive Director, Division for Energy, Resources and the Environment
4
Summary
The main goal of PROOF and PROOFNY has been to clarify whether operational and
unintended discharges from petroleum-related activity result in long-term, negative impacts
on the marine ecosystem. Until 2011, the programme comprised 65 projects and resulted in
around 110 publications and reports. Discharges of produced water give greatest cause for
concern, because they are the source that leads to the introduction of the greatest amount of
oil and a number of other chemicals into the sea. PROOFNY has shown that components of
produced water can cause a number of negative effects that have consequences for the health,
functions and reproduction of individual fish and invertebrates. Particular emphasis has been
placed on studying possible endocrine effects, but other types of effects, such as genetic
disturbance, oxidative stress, growth and reproduction, have also been investigated. The
programme has developed new and improved methods for measuring biological responses.
One continuing challenge is that the ecological significance of these responses will remain
unclarified as long as they cannot with confidence be linked to consequences for populations
and communities. Molecular-biological patterns of, for example, genes, proteins and other
vital groups of substances have the potential to shed light on such links, but the development
of methods is still in its infancy. The main impression from PROOFNY is nonetheless that the
risk of long-term environmental harm as a result of discharges is moderate.
PROOFNY has contributed to the development of better models for linking sensitivity at
biomarker level and species level and for linking effects on individual species to populations
and communities. This work is far from concluded. While such models are useful, they can in
any case only show a link between cause and effect based on probability and average
conditions. The big challenge lies in assessing how well the models describe the real world
and whether the deviations from the registered links are so great, frequent and random that
they overshadow the conclusions from the models.
Environmental monitoring of the Norwegian continental shelf has reduced concerns about the
harmful effects of previous deposits of oil-polluted waste (cuttings) from drilling activity on
the seabed around oil installations. Damage has been found in haddock that can be linked to
discharges near older oilfields in the North Sea, but it is unclear whether this is due to contact
with cuttings or to produced water. Experiments conducted as part of PROOFNY have shown
that the much cleaner cuttings that are discharged today can also have effects that are serious
for the individuals exposed to them, but the experiments have also served to substantiate that
the effects are limited in time and space. This accords with the experience from the
environmental monitoring. The risk that today's discharges of cuttings can have weak longterm effects cannot be completely eliminated, however. There is a great need for information
about the effects of discharges of cuttings on coral reefs and sponge communities in colder
waters and deeper waters. This is a topic in some of the later PROOFNY projects, but few
results have been reported so far. It has been shown that deep-water corals can tolerate
smothering to a certain extent, whether from natural mineral particles or from cuttings. In
practice, we know nothing about the effects on sponges.
PROOFNY has improved our knowledge about how discharges from the petroleum industry
affect Arctic marine organisms. Differences in vulnerability to discharges have been found
between Arctic and temperate species, but these differences are small and go in both
directions. There is nothing to indicate that Arctic organisms are more vulnerable than similar
organisms elsewhere on the continental shelf. However, the vulnerability of individual species
is just one of the factors that decide whether the Arctic ecosystem reacts to discharges in the
5
same way as temperate ecosystems. Vulnerability is overshadowed by factors such as
discharge conditions, climate, ecological seasonal variation and the distribution of populations
in time and space. There is a strong need for research that can shed light on the importance of
these factors in relation to the total ecological vulnerability to oil and other discharges from
petroleum-related activities in the Arctic.
There is still great uncertainty concerning whether effects on individuals and communities in
the close vicinity of discharges have ripple effects on larger areas, populations and
communities. In principle, it will only be possible to substantiate, but never prove with
certainty, that long-term ecological effects will not arise. Better knowledge about effects on
individuals is hardly sufficient to predict effects at a higher level, since the consequences for
populations and communities will probably be governed to a far greater extent by season,
populations' distribution in time and space and oceanographic factors than by the health of the
exposed individuals. The importance of large-scale factors has been little studied, but even
though we learn more about their importance, the possibility of predicting consequences of a
discharge will also be contingent on predictable variations.
6
1. Introduction
'Long-term effects of discharges to sea from petroleum-related activity' is a sub-programme of
the Research Council of Norway's Oceans and Coastal Areas programme. The subprogramme was started as a separate research programme in 2002 (PROOF) and it has been
continued as the sub-programme Oceans and Coastal Areas – PROOFNY. PROOF and
PROOFNY (hereinafter referred to as PROOFNY) are funded by the Norwegian Oil Industry
Association (OLF), the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy and the Ministry of the
Environment.
The objective of PROOFNY is to increase knowledge about how discharges from petroleumrelated activities can impact on the marine environment in the long term. By this is meant
effects that span more than a generation or that lead to a long-term negative change in
communities or ecosystems. Studying the connection between effects on individuals and
effects on populations and ecosystems has been a consistent challenge. PROOFNY has
prioritised the following issues:

Long-term effects of operational discharges from production and drilling

Arctic organisms' sensitivity to discharges of oil and chemicals from the petroleum
industry, with particular emphasis on ice-covered waters

The development of new and improved methods for environmental monitoring and
early warning of effects

The effects of acute discharges of oil, with particular emphasis on the water column,
shore zone and ice-filled waters.
Until 2011, PROOFNY comprised 65 projects and resulted in around 110 publications and
reports. The bulk of the projects have concerned operational discharges, primarily of
produced water. Monitoring and surveys have shown that such discharges are very quickly
diluted to concentrations that are below the limit for biological effects. It has therefore been a
goal to develop methods that can detect and quantify low concentrations of discharged
substances in water and organisms, and methods for detecting possible effects of such
concentrations.
Studies of the effects of drilling activity have covered the effects of the current discharge
practice on ecology and organisms in water and sediment, and the significance of waste
deposits on the seabed from previous drilling discharges.
7
As a result of the northward expansion of petroleum-related activities, we need to learn more
about how discharges from the petroleum industry could impact on the marine ecosystem in
the Arctic. This is an important topic in PROOFNY. The projects deal with the mineralisation,
biodegradation and change in the toxicity of oil at low temperatures and investigate species'
vulnerability to oil and other discharges under Arctic conditions. It has also been important to
assess the validity of applying existing knowledge from temperate areas to Arctic conditions.
The Research Council has commissioned a scholarly summary article that describes the
results of PROOFNY and evaluates them in relation to the programme's objective (Bakke et
al. 2011 submitted). It is based on the scholarly articles and reports produced so far and on
status reports submitted to the Research Council. The Research Council has also deemed it
necessary to produce a popular science summary of the programme's diverse projects and
results. This report endeavours to provide such a presentation.
2. Discharges of produced water
2.1 What is produced water?
Produced water is water that accompanies oil and gas from the reservoir. It consists of natural
water from the formations and water that has been injected to increase recovery. Produced
water is complex and can contain several thousand different compounds. Typically, it
contains dispersed oil, monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
alkylphenols (AP), heavy metals, naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), organic
substances, organic acids, inorganic salts, mineral particles, sulphur and sulphides. In
addition, accompanying injected water can contain different chemical additives, for example
to prevent the growth of bacteria, corrosion and the formation of emulsion, stimulate
flocculation and bind oxygen. Neff et al. (2011) provide a good description of the typical
composition of produced water. The amount and composition of produced water can vary a
great deal from field to field and over a field's lifetime. A number of the substances are toxic
to a greater or lesser extent. The OSPAR Commission and the Norwegian authorities set
requirements for the use of environmentally friendly chemical additives (PLONOR, 'yellow'
and 'green' chemicals), but exact discharge limits have only been set for the content of oil (<
30 mg/l).
8
The total discharges of produced water on the Norwegian continental shelf reached a peak
around 2007, and in 2011, they were 131 million m3 (OLF 2011 and Figure 1). According to
the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate's forecasts (Facts 2011), water production and
discharges are expected to increase in the period up until 2015.
The levels and effects of produced water have been monitored on selected fields in the past 10
to 15 years (Sundt et al. 2008, Brooks et al. 2009). Through several projects, PROOFNY has
contributed to the development of methods that have been incorporated in the monitoring. So
far, the monitoring has shown that the effects are limited to an area within approximately one
to two kilometres of the discharges (Brooks et al. 2011).
Figure 1. Discharges and injection of produced water on the Norwegian continental shelf 1997 – 2010.
(Source: OLF 2011).
2.2 Measuring produced water components in water and organisms
It is necessary to use advanced chemical analysis methods in order to determine the content of
chemical substances in reasonably good detail. PAH and alkylphenols have received most
attention because of their prevalence and known toxic effects. Produced water is quickly
diluted after discharge, so that the levels of PAH and alkylphenols often go from ng/l to pg/l
in sea water. Methods have been developed through the use of passive sampling devices
(SPMD, POCIS) that absorb and enrich substances from the water masses over time to levels
that it is possible to measure (Boitsov et al. 2004, 2007, Harman et al. 2008a, b, 2009, 2010,
2011). One of the important conclusions from these projects is that different types of passive
sampling devices must be used for non-polar substances such as PAH and polar substances
such as alkylphenols.
9
Many different methods have been developed over the years for analysing PAH in biological
material. The methods, which often make use of chromatography (GC/MS or HPLC), are
selective and sufficiently sensitive to calculate the content of individual components in, for
example, the muscle and livers of fish. A method has been developed in PROOFNY for the
measurement of alkylphenols in biological material. It includes extraction with
dichloromethane, the removal of fat from the extracts, derivatisation and analysis on GC/MS
(Meier et al. 2005). This method enables highly sensitive measurements to be made of the
meta-substituted and para-substituted alkylphenols, but it is less suitable for the orthosubstituted alkylphenols (see, for example, Boitsov et al. 2007).
Fish have a great ability to break down and excrete substances such as PAH and alkylphenols,
but products of the biodegradation process can be detected in bile fluid. As part of
PROOFNY, GC/MS-based methods have been further developed to analyse bile metabolites,
so that it is now also possible to detect metabolites of PAH and alkylphenols in wild fish
(Jonsson et al. 2008a, b, Brooks et al. 2004, 2009, Harman et al. 2009a, Sundt et al. 2009a, b).
The methods have been used both in experimental studies and in the monitoring of areas
around oil installations.
A few alternative methods to advanced and expensive chemical analyses of bile metabolites
have also been tested. The principle is based on creating electrochemical sensors that can
measure PAH metabolites with affinity to a DNA coating (Lucarelli et al. 2003, Bagni et al.
2005). A corresponding electronic sensor for the registration of alkylphenol metabolites is
also under development (Bulukin et al. 2006). The goal is to make it possible to use such
methods for a quick and cheap test that shows whether a sample contains metabolites of PAH
and alkylphenols. Some methodological challenges concerning selectivity and sensitivity
remain to be solved.
Several studies have been carried out to investigate what determines the absorption,
conversion and excretion in fish of substances from produced water. Experiments have been
conducted with substances administered via both sea water and food. A strong connection has
been found between the level of PAH and alkylphenols in sea water, the substances' affinity to
fat and the levels of bile metabolites in cod (Grung et al. 2009). The connection was less clear
for volatile compounds and for PAH and alkylphenols in food. In an experiment with
radioactively marked alkylphenols, it was found that the concentration in bile was ten times
higher when the alkylphenols were administered in water than when they were administered
10
in food (Sundt et al. 2009a). Several studies have shown that alkylphenols are easily absorbed
by fish, but also that they are excreted via bile over a period of hours or a few days. Adult fish
excrete PAH effectively through bile over a period of days to weeks. Cod eggs, larvae and fry
also effectively absorb alkylphenols from produced water (Meier et al. 2010). It has been
shown that the earliest life stages (eggs and larvae) have less capacity to metabolise and
excrete the short-chain alkylphenols than juvenile and adult fish.
2.3 Biological effects of produced water
Concern has been greatest about the effects on the reproductive ability of fish, particularly the
effects of alkylphenols. Alkylphenols have been shown to have oestrogen-like effects on fish
that, in turn, can manifest themselves in interference with gonad development and the
production of eggs and sperm. Some PROOFNY projects have emphasised effects of this
kind. Tollefsen et al. (2007) and Tollefsen and Nilsen (2008) found that, for rainbow trout,
alkylphenols bonded effectively with proteins that normally bind steroids, and that
alkylphenols and other substances in produced water may therefore have a sex hormonemimicking effect, even at levels as low as realistic concentrations in sea water. Tollefsen et
al. (2011) showed that complex mixtures of oil-related substances affected the reproductive
physiology of cod, while typical health indicators such as condition index and relative gonad
and liver weight were not affected. Several other surveys support these results, showing that
substances in produced water can interfere with sexual development and reproduction in fish
(Meier 2007, Tollefsen et al. 2007, Thomas et al. 2009, Meier et al. 2011, Sundt & Bjorkblom
2011). The concentrations that have produced effects are normally only found in water masses
nearer than a few kilometres from discharge sites. Meier et al. (2010) concluded that
extensive and long-term reproductive effects of produced water on fish are not very probable.
PROOFNY has shown that produced water can also have a number of other effects. Cod that
were given feed with alkylphenols showed clear signs of oxidative stress after one week
(Hasselberg et al. 2004a, b). There were also signs that alkylphenols inhibited CYP1A and
CYP3A enzyme activity in male fish after four weeks. This enzyme system is the fish's first
line of defence against alien substances. In other projects, it has been found that produced
water can also stimulate the same enzyme activity in cod (for example Abrahamson 2008,
Meier et al. 2010, Jonsson & Björkblom 2011, Sundt et al. 2011). The fact that substances in
produced water can both inhibit and stimulate the same enzyme system makes it difficult to
11
interpret responses found in the environmental monitoring of produced water. Oxidative stress
and cell death have been found in experiments with liver cells from rainbow trout exposed to
water-dissolved fractions and drops of oil from 10 different types of produced water (Farmen
et al. 2010). However, the levels required to cause oxidative stress were several orders of
magnitude higher than typical levels in the sea around discharge sites. Tollefsen et al. (2008)
concluded that liver cell death in rainbow trout caused by alkylphenols was probably due to
the impact on the cells' metabolism. Holth et al. (2010, 2011) found that the long-term
exposure of cod to a simulation of produced water containing phenol, alkylphenols and PAH
resulted in changes in the genes that govern detoxification, the immune system, cells' selfdestruction (apoptosis) and oxidative stress. Neither survival nor general health parameters
such as condition index, relative gonad and liver weight and haematocrit were affected. Meier
et al. (2010) found that newly hatched cod larvae exposed to 0.1% and 1% produced water
died as a result of losing their ability to absorb nutrition. Genetic damage in the form of an
increase in DNA adducts and the occurrence of micronuclei have been found in experiments
on cod exposed to oil and alkylphenols (Holth et al. 2009) and in wild haddock from the
Tampen area in the North Sea, where petroleum-related activity is very high (Grøsvik et al.
2010, Balk et al. 2011). Alkylphenols in food have also been found to increase the proportion
of saturated fatty acids and reduce the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the livers of
cod (Meier et al. 2007). Grøsvik et al. (unpublished) found a corresponding change in the
fatty acid composition of wild-caught haddock from the Tampen area.
PROOFNY has also documented effects on invertebrates of PAH and other oil components
that are common in produced water. Baussant et al. (2011) confirmed previous findings by
Lowe and Pipe (1987) that dispersed oil can prevent egg development in mussels and actually
lead to the eggs being broken down for other metabolic purposes. Baussant et al. (2011) found
that oil also caused DNA damage in mussel larvae after hatching.
The PROOFNY projects have thus shown that produced water can give rise to a number of
effects in fish and other marine animals. Several of the effects are natural reactions to
chemical stress and should not have negative effects as long as the capacity to withstand such
stress is not exceeded. Other effects show more fundamental biological changes, such as cell
death, genetic change, DNA damage, a change in fatty acid composition and interference with
reproduction. It is a common denominator for all these surveys that the effects were detected
at a dilution of produced water of 0.1 – 1% or higher. This is a dilution that is found very
12
close to the discharge source. Available measurement results from fields have usually also
given indications that the effects are local. Effects have also been found in haddock from the
Tampen area caught at greater distances from the discharge sources, but these are probably
persistent effects of local exposure, not effects of low exposure in a wider area.
One important goal of PROOFNY has been to increase our understanding of the mechanisms
behind the effects found. This has motivated surveys of what are known as '-omics' responses,
i.e. how the whole pattern of important groups of substances in cells and tissue is affected.
They can be genes (genomes), RNA (transcription), proteins (proteomes) or the total content
of certain metabolites (metabolomes). While the development of '-omics' methods is still in its
infancy and we have little experience of interpreting the patterns, it is expected that this type
of mapping could increase our understanding of effect mechanisms at the individual level and
lead to the identification of 'signal' molecules or molecule patterns that are both sensitive and
regulate important biological functions. Thus, '-omics' patterns have a clear potential in
relation to monitoring effects on natural organisms around discharge sites. Projects under
PROOFNY (Bohne-Kjersem et al. 2009, 2010, Karlsen et al. 2011, Nilsen et al. 2011a, b)
have shown that crude oil, 'artificial' produced water and alkylphenols can lead to clear
changes in the protein profile of eggs, larvae and juveniles of cod. These are proteins that
regulate the immune system, fertility, skeletal and muscular development, eye development,
fatty acid conversion, cell mobility, apoptosis and other vital functions. In an ongoing project
(Karlsen et al. 2011), the aim is to increase our understanding of cod's genome responses to
produced water by linking data from proteome and transcriptome analyses to ongoing work
on gene sequencing for cod (www.codgenome.no).
In order to understand how produced water can influence the pelagic production system, it is
important to be aware of the effects on zooplankton. So far, the methods used to study this
have been unreliable. Several PROOFNY projects have studied gene transcription and other
molecular responses in Calanus finmarchicus and a closely related species of copepod in a
project covering several generations (Hansen et al. 2007, 2008a, b, 2009, 2010, 2011). They
have found that dispersed oil, the PAH compound naphthalene and copper can modify genes
involved in processes such as nutrient absorption, shell replacement, the storage and
conversion of fat, protein and amino acid metabolism, as well as defence mechanisms against
toxicity and oxidative stress. The method therefore has a clear potential in relation to the
monitoring of effects around produced water discharge sites.
13
3. Discharges from drilling activities
3.1 Description of the discharges
The biggest operational discharges from petroleum-related activities besides produced water
are discharges from the drilling of wells. These discharges consist of crushed material from
the borehole (cuttings) together with chemicals used during the drilling. Drilling fluid (drilling
mud) is constantly added during drilling. Its function is to lubricate the drill bit, stabilise the
well pressure and the well walls and transport cuttings up from the borehole. Its main
components are a base fluid, either water or oil, and a weight material, often barite (barium
sulphate). The weight material can contain traces of various heavy metals. A large number of
chemicals are also added in order to give the drilling fluid the desired technical properties.
During the period 1996 to 2006, approximately 125 wells were drilled per year on the
Norwegian continental shelf (Figure 2). The typical amount of cuttings produced during the
drilling of a well is approx. 1,000 tonnes, somewhat less since the year 2000.
Number of Accute Spills Discharged to Sea
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Region 1
Region 2
Region 3
Region 5
Region 6
Region 9
2003
2004
2005
2006
Region 4
Figure 2. Exploration and production wells drilled in different regions (see Figure 3) on the Norwegian
continental shelf 1996-2006 (DNV 2007).
14
Figure 3. The division of the Norwegian continental shelf into regions for environmental monitoring.
Until 1993, substantial amounts of cuttings were discharged together with residues of both
water-based and oil-based drilling mud, and discharges of cuttings containing oil were the
most important source of operational oil discharges from the petroleum industry. With effect
from 1993, discharges of cuttings containing more than 1% oil were prohibited for
15
environmental reasons. For a period, oil-based base fluid was replaced by other organic fluids
such as esters, ethers and olefines, but operational discharges of cuttings with residues of oil
or synthetic base fluids ceased around 1995. In practice, operational discharges today only
take place from drilling using water-based drilling fluid. All cuttings containing oil in excess
of one per cent by weight must either be reinjected or taken ashore for treatment. However,
the extensive discharges of oil-based cuttings in the 1980s and 1990s resulted in large waste
deposits of polluted drilling cuttings that have accumulated beneath and around the platforms.
The biggest cuttings piles are more than 25 metres high, have a volume of approx. 45,000 m3
and cover more than 20,000 m2 of the seabed. Environmental monitoring of the seabed
around these deposits has shown that the reduction of oil in the sediment and the recovery of
the benthic fauna have been rapid now that the discharges no longer contain oil, even though
the old, polluted cuttings piles still exist. Today, it is rare to find effects on fauna more than
500 metres from the installations.
3.2. Environmental impacts of today's water-based discharges
Monitoring has shown a clear environmental improvement on the Norwegian continental shelf
since it only became permitted to discharge cuttings from water-based drilling. The discharges
of cuttings containing water-based drilling fluid are large and persistent, however. A number
of substances are added to the drilling fluid for it to function satisfactorily. This can, for
example, be in order to change its viscosity, to prevent scaling or the loss of drilling fluid to
the bedrock and to lubricate the drill string and drill bit. Even though these additives are
primarily 'green and yellow' chemicals that, in principle, do not have inherent environmentally
harmful properties, and even though the environmental monitoring has not found effects of
water-based cuttings on benthic fauna at a distance of more than 250 metres from the drilling
installations, it is still uncertain whether the discharges can have undesirable effects over a
prolonged period. It has been the goal of a number of PROOFNY projects to map the effects
of today's water-based drilling fluid and cuttings based on controlled experiments. Schaanning
et al. (2008) and Trannum et al. (2010) allowed cuttings from water-based drilling to sediment
in millimetre-thin layers on 'natural' sediment communities imported into a laboratory
(mesocosms). They found that the cuttings increased the consumption of oxygen and nitrate
in the sediments, an effect that in some cases persisted for more than six months. This
indicates that the drilling mud contained easily biodegradable organic material, most probably
16
glycol. They also found that the cuttings that settled on the bottom reduced the abundance of
certain sensitive animal species in the sediment even though no species disappeared
completely. The cuttings also had a weak effect on recruitment to benthic fauna (Trannum et
al. 2011). The main reason for the biological effects appeared to be a reduction in oxygen
because of the biodegradation, although there were also indications that toxicity could have
played a part. Smothering or the form and size of the cuttings particles seemed to be of little
significance. The effects appeared when the layer of cuttings became more than approx. 10
mm thick. This is normally only the case less than approx. 250 metres from a discharge site
(Trannum 2011). The results do not give grounds to expect effects at greater distances, but the
experiments have not covered exposure periods longer than a few months. Nor have the
experiments covered repeated cuttings sedimentation over time, which would be typical in
connection with production drilling on an installation. Cumulative effects in a greater area
cannot therefore be ruled out, but, if such effects were to be significant in relation to the
composition of fauna and community structure, they would very probably have been detected
by the environmental monitoring.
Previous surveys have shown that water-based drilling fluid in a suspended state can cause
damage to gills and influence nutrition physiology among filtering mussels. These studies
have been followed up in PROOFNY (Bechmann et al. 2006). Suspensions of barite-based
drilling fluid over 0.5 mg/l caused gill damage in juvenile cod. Suspensions of approx. 40
mg/l led to a reduced condition factor after three weeks' exposure. Strangely enough, cod
larvae exposed to suspensions of 1-10 mg/l showed an increase in food uptake, growth and
survival. One possible explanation was that the presence of mud particles in the water
stimulated the eating reaction among the larvae. They also found that suspensions of the
weight material barite stimulated growth in pelagic larvae of blue mussels, while
corresponding suspensions of cuttings containing barite resulted in reduced food uptake and
growth. Reduced growth was assumed to take place because the size of the cuttings particles
suited the larvae. This led to a large intake of particles without nutritional value. The barite
particles did not have a corresponding effect because they were too big to be eaten, although
this does not explain why growth was actually stimulated. Suspended drilling fluid in
concentrations down to 0.5 mg/l affected a number of anatomical, biochemical, physiological
and genetic biomarkers in blue mussels and scallops. The effects were weak, but for the most
part unequivocal. Corresponding effects have also been found on blue mussels and scallops
17
placed in cages approx. 250 metres from an ordinary drilling discharge with an estimated
average concentration of suspended drilling fluid/cuttings of 0.15 mg/l (Berland et al. 2006).
This is a little lower than the lowest concentrations that produced an effect in the laboratory.
It has previously been found that the bioavailability of heavy metals in barite is low (Neff
2008, Pettersen and Hertwich 2008), but Bechmann et al. (2006) showed that blue mussels,
scallops and cod all accumulated metals after three weeks' exposure to suspended used
drilling fluid. After three weeks in clean water, they still had elevated levels of lead,
chromium and mercury, which shows that these metals were absorbed and were not just
present as particles in the intestines. Barium had returned to its normal level, and it had
probably accompanied the particles in faeces. Hannam et al. (poster SETAC) showed that 14
weeks' exposure to 4 mg/l of suspended drilling fluid led to the accumulation of metals and
physiological damage in scallops. The biological functions were normal after four weeks in
clean water, while an elevated metal content persisted. The results indicate that the effects of
the drilling fluid are due to physical stress, not metal toxicity. These experiments demonstrate
that heavy metals in barite are bioavailable, but they do not tell us anything about how quickly
the organisms absorb the metals. Since typical levels of naturally suspended materials in the
North Sea are from 0.2 mg/l to 0.4 mg/l, it is not very probable that an additional 0.15 mg/l of
suspended particles will have measurable physical effects on plankton organisms drifting past.
It is even less probable that physical stress will have cumulative effects in the water column,
because the same water mass is unlikely to be exposed to repeated discharges of cuttings. The
selected exposure times were very much longer than that. It is therefore reasonable to
conclude that suspended drilling fluid and cuttings after discharges can only have local and
short-lived effects on animals in the water masses.
Based on the PROOFNY results, the conclusion can be drawn that water-based drilling fluid
and cuttings can have biological effects both when suspended in the water masses and after
sedimentation. The effects appear to primarily be the result of physical stress, but oxygen
reduction in the sediment and chemical toxicity can also play a role. The cuttings suspensions
that have produced effects will normally only occur in water that is maximum one to two
kilometres from the discharges, while the thickness of the cuttings layers that have produced
effects on benthic fauna is normally limited to areas nearer than approx. 250 metres.
18
3.3. Discharges of cuttings in deep waters
The expansion of petroleum activities to deeper waters has given rise to concern about
damage to cold-water corals and sponges and the species-rich communities they generate.
Shallow-water corals in tropical/subtropical regions are vulnerable to smothering, and there is
therefore concern that discharges of cuttings could lead to smothering and damage to deepwater coral reefs along the edge of the continental shelf. This issue has been addressed in
some newly started PROOFNY projects, but no results are available as yet. In another project
((Larsson and Purser 2011), the coral species Lophelia pertusa, which forms the deep-water
reefs, was exposed to repeated sedimentation of natural seabed sediment and water-based
drilling cuttings. The corals were capable of removing smothering of 6 mm, but not 19 mm.
The authors conclude that, where the sediment remained lying on the coral, the tissue
underneath would die. There was no difference in the effect of drilling cuttings and natural
sediment. The results indicate that Lophelia is not particularly sensitive to sedimentation from
cuttings, and this is in line with the many findings of cold-water corals on oil installations,
where discharges of several types of cuttings have taken place over many years.
Environmental monitoring on the Morvin field in 2009 and 2010 concluded that current
conditions, but not the load from cuttings, affected the behaviour of local deep-water corals
(Buhl-Mortensen et al. 2010). However, we know nothing about whether other species that
are present on the rich deep-water reefs tolerate cuttings sedimentation, nor about the
vulnerability of sponges.
3.4. Environmental impacts of old cuttings piles
When PROOF started, there was still great concern that leakage and erosion would spread
pollution from old cuttings piles. Annual monitoring showed that, at worst, the sediments
were polluted by oil from drilling fluid as far as seven kilometres downstream of where the
discharges of cuttings containing oil had taken place. Effects on benthic fauna were also
found up to three to four kilometres away. Relatively rapid chemical and biological recovery
have been observed since these discharges were stopped in 1993, but the old cuttings piles
will continue to be a source of local pollution for many years.
Under PROOFNY, Leung et al. (2005), Bjorgesaeter and Gray (2008), and Bjørgesæter
(2009) have used data from many years' environmental monitoring around the cuttings piles
19
to generate species sensitivity distribution curves (SSD1) for benthic fauna in relation to
barium, cadmium and PAH. They used physical, chemical and biological data from approx.
1,000 fixed sediment stations collected in a joint database (MOD) that is publicly accessible.
Based on the SSD curves, they have calculated a threshold value for each substance that
protects 95% of all the species in the benthic communities. SSD curves are normally
generated from toxicity tests, and they therefore only cover the limited number of species
included in the tests. The SSD curves in the PROOFNY projects are based on the sensitivity
of 240 to 615 species of benthic fauna in their natural habitat around the platforms. The
calculated threshold values for effects of metals and PAH are in line with the threshold values
used by the oil industry in their risk-based management of drilling chemicals (ERMS; Altin et
al. 2008), but more stringent than the Norwegian environmental quality standard for
sediments based on toxicity tests. For example, the threshold value for cadmium was 33 times
more stringent and for PAF eight times more stringent than the Norwegian national threshold
values. Part of the reason for this systematic difference is that the national threshold values
apply to each substance separately, while the threshold values derived from the MOD
database reflect the effects of each substance when all the pollutants from drilling discharges
are present. Strictly speaking, the threshold values are therefore only valid for the sediment
fauna on the fields that are included in the SSD curves. However, a preliminary review of
recent sediment data from 14 Norwegian petroleum installations indicates that the threshold
values are also sufficiently conservative to protect sediment fauna around other installations.
1
Species sensitivity distributions
20
4. Discharges of oil
Several of the PROOFNY projects have studied mineralisation and effects of oil from acute
discharges. Oil contains a complex and unknown mix of components that are partly
hydrocarbons and partly hydrocarbon-like molecules with elements of oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur. Biodegradation contributes to this complexity through the formation of
biodegradation products. Many of the substances are difficult to identify and quantify since
they cannot be separated from each other using normal gas chromatography. The
chromatographs only result in an unresolved complex mixture (UCM) that contains many
substances. One PROOFNY project (Melbye et al. 2009) has developed a method for splitting
the UCM into fractions and then testing each of the fractions for toxicity. Using liquid
chromatography (HPLC), 16 fractions of substances were obtained, with gradually increasing
polarity (and water solubility). These fractions were chemically analysed using the latest and
most advanced analysis technology (GC-FID, GC/MS and GCxGC-ToF-MS). This confirmed
that a UCM contains several thousand compounds and that it is impossible in practice to
identify them all. Toxicity tests also showed a high toxicity potential in several of the UCM
fractions, highest in one of the most polar fractions characterised by a large number of
saturated and unsaturated aromatic sulfoxides. The toxicity of the fractions was positively
correlated with the amount of material in each fraction. The fact that the polar fractions
contributed strongly to the toxicity of the oil was therefore due to them also being the most
water-soluble fractions.
5. Effects of discharges from the petroleum industry in the
Arctic
5.1 Introduction
An important topic in PROOFNY has been how discharges from the petroleum industry
might affect the marine ecosystem in the Arctic. Oil recovery in the south-western part of the
Barents Sea is under way, and new big discoveries have been made, not least since the
clarification of the demarcation line with Russia has made it increasingly relevant to also
think of recovery further east and in the high Arctic region. Particularly in the northern part of
21
the Barents Sea, the ecosystem differs in several ways from areas further south on the
continental shelf, and questions have been raised about how far our experience and
knowledge of operational and unintended discharges from petroleum activities in the North
Sea and on the Halten Bank can be used to predict possible effects under Arctic conditions.
Several of the PROOFNY projects have provided direct or indirect information that puts us in
a better position to assess this.
5.1. The significance of temperature
Skadsheim et al. (2009) compared hydrocarbon accumulation, enzymatic and genotoxic
biomarkers in cod from the North Sea and the Barents Sea exposed to crude oil. Cod from the
North Sea were exposed to North Sea oil at 10 oC. Cod from the Barents Sea were exposed to
oil from the Barents Sea at 4 oC. The metabolisation of PAH and detoxification activity
(CYP1A) were somewhat lower in the Barents cod, but the response pattern was by and large
the same. Johnsson and Bjørkblom (2011) carried out corresponding experiments on adults
and larvae of a number of fish species that are found in both temperate and polar areas. The
response pattern in adult fish was the same in all species, although it varied somewhat in
intensity. The levels of hydrocarbons that triggered effects in larvae (1.5 – 5 µg/l measured as
PAH) were in line with those found in other surveys, i.e. the sensitivity was not systematically
different under sub-Arctic compared with temperate conditions.
Hansen et al. (2011) investigated the effects of biodegraded crude oil on two closely related
species of copepods, the temperate Calanus finnmarchicus kept at 10 oC and the high Arctic
C. glacialis at 2 °C. C. glacialis was somewhat less sensitive to oil than C. finnmarchicus, but
the difference was small. Toxic effects and mortality occurred a little later in the high Arctic
species, and animals with the highest lipid content survived longest. Bechmann et al. (2010)
also found lower mortality and slower growth in prawn larvae when they were exposed to oil
from the Barents Sea at 5 oC than when exposed to North Sea oil at 10 oC. These studies
indicate that sensitivity to oil may be somewhat less under Arctic conditions and in Arctic
organisms than in marine organisms further south.
5.3. The significance of light
Many previous surveys have shown that light, and particularly UV light, increases both the
biodegradation and toxicity of oil on the surface of the sea. It is therefore conceivable that the
22
toxicity of oil will be greater in the Arctic than further south in summer and lower in winter.
During PROOFNY, Larsen (2007 unpublished) found higher mortality among shrimp larvae
exposed to crude oil treated with UV light than to oil that had not been exposed to UV light.
The shrimp larvae live in the upper water layers during summer and the influence of light
could therefore reinforce the effects of an oil spill. UV light had no corresponding phototoxic
effect on cod fry in the same project, but in Arctic cod, the levels of PAH metabolites in bile
increased, while the ability to tolerate oxidative stress was reduced. Krapp et al. (2009)
showed that UV radiation corresponding to the amount that penetrates the ocean ice in
summer also reduced the ability to tolerate oxidative stress in the amphipod Gammarus
wilkitzkii. This is a key species in the special ecosystem on the underside of the sea ice along
the edge of the ice in the Barents Sea.
5.4. Sensitivity in key Arctic species
Several projects have studied the effects of oil on G. wilkitzkii. Camus & Olsen (2008) found
deformities in embryos after 30 days' exposure to dissolved crude oil, but only at
concentrations of more than approx. 10 mg/l sumPAH. Such exposure is not very likely to
occur in connection with an oil spill in the sea ice. A corresponding experiment with lower
exposure (27 µg/l sumPAH) found rapid accumulation and slow excretion of PAH in eggcarrying females (Skadsheim et al. unpublished). This is expected, since the animals have a
high lipid content. Hatlen et al. (2009) showed that 27 µg/l did not affect survival or shell
replacement, but led to increased respiration, signs of oxidative stress and increased fat
oxidation. These responses had no connection with the dose. It is difficult to place the
exposure in a wider context, but, seen in relation to the generally accepted effect limit for
chronic exposure to oil of 50 µg/l as the total amount of hydrocarbons, 27 µg/l of the PAH
fraction alone is a relatively high load. The relatively moderate effects on G. wilkitzkii
indicate that the species is not particularly vulnerable to oil exposure in relation to other
species.
5.5. Effects of drilling discharges in the Arctic
The environmental monitoring on the Norwegian continental shelf has not shown any
systematic difference in the effects of drilling discharges on benthic fauna communities from
the North Sea to the south-eastern Barents Sea (Renaud et al. 2008), but since few surveys
have been conducted after drilling in the Barents Sea, it is too early to conclude that Arctic
23
benthic fauna will respond to drilling discharges in the same way as fauna further south.
Olsen et al. (2007) found a significant increase in oxygen consumption and reduced fauna
biomass in sediment cores from the Barents Sea after exposure to both oil hydrocarbons and
water-based drilling cuttings. Corresponding findings were not made in sediment cores from
the Oslofjord. It has previously been found that there is a tendency towards greater effects of
synthetic drilling fluid on Arctic sediment communities than on communities from the
Oslofjord (Schaanning et al. 1997). However, it cannot be concluded on the basis of these
experiments that the effects of drilling will be stronger in Arctic than in temperate sediments,
since the comparisons were made with sediments from the Oslofjord that are adapted to a
pollution load. However, another survey conducted as part of PROOFNY indicates that
differences in sensitivity can perhaps be expected at community level. Jørgensen et al. (2011)
found that there was a systematic difference in community structure in sediment fauna in the
North Sea and in the eastern Barents Sea. The total species richness was roughly the same, but
the benthic areas in the Barents Sea had a higher proportion of species that live on top of the
sediment (epifauna), while the North Sea seabed was dominated by species that live in the
sediment (infauna). Such functional differences on a large scale indicate that the communities
may also differ in sensitivity, particularly in relation to suspended material, for example from
drilling discharges.
5.6. Will the effects of discharges in the Arctic be different than further
south?
The results from PROOFNY have reinforced the impression that there are differences
between Arctic and temperate marine organisms and communities in terms of sensitivity to
oil-related pollution. They have also shown that the differences are small and can go in both
directions, and they do not give grounds to expect that Arctic organisms in themselves are
more sensitive to discharges from the petroleum industry than organisms from other parts of
the continental shelf. It cannot be ruled out, however, that factors other than biological
sensitivity are so systematically different that the overall ecological effects of discharges will
be different. PROOFNY projects have shown that bacterial degradation of oil takes place
right down to freezing point, although the process progresses more slowly as the water
temperature sinks (Brakstad et al. 2004, Brakstad and Bonaunet 2006). Experiments in the
field have also confirmed that oil stored in sea ice takes a long time to biodegrade (Brakstad et
24
al. 2008). Other large-scale factors that could conceivably dominate the overall consequences
include climate, ecological seasonal variations and the distribution of populations in time and
space. One example is the fundamental difference in sediment fauna between the North Sea
and the Barents Sea mentioned in the previous chapter (Jørgensen et al. 2011). Factors
relating to the discharges themselves will also play a part. These are all factors that we know
too little about and that may be very unpredictable, as pointed out by Hjermann et al. (2007).
It is therefore not yet possible to conclude as to whether the Arctic marine ecosystem will be
more or less vulnerable to discharges from the petroleum industry than the ecosystem further
south on the continental shelf.
6. Ecological long-term effects and risk assessment
Ecological effects of discharges from drilling activities have been reasonably well mapped
through the environmental monitoring, at least as regards areas of the continental shelf in
Southern and Central Norway. So far, the results also give the impression that the fauna's
responses to drilling discharges are the same in the southern Barents Sea. PROOFNY has
produced results that show that cuttings from water-based drilling affect, but only to a small
extent, individual species and sediments, and this is in accord with the results of the
environmental monitoring. In the same way, the PROOFNY results have given strong
indications that ecological effects of discharges of produced water are not probable, but the
changeable and unpredictable physical and biological conditions in the pelagic ecosystem
make it extra difficult to map the connection between the effects found on individuals and
possible effects on populations and communities,
Risk analyses still appear to be the only aid at our disposal for assessing whether the
discharges from the petroleum industry can have ecological consequences. PROOFNY has
contributed to establishing uniform methods for conducting risk and environmental impact
assessments. This can put us in a better position to protect the environment against possible
long-term impacts of the discharges. One example is an environmental risk analysis of
alkylphenols in produced water in relation to populations of cod, haddock and saithe in the
North Sea conducted by Beyer et al. (2011, in press). Exposure and risk patterns for the fish
species were simulated on the basis of figures for discharges and dispersal of produced water,
population distributions and data on the environmental harmfulness of the alkylphenols in
25
question. It was concluded that the exposure to alkylphenols from produced water on the
Norwegian continental shelf is too small to cause significant reproductive effects on these
populations.
One approach taken in PROOFNY has been to use risk modelling to link biomarker responses
both back to the sources and to possible ecological consequences. Environmental risk
analyses largely use threshold values for effects (NOEC/LOEC2) in order to evaluate the
extent of damage in space and time. It can be expected that threshold values for effects will be
different for different biological properties and at individual, population and ecosystem levels.
One ongoing PROOFNY project aims to build a bridge between sensitivity at biomarker level
and species level (Smit et al. 2009). Here, threshold values for effects of oil hydrocarbons
have been established on the basis of species sensitivity distribution curves (SSD) for the
biomarkers genotoxicity and oxidative stress in six marine species and corresponding curves
for individual functions (growth, reproduction and survival) in 26 species. On average, the
selected biomarkers were 35 to 50 times more sensitive than the individual functions. For
example, the pilot data used by Smit et al. (2009) indicate that it will be possible to have
significant biomarker effects in eight to nine of ten species for genotoxicity and oxidative
stress, at the same time as the effect on individual functions at a corresponding level of oilbased exposure will only be found in one out of ten species. In other words, effects on a
biomarker do not in themselves necessarily mean that the organism is harmed, but they could
be an early warning of effects that can become more serious as time passes. The goal now is
to expand the data basis for SSD to include more species, particularly Arctic species, and a
larger sample of types of environmental toxicity (a broader spectrum of biomarkers). The
above approach could contribute to guidelines for when biomarker responses signal a risk to
the organisms. The next step, assessing risk at population level on the basis of individual
effects, can still only be carried out using modelling. Such models are currently being
developed for fish by Hjermann et al. (2207, in prep.), and for krill (Meganyctiphanes
norwegicus) by Hjermann & Ravagnan (in prep.).
There is still great uncertainty as regards clarifying whether effects on individuals and
communities in areas close to a discharge have ripple effects in larger areas, populations and
communities, and whether the effects are enduring. In principle, it will never be possible to
2
No Observed Effects Concentration/Lowest Observed Effects Concentration
26
establish that enduring ecological effects will not occur. At best, it will only be possible to
substantiate this on the basis of the best available knowledge. Further studies on effects on
individuals are unlikely to produce the knowledge needed to predict effects at a higher level
with sufficient reliability, since the consequences for populations and communities are
probably governed to a much greater extent by season, populations' distribution in time and
space and large-scale oceanographic factors than by the health of the individuals that are
exposed. The significance of these factors is little known and studied, although endeavours
are being made to shed light on them in a model-based approach as part of PROOFNY
(Hjermann et al. 2007, unpublished; Hjermann & Ravagnan in prep.). Even if the significance
of large-scale factors becomes better known, the possibility of predicting the consequences of
a discharge will nevertheless be contingent on the factors also varying in time and space in a
predictable manner.
7. Conclusions
7.1. Knowledge gain, operational discharges
The main objective of PROOF and PROOFNY has been to clarify whether operational and
unintended discharges from petroleum-related activities have long-term negative effects on
the marine ecosystem and to improve our ability to foresee whether such effects can arise
from future discharges. Among other things, the question has been raised of whether the
activities have contributed to the reduction in fish stocks in the North Sea.
The discharges of produced water have been the greatest cause of concern, both because they
are the source that has introduced most oil and a number of other chemicals to the sea from
the petroleum activities and because it is very difficult to establish whether the discharges
have an impact on the ecosystem and fish stocks. PROOFNY has shown that components of
produced water can cause a number of negative effects that have consequences for the health,
functions and reproduction of individual fish and invertebrate animals. Particular emphasis
has been placed on possible endocrine effects, but other types of effects, such as genetic
damage, oxidative stress, growth and reproduction, have also been found. New and improved
methods have also been developed for measuring biological responses that are both sensitive
and of fundamental importance to the affected organisms. In particular, surveys of molecular-
27
biological patterns of, for example, genes, proteins and other vital groups of substances
appear to be capable of combining sensitivity with high ecological relevance. The
development of these methods is still in its infancy and it has not been sufficiently clarified
how useful they can be, for example in environmental monitoring. However, the ecological
importance of the discharges will remain unclarified as long as the effects it has been possible
to measure cannot be linked to consequences for populations and communities. The main
impression from PROOFNY is nonetheless that the potential for environmental harm is
generally moderate, and the concentrations that have produced effects do not normally occur
more than around one kilometre from the discharge points. This accords well with both
monitoring results and the risk assessments that have been carried out. It is not possible,
however, to rule out the risk that weak effects on individual species may have cumulative
ecological effects, even though the probability of this is low.
Risk modelling is the only tool available today for evaluating how the effects on individuals
can manifest themselves in populations and communities. PROOFNY has contributed to the
development of model tools that can link sensitivity at biomarker level and species level
based on toxicity tests. The programme is also developing models for linking effects on
individual species to populations and communities and for predicting how the effects on one
population can affect other populations. This work is far from complete, but it is expected to
make risk analyses of the effects of produced water more reliable. However, models only
show a link between cause and effect based on probability and average conditions. The big
challenge lies in assessing how well the models describe the real 'average' world and whether
the deviations from the average are so great, frequent and random that they overshadow the
conclusions from the models.
Environmental monitoring of the Norwegian continental shelf has reduced concerns about the
harmful effects of previous discharges of waste from drilling activities. The effects on the
bottom sediment are largely limited to a distance of a few hundred metres from the cuttings
piles, and there is no indication that they will become more widespread. Whether the oilpolluted cuttings can affect local benthic fish has not been clarified, however. Haddock near
the big cuttings piles in the North Sea show clear signs of biological harm that can be related
to discharges from petroleum-related activities, but it is not clear whether this is due to
contact with sediment and cuttings or to exposure to produced water.
28
Nor has the risk of long-term effects of water-based drilling fluid been clarified. Experimental
investigations carried out as part of PROOFNY have shown that such cuttings can have
effects that are serious for the individuals exposed to them, but they have also substantiated
that the effects are limited in time and space. This accords with the experience from the
environmental monitoring. However, the results have not completely eliminated the
possibility that prolonged discharges over time can have a cumulative effect on the bottom
sediments. A core question that it has been desirable to shed light on is the risk of effects of
discharges of cuttings on coral reef and swamp communities in deeper waters. This has been
little covered by PROOFNY, although it is addressed in some recently commenced projects.
These projects have yet to produce results. Another project indicates that deep-water corals
have a limited ability to handle smothering, but that this applied as much to sedimentation of
natural mineral particles as to drilling cuttings. However, the frequent findings of corals with
good growth that have attached themselves to older oil platforms that have had considerable
discharges of cuttings containing oil over a prolonged period indicate that the coral species
tolerates such discharges well. Whether other species in the coral community tolerate cuttings
sedimentation is not known. The projects that are studying the effects of discharges on
sponges have yet to report results.
7.2 Knowledge gain, effects in the Arctic
PROOFNY has improved our knowledge about how discharges from the petroleum industry
affect Arctic marine organisms. In comparative studies, differences in vulnerability have been
found between Arctic and temperate species in relation to both discharges of produced water
and drilling waste. The differences have been small, however, and they go in both directions.
There is nothing in the results to indicate that marine organisms that are important in Arctic
and sub-Arctic communities are more vulnerable to discharges than similar organisms
elsewhere on the continental shelf. Rather effect-producing processes appear to progress more
slowly under sub-Arctic conditions. This also applies to the biodegradation of oil. However,
individual species' vulnerability is only one factor that determines whether the Arctic
ecosystem can handle discharges in the same way as temperate ecosystems. Large-scale
factors such as climate, ecological seasonal variation, spatial distribution of populations and
communities and discharge conditions will, as far we can see, dominate in relation to the
overall consequences of operational and unintended discharges. It is therefore important to
29
study the importance of these factors in more detail, also in order to clarify whether it is
possible to link discharge patterns, impact factors and consequences in a predictable manner.
30
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Skarphéðinsdóttir S (2009) Water column monitoring 2009. Norwegian Institute for
Water Research, Report No 5882-2009, 86 pp
Brooks SJ, Harman C, Grung M, Farmen E, Ruus A, Vingen S, Godal BF, Barsiene J,
Andreikenaite L, Skarphéðinsdóttir H, Liewenborg B, Sundt RC (2011) Water
Column Monitoring of the Biological Effects of Produced Water from the Ekofisk
Offshore Oil Installation from 2006 to 2009. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental
Health-Part a-Current Issues 74:582-604
Buhl-Mortensen P, Klungsøyr J, Meier S, Purser A, Tenningen E, Thomsen L (2010)
Environmental monitoring report. Morvin 2009-2010. Institute of Marine Research,
Norway 2010
Bulukin E, Bagni G, Jonsson G, Baussant T, Mascini M (2006) Rapid screening of
alkylphenol exposure in fish bile using an enzymatic peroxidase biosensor.
International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 86:1039-1048
Camus L, Olsen GH (2008) Embryo aberrations in sea ice amphipod Gammarus wilkitzkii
exposed to water soluble fraction of oil. Marine Environmental Research 66:223-224
Farmen E, Olsvik PA, Berntssen MHG, Hylland K, Tollefsen KE (2010) Oxidative stress
responses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytes exposed to prooxidants and a complex environmental sample. Comparative Biochemistry and
Physiology C-Toxicology & Pharmacology 151:431-438
Grung M, Holth TF, Jacobsen MR, Hylland K (2009) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
(PAH) Metabolites in Atlantic Cod Exposed via Water or Diet to a Synthetic Produced
Water. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health-Part a-Current Issues 72:254265
Grøsvik BE, Meier S, Liewenborg B, Nesje G, Westrheim K, Fonn M, Kjesbu OS,
Skarphéðinsdóttir H, Klungsøyr J (2010) PAH and biomarker measurements in fish
from condition monitoring in Norwegian waters in 2005 and 2008. ICES annual
Science Conference 20-24 September 2010 Paper ICES CM 2010/F:06
32
Hansen BH, Altin D, Booth A, Vang SH, Frenzel M, Sorheim KR, Brakstad OG, Storseth TR
(2010) Molecular effects of diethanolamine exposure on Calanus finmarchicus
(Crustacea: Copepoda). Aquatic Toxicology 99:212-222
Hansen BH, Altin D, Hessen KM, Dahl U, Breitholtz M, Nordtug T, Olsen AJ (2008a)
Expression of ecdysteroids and cytochrome P450 enzymes during lipid turnover and
reproduction in Calanus finmarchicus (Crustacea : Copepoda). General and
Comparative Endocrinology 158:115-121
Hansen BH, Altin D, Nordtug T, Olsen AJ (2007) Suppression subtractive hybridization
library prepared from the copepod Calanus finmarchicus exposed to a sublethal
mixture of environmental stressors. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology DGenomics & Proteomics 2:250-256
Hansen BH, Altin D, Rorvik SF, Overjordet IB, Olsen AJ, Nordtug T (2011) Comparative
study on acute effects of water accommodated fractions of an artificially weathered
crude oil on Calanus finmarchicus and Calanus glacialis (Crustacea: Copepoda).
Science of the Total Environment 409:704-709
Hansen BH, Altin D, Vang SH, Nordtug T, Olsen AJ (2008b) Effects of naphthalene on gene
transcription in Calanus finmarchicus (Crustacea : Copepoda). Aquatic Toxicology
86:157-165
Hansen BH, Nordtug T, Altin D, Booth A, Hessen KM, Olsen AJ (2009) Gene Expression of
GST and CYP330A1 in Lipid-Rich and Lipid-Poor Female Calanus finmarchicus
(Copepoda: Crustacea) Exposed to Dispersed Oil. Journal of Toxicology and
Environmental Health-Part a-Current Issues 72:131-139
Harman C, Boyum O, Tollefsen KE, Thomas K, Grung M (2008a) Uptake of some selected
aquatic pollutants in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and the polar
organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS). Journal of Environmental Monitoring
10:239-247
Harman C, Brooks S, Sundt RC, Meier S, Grung M (2011) Field comparison of passive
sampling and biological approaches for measuring exposure to PAH and alkylphenols
from offshore produced water discharges. Marine Pollution Bulletin 63:141-148
Harman C, Farmen E, Tollefsen KE (2010) Monitoring North Sea oil production discharges
using passive sampling devices coupled with in vitro bioassay techniques. Journal of
Environmental Monitoring 12:1699-1708
Harman C, Holth TF, Hylland K, Thomas K, Grung M (2009a) Relationship between
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) accumulation in semipermeable membrane
devices and PAH bile metabolite levels in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua). Journal of
Toxicology and Environmental Health-Part a-Current Issues 72:234-243
Harman C, Thomas KV, Tollefsen KE, Meier S, Boyum O, Grung M (2009b) Monitoring the
freely dissolved concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and
alkylphenols (AP) around a Norwegian oil platform by holistic passive sampling.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 58:1671-1679
Harman C, Tollefsen KE, Boyum O, Thomas K, Grung M (2008b) Uptake rates of
alkylphenols, PAHs and carbazoles in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs)
and polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS). Chemosphere 72:1510-1516
33
Hasselberg L, Meier S, Svardal A (2004a) Effects of alkylphenols on redox status in first
spawning Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Aquatic Toxicology 69:95-105
Hasselberg LS, Meier S, Svardal AT, Hegelund T, Celander MC (2004b) Effects of
alkylphenols on CYP1A and CYP3A expression in first spawning Atlantic cod (Gadus
morhua). Aquatic toxicology 67 (4):303-313
Hatlen K, Camus L, Berge J, Olsen GH, Baussant T (2009) Biological effects of water soluble
fraction of crude oil on the Arctic sea ice amphipod Gammarus wilkitzkii. Chemistry
and Ecology 25:151-162
Hjermann DO, Melsom A, Dingsor GE, Durant JM, Eikeset AM, Roed LP, Ottersen G,
Storvik G, Stenseth NC (2007) Fish and oil in the Lofoten-Barents Sea system:
synoptic review of the effect of oil spills on fish populations. Marine EcologyProgress Series 339:283-299
Holth TF, Beckius J, Zorita I, Cajaraville MP, Hylland K (2011) Assessment of lysosomal
membrane stability and peroxisome proliferation in the head kidney of Atlantic cod
(Gadus morhua) following long-term exposure to produced water components. Marine
Environmental Research 72:127-134
Holth TF, Beylich BA, Skarphedinsdottir H, Liewenborg B, Grung M, Hylland K (2009)
Genotoxicity of Environmentally Relevant Concentrations of Water-Soluble Oil
Components in Cod (Gadus morhua). Environmental Science & Technology 43:33293334
Holth TF, Thorsen A, Olsvik PA, Hylland K (2010) Long-term exposure of Atlantic cod
(Gadus morhua) to components of produced water: condition, gonad maturation, and
gene expression. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 67:1685-1698
Jonsson G, Cavcic A, Stokke TU, Beyer J, Sundt RC, Brede C (2008a) Solid-phase analytical
derivatization of alkylphenols in fish bile for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
analysis. Journal of Chromatography A 1183:6-14
Jonsson G, Stokke TU, Cavcic A, Jorgensen KB, Beyer J (2008b) Characterization of
alkylphenol metabolites in fish bile by enzymatic treatment and HPLC-fluorescence
analysis. Chemosphere 71:1392-1400
Jonsson H, Björkblom C (2011) Biomarker bridges - biomarker responses to dispersed oil in
four marine fish species. International Research Institute of Stavanger (IRIS) Report
no 7151791, 44 pp
Jorgensen LL, Renaud PE, Cochrane SKJ (2011) Improving benthic monitoring by combining
trawl and grab surveys. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62:1183-1190
Karlsen OA, Bjørneklett S, Berg K, Brattås M, Bohne-Kjersem A, Grøsvik BE, Goksøyr A
(2011) Integrative environmental genomics of cod (Gadus morhua): the proteomics
approach. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 74:494-507
Krapp RH, Baussant T, Berge J, Pampanin DM, Camus L (2009) Antioxidant responses in the
polar marine sea-ice amphipod Gammarus wilkitzkii to natural and experimentally
increased UV levels. Aquatic Toxicology 95:162-162
Larsen BK (2007 unpublished) Effects of off-shore oil industry related discharges in the
Arctic. Report Project No 159176 to the Norwegian Research Council
34
Larsson AI, Purser A (2011) Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa:
Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 62:1159-1168
Leung KMY, Bjorgesaeter A, Gray JS, Li WK, Lui GCS, Wang Y, Lam PKS (2005) Deriving
sediment quality guidelines from field-based species sensitivity distributions.
Environmental Science & Technology 39:5148-5156
Lowe DM, Pipe RK (1987) Mortality and quantitative aspects of storage cell utilization in
mussels, Mytilus edulis, following exposure to diesel oil hydrocarbons. Marine
Environmental Research 22:243-251
Lucarelli F, Authier L, Bagni G, Marrazza G, Baussant T, Aas E, Mascini M (2003) DNA
biosensor investigations in fish bile for use as a biomonitoring tool. Analytical Letters
36:1887-1901
Meier S, Andersen TC, Lind-Larsen K, Svardal A, Holmsen H (2007) Effects of alkylphenols
on glycerophospholipids and cholesterol in liver and brain from female Atlantic cod
(Gadus morhua). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C-Toxicology &
Pharmacology 145:420-430
Meier S, Klungsoyr J, Boitsov S, Eide T, Svardal A (2005) Gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry analysis of alkylphenols in cod (Gadus morhua) tissues as
pentafluorobenzoate derivatives. Journal of Chromatography A 1062:255-268
Meier S, Morton HC, Andersson E, Geffen AJ, Taranger GL, Larsen M, Petersen M,
Djurhuus R, Klungsoyr J, Svardal A (2011) Low-dose exposure to alkylphenols
adversely affects the sexual development of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua):
Acceleration of the onset of puberty and delayed seasonal gonad development in
mature female cod. Aquatic Toxicology 105:136-150
Meier S, Morton HC, Nyhammer G, Grosvik BE, Makhotin V, Geffen A, Boitsov S, Kvestad
KA, Bohne-Kjersem A, Goksoyr A, Folkvord A, Klungsoyr J, Svardal A (2010)
Development of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) exposed to produced water during early
life stages Effects on embryos, larvae, and juvenile fish. Marine Environmental
Research 70:383-394
Meier SA, T. C. Lind-Larsen, K. Svardal, A. Holmsen, H. (2007) Effects of alkylphenols on
glycerophospholipids and cholesterol in liver and brain from female Atlantic cod
(Gadus morhua). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C-Toxicology &
Pharmacology 145:420-430
Neff J, Lee K, DeBlois EM (2011) Produced water: Overview of composition, fates, and
effects. Chapter 1 in: Lee K, Neff J (eds) Produced Water Springer, NY
Neff JM (2008) Estimation of bioavailability of metals from drilling mud barite. Integr
Environ Assess Manag 4:184-193
Nilsen MM, Meier S, Larsen BK, Andersen OK, Hjelle A (2011a). An estrogen responsive
plasma protein expression signature in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) revealed by
SELDI-TOFMS. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 74: 2175-2181.
Nilsen MM, Meier S, Andersen OK, Hjelle A (2011b). SELDI–TOF MS analysis of
alkylphenol exposed Atlantic cod with phenotypic variation in gonadosomatic index.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 62: 2507–2511
35
OLF (2011) Environmental Report 2011. The environment cooperation of the oil and gas
industry - facts and trends. Norwegian Oil Industry Association, 60 p (in Norwegian)
Olsen GH, Carroll ML, Renaud PE, Ambrose WG, Olsson R, Carroll J (2007) Benthic
community response to petroleum-associated components in Arctic versus temperate
marine sediments. Marine Biology 151:2167-2176
Pettersen J, Hertwich EG (2008) Critical review: Life-cycle inventory procedures for longterm release of metals. Environmental Science & Technology 42:4639-4647
Schaanning M, Lichtenthaler R, Rygg B (1997) Biodegradation of Esters and Olefins in
Drilling Mud Deposited on Arctic soft-bottom communities in a low-temperature
Mesocosm. Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Report No 3760-1997, 57 pp
Schaanning MT, Trannum HC, Oxnevad S, Carroll J, Bakke T (2008) Effects of drill cuttings
on biogeochemical fluxes and macrobenthos of marine sediments. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 361:49-57
Skadsheim A, Baussant T, Sanni S (unpublished) Assessing long term biological effects on
the ice amphipod Gammarus wilkitzkii exposed to the water soluble fraction (WSF) of
crude oil following an accidental discharge scenario. Poster presentation, Research
Council of Norway, Project No 164407/S40
Skadsheim A, Sanni S, Pinturier L, Moltu UE, Buffagni M, Bracco L (2009) Assessing and
monitoring local and long-range-transported hydrocarbons as potential stressors to fish
stocks. Deep-Sea Research II 56:2037-2043
Smit MGD, Bechmann RK, Hendriks AJ, Skadsheim A, Larsen BK, Baussant T, Bamber S,
Sanni S (2009) Relating biomarkers to whole-organism effects using species
sensitivity distributions: a pilot study for marine species exposed to oil. Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry 28:1104-1109
Sundt RC, Baussant T, Beyer J (2009a) Uptake and tissue distribution of C-4-C-7
alkylphenols in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua): Relevance for biomonitoring of
produced water discharges from oil production. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58:72-79
Sundt RC, Bjorkblom C (2011) Effects of Produced Water on Reproductive Parameters in
Prespawning Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua). Journal of Toxicology and Environmental
Health-Part a-Current Issues 74:543-554
Sundt RC, Brooks S, Grøsvik BE, Pampanin DM, Farmen E, Harman C, Meier S (2011)
Water column monitoring of offshore produced water discharges. Compilation of
previous experience and suggestions for future survey design. International Research
Institute of Stavanger (IRIS) Report no 7911854, 123 pp
Sundt RC, Brooks S, Ruus A, Grung M, Arab N, Godal BF, Barsiene J, Skarphéðinsdóttir H
(2008) Water Column Monitoring 2008. International Research Institute of Stavanger
(IRIS) Report no 7151832, 76 pp
Sundt RC, Meier S, Jonsson G, Sanni S, Beyer J (2009b) Development of a laboratory
exposure system using marine fish to carry out realistic effect studies with produced
water discharged from offshore oil production. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58:13821388
Thomas KV, Langford K, Petersen K, Smith AJ, Tollefsen KE (2009) Effect-Directed
Identification of Naphthenic Acids As Important in Vitro Xeno-Estrogens and Anti-
36
Androgens in North Sea Offshore Produced Water Discharges. Environmental Science
& Technology 43:8066-8071
Tollefsen KE, Blikstad C, Eikvar S, Finne EF, Gregersen IK (2008) Cytotoxicity of
alkylphenols and alkylated non-phenolics in a primary culture of rainbow trout
(Onchorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytes. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 69:6473
Tollefsen KE, Harman C, Smith A, Thomas KV (2007) Estrogen receptor (ER) agonists and
androgen receptor (AR) antagonists in effluents from Norwegian North Sea oil
production platforms. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54:277-283
Tollefsen KE, Nilsen AJ (2008) Binding of alkylphenols and alkylated non-phenolics to
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatic estrogen receptors. Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety 69:163-172
Tollefsen KE, Sundt RC, Beyer J, Meier S, Hylland K (2011) Endocrine modulation in
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) exposed to alkylphenols, polyaromatic hydrocarbons,
produced water, and dispersed oil. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental HealthPart a-Current Issues 74:529-542
Trannum HC (2011) Environmental effects of water-based drill cuttings on benthic
communities - biological and biogeochemical responses in mesocosm- and fieldexperiments. PhD dissertation, University of Oslo, Norway
Trannum HC, Nilsson HC, Schaanning MT, Oxnevad S (2010) Effects of sedimentation from
water-based drill cuttings and natural sediment on benthic macrofaunal community
structure and ecosystem processes. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and
Ecology 383:111-121
Trannum HC, Setvik A, Norling K, Nilsson HC (2011) Rapid macrofaunal colonization of
water-based drill cuttings on different sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62:21452156
37
9. List of projects under PROOF and PROOFNY
Department/Institute
Project owner
Year of
final
report
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Asbjørn Svardal
2004
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Jarle Klungsøyr
2003
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Asbjørn Svardal
2005
GC/MS determination of
produced water PAH and
152449
alkylphenol metabolites in
marine fish
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Jonny Beyer
2003
Hydrocarbon release from oil
droplets to seawater:
152450
experimental and computational
verification of a model
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Arnfinn
Skadsheim
2003
Impacts of metals from drill
152451 cuttings and mud to the marine
water column
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Stig Westerlund
2002
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Knut-Erik
Tollefsen
2003
Biodegradation of oil in the
152460 seawater column with emphasis
on Arctic conditions
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Odd Gunnar
Brakstad
2003
Chemical composition and
toxicity of bioavailable polar
152465
crude oil fractions - a literature
study
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Alf Glein Melbye
2002
Anders J. Olsen
2003
Erling A. Hammer
2005
Project
number
Project title
Effekter av produksjonsvann på
141213 egg og larveutvikling samt
kjønnsdifferensiering hos torsk
Contamination of fish in the
152231 North Sea by the offshore oil
and gas industry
Hormonforstyrrende effekter av
152232 miljøgifter i produksjonsvann
fra oljeinstallasjoner
Identification of ecologically
relevant toxic components in
152452
effluents from offshore
activities (OffTiE)
Long-term (chronic) effects of
produced water effluents
152466 affecting reproduction in
marine crustacean plankton.
Introductory activities
Crude oil pollution measured in
153858 discharged processed water
flows using optical polarization
Department of Biology
Norwegian University of
Science and Technology
Department of Physics and
Technology
University of Bergen
38
Validation of methods and data
153882 for Environmental Risk
Assessment off-shore
Akvamiljø as
Steinar Sanni
2006
Pollutant exposure and effects
in fish related to the discharge
153898
of produced water in the North
Sea oil industry
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Jonny Beyer
2006
University of Oslo
Anne Helene
Schistad Solberg
2007
Akvaplan-niva AS
Jolynn Carrol
2005
The Norwegian College of
Fishery Science
Even Jørgensen
2004
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Per S. Daling
2006
The University Centre in
Svalbard (UNIS)
Per Johan
Brandvik
2008
Norwegian University of
Science and Technology
Anders J. Olsen
2005
Akvaplan-niva AS
Jolynn Carrol
2007
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
KnutErikTollefsen
2007
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Bodil Katrine
Larsen
2007
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Stig Westerlund
2006
Norse Decom
Per Varskog
2003
Algorithms for automatic
154764 detection of oil spills in SAR
images – ADOS Long term effects of offshore
discharges on cold water
157649
zooplankton: establishing a test
system for chronic exposure
Establishment of the gill EROD
157658 assay as a biomarker of oil and
produced water discharge
Chemical characterisation of
157673 polar components in produced
water
157678
Weathering of marine oil spills
under Arctic conditions
Long-term - chronic - effects of
produced water effluents
157687
affecting reproduction in
marine crustacean plankton
Experimental tests of
petroleum-associated
159016 components on benthos at
community, individual and
cellular levels – EXPAC Integrating monitoring methods
for impact of offshore
159113
discharges to the North Sea IMONIT
159176
Effects of off-shore industry
related discharges in the Arctic
Impacts of drilling mud
discharges on water column
159183 organism and filter feeding
bivalves
Naturlige radionuklider i det
160769 marine miljø med vekt på
Nordsjøen - oppsummering
Department of Informatics
University of Tromsø
Department of Biology
39
3 - Effects on development, sex
differentiation and reproduction
163338 in cod (Gadus morhua) exposed
to produced water during early
life stages
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Jarle Klungsøyr
2008
Institute for Energy
Technology - Kjeller
Dag Øistein
Eriksen
2007
The use of passive sampling
devices in monitoring of
164398 potential impact of offshore
discharges and accidental oil
spills (PASSIMPACT)
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Merete Grung
2009
Identification of estrogen-like
164401 compounds in produced water
from offshore oil installations
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Stepan Boitsov
2005
Maren Onsrud
2008
Radioactivity in produced water
from Norwegian oil and gas
163323 installations - concentrations,
bioavailability and doses to
marine biota
Environmental effects of oil
and gas exploration on the
164406 benthic fauna of the Norwegian
continental shelf: an analysis
using the OLF database
Department of Biology
University of Oslo
Long term effects on Arctic
164407 ecosystem from accidental
discharges
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Steinar Sanni
2009
Parameterisation of the
environmental impacts on
164410
bottom fauna of water-based
drilling fluids and cuttings
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Karl Norling
2011
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Anne Hjelle
2012
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Ketil Hylland
2010
Anders Goksøyr
2008
Rolf Sundt
2005
Proteome expression signatures
(PES) in fish as a diagnostic
164413 tool to evaluate the
environmental impacts of
offshore oil and gas exploration
164419
Predicting chronic effects in
fish from sublethal markers
3 - Effects of produced water to
Atlantic cod: Mechanistic
164423 studies and biomarker
development with proteomics
based methods
Comparative oral and water
164427 based exposures of cod to
produced water components
Department of Molecular
Biology
University of Bergen
Akvamiljø as
40
The unresolved complex
mixture (UCM) of petrogenic
164430
oils: Impacts in the seawater
column
Odd Gunnar
Brakstad
2006
Norwegian University of
Science and Technology
Anders J. Olsen
2009
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Hans Christer
Nilsson
2009
Exposure system for continuous
173373 controlled exposure of fish eggs
and larvae with dispersed oil.
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Trond Nordtug
2007
Drilling mud follow up study 173418 Input data and validation
experiments for ERMS
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Renée Katrin
Bechmann
2009
Environmental occurrence of
fluorinated alkyl substances
173446
from fire fighting foams used
on Norwegian oil platforms
The Norwegian Institute for
Air Research - Tromsø
Dorte Herzke
2008
Effects of the unresolved
complex mixture (UCM) of
173451
petrogenic oils in the marine
water column - Phase 2.
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Odd Gunnar
Brakstad
2007
Centre for Ecological and
Evolutionary Synthesis
Nils Chr. Stenseth
2010
Long term - chronic - effects of
produced water effluents
170429 affecting reproduction in
marine crustacean plankton.
Phase 2.
Parameterisation of the
environmental impacts on
bottom fauna of water based
173333
drilling fluids and cuttings Field and mesocosm
experiments
Long term effects of oil
accidents on the pelagic
173487
ecosystem of the Norwegian
and Barents Seas
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Department of Biology
University of Oslo
Study of the long-term effects
on Atlantic herring (Clupea
178015 harengus) exposed to an oil
polluted Calanus finmarchicus
diet
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Jarle Klungsøyr
2010
The impact of produced water
178318 on fish reproduction: a
multigeneration approach
Faculty of Mathematics and
Natural Science, University
of Bergen
Ian Mayer
2012
Integration of biomonitoring
with risk assessment by
constructing of biomarker
178408
bridges for water column
organisms exposed to produced
water.
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Steinar Sanni
2012
41
The possible role of
zooplankton in modulating
178434 ecosystem effects of acute oil
spills in the Norwegian and
Barents seas.
Centre for Ecological and
Evolutionary Synthesis
Nils Chr. Stenseth
2011
University of Oslo
Assessment of mixture toxicity
of compounds in discharges to
178621
the North Sea and coastal areas
of Norway
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Knut-Erik
Tollefsen
2013
Effects of oil compounds and
persistent organic pollution
184641 (POP) on the phospholipid
composition and membrane
fluidity in Atlantic cod.
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Sonnich Meier
2012
Impact of water-based drilling
mud in the Barents Sea: a study
184699
using the epibenthic coral
species Lophelia pertusa
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Thierry Baussant
2012
Toxicity of acute oil discharges
to cod larvae - Relative
184716 contribution of oil droplets,
water soluble fraction and
photosensitization
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Trond Nordtug
2011
AMPERA - Implementation of
risk assessment methodologies
for oil and chemical spills in
189613
the European marine
environment (RAMOCS) ERA-NET
The Norwegian Institute for
Water Research
Kevin Thomas
2012
AMPERA - Toxicity profiling
of the major EU transported
The Norwegian Institute for
189614
HNS and oil types (TOXPROF)
Water Research
- ERA - NET
Kevin Thomas
2012
AMPERA - Ecological risk
assessment information data189616
mining and comparison - ERANET
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Thierry Baussant
2010
Benthic indicators for
190247 monitoring the ecosystem of the
Barents Sea
Akvaplan-niva AS
Paul Renaud
2012
Phylogenetic microarrays and
high-throughput sequencing: a
190265
new tool for biodiversity
assessment in northern Norway
UNI Research AS
Christofer
Troedsson
2014
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Frode Vikebø
2013
Pollution risk and impact
191698 analysis for the Barents Sea
ecosystem
42
3rd Norwegian Environmental
Toxicology Symposium 196193
Emerging solutions for
emerging challenges
Metabolomics to study toxicity
196604 of acute discharges to cod
larvae
Department of Molecular
Biology
2011
University of Bergen
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Trond Nordtug
2011
Dag Ø. Hjermann
2014
SINTEF Materials and
Chemistry - Trondheim
Bjørn Henrik
Hansen
2013
Response of deep-water sponge
fauna to oil drilling discharges:
203894
linking molecular and
biological parameters
The Norwegian Institute of
Marine Research
Jan Helge Fosså
Integrated model system: Risk
204023 and ecosystem based
management of Arctic waters
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Steinar Sanni
Insights into the sensitivity of
cold-water communities to
204025 drilling mud: enhancing
diagnosis and decision-making
with emphasis on Lophelia.
International Research
Institute of Stavanger AS
Thierry Baussant
Spatiotemporal variability in
mortality and growth of fish
196685
larvae in the Lofoten-Barents
Sea ecosystem
Understanding fitness-related
196711 effects of dispersed oil on
Calanus finmarchicus
Centre for Ecological and
Evolutionary Synthesis
University of Oslo
43
Publikasjonen kan bestilles på
www.forskningsradet.no/publikasjoner
The Research Council of Norway
P.O.Box 2700 St. Hanshaugen
N-0131 OSLO
Telephone: +47 22 03 70 00
Telefax: +47 22 03 70 01
[email protected]
www.rcn.no
Published by:
The Research Council of Norway
The Oceans and Coastal Areas
www.rcn.no/havkyst
February 2012
ISBN 978-82-12-03027-5 (pdf)
Design: Jentestreker AS
Photo: Vidar Vassvik, Kristin Strand By
and Schutterstock