THE ABDUCTION OF WOMEN IN
BARBARIC LAW
Rebecca V. Colm an
A m o n g the m o s t d i s t u r b i n g a s p e c t s o f v e r y e a r l y law are the g l i m p s e s
we
sometimes r eceive of a r emote and, by civilised standards,
the p e r i o d t hat G e o r g e s S i m e n o n o n c e r e f e r r e d to a s
life
in the f o r e s t s . I t
"bygone epochs of
is l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e s e s p e c t r e s f r o m the
p a s t that t h e r e is a r e l u c t a n c e
s t a n d a b l y abhor.
to a c c e p t e v i d e n c e o f p r a c t i c e s w e u n d e r ­
Rudolph Huebner, writing before much anthropology had
softened our reactions,
shuddered at the "cold-blooded and brutal character"
of bride-purchase, which he thought appeared nowhere
f o r m t h a n in s o m e o f t h e A n g l o - S a x o n l a w s . "
women has
savage time,
inspired
similar revulsion,
2
a l t h o u g h in t h i s c a s e ,
S a x o n c o des a r e not a l o n e in their expli c i t n e s s .
points of primitive
law,
in " m o r e r e p u l s i v e
Evidence of the abduction of
As
the Anglo-
is t h e c a s e w i t h all
the c h a l l e n g e lies in u n d e r s t a n d i n g its context,
a n d in m a t t e r s o f s u c h r u d i m e n t a r y c o n c e r n a s m a t i n g ,
for s o c i o - b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s w h i c h in m o r e
we have also to allow
sophisticated legal systems are
less shockingly obtrusive.
Marital union
where
is o n e o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l
so p o w e r f u l an i n s t i n c t a s
institutions of society,
t h e s e x u a l d r i v e is c o n c e r n e d ,
and
the v ery
earliest laws can be assumed
to c o n t a i n m e a s u r e s t o r e g u l a t e a n d c o n t r o l
its m o r e d i s t u r b i n g a s pects,
a n a s s u m p t i o n s u p p o r t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t in
Old English and Old High German,
on e w o r d stood for b o t h l a w a n d m a rriage,
63
~w and
e,
respectively.
Furthermore, this need to control and regularise
sexual cravings extends to all societies.
Thus it is accurate to say that
we a re dealing with "barbaric" law, since that adjective qualifies the
kind of law we are talking about and does not confine it to any particular
group, barbarian or civilised.
Indeed, it is crucial to the understanding
o f this law to be awa r e that it knows no frontier of time, place, or people,
but exists always, latent or visible, as circumstances are propitious or
hostile to the well-being of human communities.
Wh e re it is most visible,
we should e xpect to find either a s ociety in which the superstructures of
the law have broken down, or one in which laws are very rudimentary.
Th e
examples in this paper, taken fr om the Leges Barbarorum, fall into the
latter category.
Their focus is on the free segments of society, since that
is where we can expect to find fewest impe dimen t s to the operation of any
general principles we may uncover.
~bduction,
like rape and adultery,
could, of course, cut across class lines, and in these cases spe c ial penalties
were applied, such as loss of status or even death for a free individual
willingly involved or, in the case of initiati ve on the part of a slave or
3
other se rvile person, emasculation or los s of life.
As we might expect, evidence is not abundant on matters we would lik e
to trace back to the very origin of law, although many distinguished
scholars fr om a variety of disciplines have in th e past subscribed to the
belief that (to quote one),
"among savage and primitive tribes and in the
early stages of our own nations, capture led to the greatest number of
marital unions.,,4
Perhaps the most enthusiastic of this group was the
nineteenth-century German scholar, Dargun, who combined the new ethnographic
material of the classical anthropologists (he was much influenced by
Mc Lennan) with early mediaeval legal and l i terary sources to support his
thesis that in prehistoric times, raubehe, marriage-by-abduction, was the
original form o f marital union.
Other writers coming out of Darwin's cent-
ury saw an evolutionary development from savage promiscuity to civilised
monogamy, bride-capture being popularly, but not necessarily logically,
associated with the former. And many women still see their history in
eVOlutionary t erms of increasing freedom, abduction being judged as one of
the earliest and crudest of their degradations.
Twentieth-century anthro-
pologists like Raymond Firth and Robert Lowie, however, have warned against
those "sadistic and romantic impulses" which tempt us to exaggerate the
5
incidence and nature of this form of union.
The controversy need not
c o n c e r n us unduly,
s ince we are far r e m o v e d from p r e - h i s t o r i c p r a c t i c e by
t h e t i m e l a w s a r e w r i t t e n d o w n , b u t t h e w a r n i n g is a u s e f u l r e m i n d e r o f t h e
c o l o u r i n g of e v i d e n c e we c an expect.
The m o n k s o f Kiev,
for example,
w h o m w e o we s o m e v i v i d p i c t u r e s o f p r i m i t i v e R u s s i a n life,
of those
speak with horror
S l a v i c t r i b e s w h o l i v e d in t h e f o r e s t " l i k e w i l d b e a s t s "
no marriages,
" s i mply f e s t i v a l s a m o n g the villa g e s "
and all other devilish amusements"
themselves."
a dds that
at w h i c h the m e n
with
"games,
and had
dancing
"carried off wives
We s h o u l d n o t a s s u m e the worst, howe v e r ,
"each took any w o m a n
to
w i t h whom he had r e a c h e d an u n d e r s t a n d i n g "
(my e m p h a s i s ) .
marriage
for
since the chronicler
A n d we k n o w from o t h e r sources that there w e r e formal,
.6
ceremonies
b y the w a t e r ' s edge.
Though less colourful a nd more challenging,
pagan
the e a r l y l a w c o d e s are
n o w being m i n e d for more-or-less coherent pictures of early mediaeval
marriage practices,
and their treatment of abduction sheds a great deal of
light on regular procedures as well as illuminating everyday relations b e ­
tween the sexes.
In the l egal e v i d e n c e w e s h a l l c o n s i d e r ,
always connected with sexual
g reed or ambition,
union or intent thereto,
severally or together,
non-European primitive
la w ,
a b d u c t i o n is
physical attraction,
providing motivation.
A s in other,
a b d u c t i o n is c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m r a p e ,
c o n t r a r y to M a i t l a n d ' s s u r m i s e that the two w e r e c o n f u s e d "in the v e r y e a r l y
days."
class
The penalties are nearly always very different,
interest may,
h e a v y fines.
Moreover,
later mediaeval
although aristocratic
as I s hall suggest, a c c o u n t for some e x c e p t i o n a l l y
t h e t e r m i n o l o g y is u s u a l l y q u i t e d i s t i n c t ,
scribes,
as Liebermann pointed out for England,
although
"unfamiliar
w i t h an o u t - m o d e d cust o m a n d translating into Latin long-forgotten terms,"
the t w o . 7
did confuse
among
of
A p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y o f the E n g l i s h c o d e s ,
which are
the l e a s t c o n t a m i n a t e d b y R o m a n law a n d p r o v i d e us w i t h a secure b o d y
texts, wil l
illustrate the basic position taken by barbaric
general towards abduction,
unions could result
We h a v e
the eleventh,
namely,
t h a t i t is n o t l a w f u l ,
l a w in
b u t that lawful
if c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s w e r e m e t .
three passages
to c o n s i d e r ,
r a n g i n g f r o m t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y to
the fullest treatment occurring
in the e a r l i e s t code,
A e t h e l b e r h t 's o f K e n t , w h e r e w e f i n d m a r r i a g e b y a b d u c t i o n l e g a l l y r e c o g nised once
certain payme n t s have bee n made.
The r e l e v a n t c l a u s e s are:
If a m a n f o r c i b l y c a r r i e s o f f a m a i d e n ,
8
he s h a l l p a y 50 s h i l l i n g s
to t h e p e r s o n w h o p o s s e s s e s r i g h t o f g u a r d i a n s h i p o v e r h e r a n d
a f t e r w a r d s buy his
consent
[to t h e u n i o n ] .
If she
is a l r e a d y b e t r o t h e d b y b r i d e - p r i c e to a n o t h e r man,
20 s h i l l i n g s s h a l l b e p a i d a s c o m p e n s a t i o n [in a d d i t i o n t o t h e
other
fines].
[Gif gsengang gew eorSe^] , 35 s h i l l i n g s
If she b e c o m e s r e t u r n e d
s h a l l b e p a i d to the g u a r d i a n a n d 15 s h i l l i n g s t o t h e king.
There
is n o t a l k o f r e q u i r i n g h e r r e t u r n .
pensatory than punitive,
the major
fine,
The
sums involved are more co m ­
50 s h i l l i n g s ,
being a quarter of
the Kentish freeman's wergild or manprice
(following Seebohm's
and the literal
" G if g$ngang gew eor5ej}" l e a v e s
t r a n s l a t i o n o f the p h r a s e
o p e n the q u e s t i o n o f h o w or w h y she comes b a c k
for example,
(a p o s s e o f m a l e
m i g h t w e l l o v e r t a k e the abductor).
does n o t c o n f u s e a b d u c t i o n with rape.
i s "n yd n im a n ,"
Finally,
to a b d u c t .
the
9
relatives,
terminology
is "nydnaeman,"
The v e r b to rape
u s e d in A e t h e l r e d ' s s i x t h co d e a n d C n u t ' s second,
and later by Cnut,
calculation);
while the verb used here
C n u t ' s p e n a l t y for rape,
r e p e a t e d i n t h e s o - c a l l e d L a w s o f W i l l i a m I, w a s t h e m a n ' s w e r g i l d w h i c h ,
as we h a v e seen,
w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u r t i m e s A e t h e l b e r h t 's f i n e f o r a b d u c t i o n .
The traditional penalty,
however,
castration and blinding,
a b rutal p u n i s h m e n t r e s e r v e d for c a s e s de raptu
v ir g in u m , rape o f virgins,
as Bracton, a p proving,
in B r a c t o n ' s t i m e
c o n c e i v a b l y the m o r e p o p u l a r a l t e r n a t i v e
T h r e e c e n t u r i e s on,
but
i n e a r l i e r centuries.'*"'*'
the a b d u c t i o n o f a nun f r o m h e r n u n n e r y
cern
in e a r l y m e d i a e v a l l a w s ) ,
although
nevertheless
legitimate union could result
n ot exist.
(thirteenth century),
in t h e l a t e n i n t h c e n t u r y , A l f r e d ' s l a w d e a l i n g
with
p e n a l i s i n g the nun,
r e m i n d s u s, w a s
(a m a t t e r o f w i d e s p r e a d c o n ­
it i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h
implies that a permanent r e lationship and
from a bduction where legal
impediments did
T h e r e l e v a n t c l a u s e s are:
If a n y o n e t a k e s a n u n
the king or bishop,
king,
from a nunnery without
he shall p a y
the p e r m i s s i o n o f
120 s h i l l i n g s , h a l f t o t h e
a n d h a l f to the b i s h o p or l o r d o f t he c h u r c h u n d e r w h o s e
charge
she
is.
If she
lives longer than her abductor,
she shall
inherit nothing
of his property.
If s h e b e a r s a c h i l d
it s h a l l
inherit no more than
its mother.
If h e r c h i l d is slain,
the s h a r e of the w e r g i l d d u e to the
m o t h e r ' s k i n d r e d s h a l l b e p a i d to the king,
but the father's
k i n d r e d shall be p a i d their d u e share.
Although
the nun
out permission,
is b e i n g c o n d e m n e d h r r e f o r a b a n d o n i n g h e r p r o f e s s i o n w i t h ­
we have no h a r d line a b o u t h e r h a v i n g to be r e t u r n e d
some of the European codes demand),
and there
(as
is n o s u g g e s t i o n o f r a p e ,
the v e r b
"aleRdan" b e i n g g e n t l e r t h a n A e t h e l b e r h t 's "n yd n im a n ," c o l l u s i o n b e i n g
possible
in e i t h e r case.
not be allowed
legal recognition
The
Finally,
d e s p i t e the rul i n g
to i n h e r i t t h e i r f a t h e r ' s p r o p e r t y ,
in t h e i r r i g h t
to w e r g i l d .
that any children will
they nevertheless receive
12
third and final p i ece of evidence fr o m E ngland o ccurs
of Cnut's
laws dealing with widows,
for par t i c u l a r
in a s e c t i o n
another group frequently singled out
t r e a t m e n t i n e a r l y c o d e s o f law.
Among the clauses levying
p e n a l t i e s for r e - m a r r y i n g w i t h i n the s t a t u t o r y o n e - y e a r p e r i o d of m o u rning,
we find the
following:
A nd even
if she w a s m a r r i e d b y f o r c e
is to f o r f e i t t h o s e p o s s e s s i o n s
former husband]
[neadnuman = nydnim an] s h e
[she h a d r e c e i v e d t h r o u g h h er
u n l e s s she w i s h e s to leave
the m a n a n d ret u r n
h o m e and n e ver a f t e r w a r d s b e c o m e his.
As
in t h e p r e v i o u s two cases,
from abduction
Nowhere
although
is c l e a r l y r e c o g n i s e d . ^
in the E u r o p e a n c o d e s
the Visigoths,
d e n i e d a n y a u to m a tic
the
the p ossibility of legitimate union arising
is m a r r i a g e b y a b d u c t i o n d e n i e d v a l i d i t y ,
a l r e a d y in p r o c e s s o f d e t r i b a l i s i n g t h e i r law,
r i g h t of m a r r i a g e to the a b d uctor.
frequency and the manner of use of such phrases as
or with her
wording
as Roman
consent"
Dargun,
(aut v i o l e n t e r a u t ea c o n s e n t i e n t e ) a r g u e d t h a t t h e
implied a deeply-rooted
tribal custom,
l a w a n d the C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h m a d e
the o r d i n a r y run o f cases,
as
albeit one undergoing
t h e i r i n f l u e n c e felt.
in A e t h e l b e r h t ' s code,
involved,
however,
the p o w e r o f a tr i b a l ruler,
still-novel Christian church,
penalties —
the
change
In
The
not on l y vary with tribal custom and the stage of
its l e g a l d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t o f t e n r e f l c c t s p e c i a l
as
14
the offence could be
c o m p o u n d e d f o r a n d t h e u n i o n r e g u l arir-ed b y b r i d e - p r i c e p a y m e n t .
sums
noting both
"whether by force
or the p r e s s u r e s ,
or even —
influence of wealthy
local circumstances,
such
in s o m e a r e a s , o f a
to judge b y some e x c e ssiv ely heavy
fa m i l i e s a n x i o u s to p r o t e c t t h eir
property from adventurers.
found no trace of
reputable anthropological
tribal
life.
respect
studies,
O n the contrary,
nor
I have
in
n o r in p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f A f r i c a n
what d isti ng u i s h e s barb a r i c law in this
is i t s f r a n k a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i n e q u a l i t i e s o f p r o p e r t y a n d c l a s s ,
the Bavarian Code,
the Hosi,
Duke
In r e s p e c t o f t h i s l a s t c i r c u m s t a n c e ,
s o - c a l l e d p r i m i t i v e c o m m u n i s m in e a r l y l a w ,
for example,
F a g a n a , et a l . ,
going
who were
so far a s to n a m e t h e l e a d i n g
to h a v e
families,
special protection after the
s.
I t is n o t
L o m b a r d law,
shillings,
surprising,
that
triple
therefore,
taking a woman by
the w e r g i l d of
to f i n d
in s e v e n t h - a n d e i g h t - c e n t u r y
force cost the a b d u c t o r a fine o f 900
the
landholding class,
450 shillings
g o i n g to the king a n d 450 s h i l l i n g s going
to the g i r l ' s p a r e n t s ,
after
which marriage arrangements
if b o t h p a r t i e s w i s h e d
it.
the girl,
could be made
but not her parents,
had given consent,
If
the a b d u c t o r h a d to p a y
20 s h i l l i n g s f o r " i l l e g a l i n t e r c o u r s e " ("a n a q rip ") a n d 20 s h i l l i n g s " t o
a v e r t the
feud,"
a re m i n d e r t h a t n o t all a b d u c t i o n s led to h a p p y endings.
N e g o t i a t i o n s f or m a r r i a g e w o u l d t h e n h a v e to b e u n d e r t a k e n ,
of f p e r i o d h a v i n g c o s t the a b d u c t o r 40 s h i l lings,
the cooling-
one-tenth the brideprice
("mundiurn" ) o f t h e L o m b a r d - i n f l u e n c e d A l a m a n n i c c o d e (we d o n o t h a v e t h a t
i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y f r o m the L o m b a r d c o d e ) , an d r e m i n i s c e n t of the o n e tenth downpayment of a wergild
Saxon
law.
( " h e a 1s f a n g " )
T h e same a m o u n t w a s du e to the
t o f e n d o f f t h e f e u d in A n g l o -
father
in e a r l y A l a m a n n i c
law,
s h o u l d he d e m a n d his d a u g h t e r b a c k b e f o r e a l l o w i n g m a r r i a g e negot i a t i o n s .
In the r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y B a v a r i a n code,
shillings
for t h e pare n t s ,
treasury,presumably
Bavarian dukes.
o f ten get a precise figure
negotiation,
in a d d i t i o n to t h e 40
40 s h i l l i n g s h a d t o b e p a i d i n t o t h e " p u b l i c
reflecting
"Mundium"
however,
the l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d p o w e r of the
is n o t d i s c u s s e d
for
it,
in t h e l a t t e r c a s e ,
nor do we
s i n c e it m u s t h a v e b e e n a m a t t e r for
b u t w h e t h e r m e n t i o n e d or not,
it a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n c r u c i a l
to the full l e g a l i t y o f a n y e a r l y m e d i a e v a l marriage.
A g l a n c e a t some o f t h e d i s a b i l i t i e s a r i s i n g from l a c k o f g u a r d i a n s h i p
r i g h t s o v e r t h e woman, which i s th e i n i t i a l s i t u a t i o n f o l l o w i n g on a b d u c t i o n ,
w i l l d ra m a tis e the exposed p o s i t i o n o f c o u p le s n o t fo rm a lly j o in e d t o g e t h e r .
I n R o t h a i r ' s s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y Lombard law , i n t h e e v e n t o f h i s w i f e ' s
d e a t h su c h a h u sb a n d h ad no r i g h t s o v e r h i s w i f e ' s p r o p e r t y , and h e c o u ld
be l i a b l e t o p a y h e r w e r g i l d t o h e r k i n .
In A lam annic law ( e a r l y e i g h t h
c e n t u r y ) he was a l s o l i a b l e f o r t h e w e r g i l d s o f any o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n who
m i g h t die,
for they were not
s u c c o u r e d them.
paying
her
leg a l l y his,
In sim i l a r vein,
the h u s b a n d the same s u m
"mundlum"
from her father,
e v e n t h o u g h he had sired and
if a m a n a b d u c t e d a n o t h e r ' s w i f e w i t h o u t
(400 s h i l l i n g s )
that would have purchased
then any children he m ight have by her legally
b e l o n g e d to the f i r s t h u s b a n d . T o
e x p l a i n such c o l d a t t i t u d e s , w e h a v e to
a c c e p t V i n o g r a d o f f 's s t r e n u o u s l y a r g u e d t h e s i s t h a t " m a r r i a g e is a f o r m o f
18
the law of property,"
a n d t h a t the m a n y r u l e s a n d r i t u a l s s u r r o u n d i n g its
inception and continuance relate
but
to the
devolution of property.
as later,
f u n d a m e n t a l l y not to love a n d a f f e c t i o n
s e c u r i t y o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s h u m a n r e s o u r c e s a n d to the o r d e r l y
The e s s e n t i a l p o s i t i o n of the law o n a b d u c t i o n then,
w a s that this p a r t i c u l a r avenue
p r o d u c e a n e w h o u s e h o l d a n d fami l y unit,
church,
to m a r i t a l
union,
framework,
married girls
legal rights.
there were special categories of women
whose abduction entailed extra penalties.
vu l nerable we r e widows and nuns.
it m i g h t
e ven a m a r r i a g e b l e s s e d b y the
could not guara n t e e the couple's p r operty or other
Within this general
while
Two groups considered particularly
Widows are frequently bracketed with un ­
in t h e l a w s , b u t w e r e o b v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d m o r e e x p o s e d in
this connection.
In a d d i t i o n to the t e m p o r a r y v o i d l eft b y the loss of her
"mundium"
a widow,
holder,
especially one with noble or royal connections,
w o u l d b e v e r y t e m p t i n g to an a b d u c t o r b e c a u s e of p r o p e r t y g i v e n h e r b y her
husband,
law).
such as the m o r n i n g gift and the marriaqe portion
However,
not all widows'
(jneta i n L o m b a r d
a b d u c t i o n s a r e to b e e x p l a i n e d b y d o w e r o r
o t h e r p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y s uch as t r i g g e r e d the fam o u s a b d u c t i o n o f E l e a n o r
of Aquitaine.
B a v a r i a n law,
for example,
singles out w i do ws who, b urd e n e d
with children,
fell v i c t i m to a b d u c t i o n b e c a u s e o f p overty,
the composition
i n s u c h c a s e s b e i n g d o u b l e t h a t f o r a b d u c t i n g a v i r g i n (2 x 4 0 s h i l l i n g s ) p l u s
19
the 40 s h i l l i n g s f i n e to t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y .
The abduction of nuns could
also be
triggered b y g r eed for their pr o p e r t y which m i ght otherwise b e
to the church;
c o m m i t m e n t to a p r o f e s s i o n no longer des i r e d .
as we have seen, dealt h a r shly wi t h these
Liutprand,
lost
b u t it c o u l d a l s o be the w a y o f esc a p e f r o m an i l l - c o n s i d e r e d
a century and a half
earlier
Christian kings
cases,
like Alfred,
b u t the L o m b a r d king,
in 723, a r g u i n g t h a t s i m p l e d o n n i n g
o f h e r g a r b c o m n i t t e d a n u n to h e r p r o f e s s i o n e v e n b e f o r e c o n s e c r a t i o n ,
levied even harsher penalties against her and any who might have connived
at her escape.
Her guardian was
suffered personal
her property,
constraint at
liable to p a y his wergild,
the nun
the d i s c r e t i o n of the king an d loss of all
while her abductor faced an additional
100 s h i l l i n g s t o t h e
already staggering 900 shillings
This may be an
fine for o r d i n a r y abdu c t i o n
instance of royal
in t h e s e
zeal b e i n g e n l i s t e d a g a i n s t
laws.
those rich
n o b l e s w h o m P r o f e s s o r J a c k G o o d y has r e c e n t l y s i n gled o u t as l e a d i n g the
o p p o s i t i o n to a g r e e d y church.
Finally,
the infl u e n c e of the B o n i f a c i a n
r e f o r m o f t h e B a v a r i a n c h u r c h has b e e n s e e n in the t e x t d e a l i n g w i t h
offence
in t h e B a v a r i a n c o d e :
"We k n o w that
this
the a b d u c t i o n o f a n o t h e r ' s
b e t r o t h e d is a p u n i s h a b l e crime:
h o w m u c h m o r e p u n i s h a b l e is a c r i m e w h i c h
us urps the b e t r o t h e d o f C h r i s t . "
If the a b d u c t o r f a i l e d to r e t u r n the nun
a n d p a y her c o n v e n t d o u b l e the c o m p o s i t i o n n o r m a l l y l e vied for a b d u c t i o n o f
a betrothed woman
province.
(2 x 8 0 s h i l l i n g s ) , h e w a s t o b e e x p e l l e d f r o m t h e
20
The most o bvious categories of women whose abduction carried
penalties were
nuns,
those already b e trothed or married.
a b d u c t i o n o f b e t r o t h e d w o m e n m i g h t w e l l b e the e a s i e s t w a y o u t o f an
unwanted commitment.
less
Modern
l a ws ui ts for b r e a c h o f promise,
f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e y u s e d to be, a r e a r e m i n d e r o f the
formal betrothal
most
in t i m e s p a s t .
f r e q u e n t l y th e man,
since,
incurred considerable expense,
example,
But
in the e a r l y la w s the
as p r o s p e c t i v e groom,
for illegal
Thus,
her abductor,
intercourse and avoidance of
If a g i r l ' s
without her consent,
then they had
it w a s q u a d r u p l e .
in R o t h a i r ' s
21
b e f o r e he c o u l d a c q u i r e her
to p a y
the a l t e r n a t i v e
greater.
(the w i f e
fines,
w i t h or
the d o u b l e p o r t i o n .
In V i s i g o t h i c
In the
case of wife abductors,
they were
since killing an adulterer was one of the well-
to the l a w o f the
led to the o t her.
such offenders
laws,
feud, o w e d the i n j u r e d m a n d o u b l e
feud,
a n d it c a n n o t a l w a y s h a v e b e e n
to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n w i f e a b d u c t i o n a n d a d u l t e r y .
often have
(Lombard)
for
In A e t h e l b e r h t 's l a w s 2 0 s h i l l i n g s c o m p e n s a t i o n h a d
fortu n a t e w h o l i v e d to pay,
known exceptions
instalments,
f a mily c o n n i v e d at such an abduction,
to b e p a i d t o t h e j i l t e d m a n .
easy
i n j u r e d p a r t y is
i n a d d i t i o n to t h e u s u a l p a y m e n t s
the m a r r i a g e p o r t i o n a g r e e d a t her betro t h a l ,
"mundium."
t h o u g h far
serious nature of
he w o u l d a l r e a d y h a v e
pledge money and brideprice
w h i c h he w o u l d n e e d to recover.
if t h e g i r l w e n t w i l l i n g l y ,
la w ,
increased
A s in t h e c a s e o f s o m e
The o ne must
Since the laws g e n e r a l l y c o n d o n e d k i l l i n g
included,
if the couple w e r e caught in f l a g r a n t e ) ,
not surprisingly,
w e r e o f the o r d e r o f w e r g i l d s or
I n t h e Lex S a l i c a , t h e f i n e e q u a l l e d t h e w e r g i l d o f a F r a n k ,
200 s h i l l i n g s , a s c o m p a r e d w i t h 6 2 J s h i l l i n g s in o r d i n a r y c a s e s o f
abduction.
double
In t h e l a t e r
(eighth-century)
A l a m a n n i c code,
the w e r g i l d o f a n o n - l a n d h o l d i n g free m a n ,
it was more
400 shill i n g s
than
compared
with
160 shillings.
Abductors of betrothed women,
however,
were often
treated every bit as harshly as abductors of married women,
regarded as all but marriage.
of a betrothed woman was
proved
were
inadequate,
liable
gentler
to loss o f b o t h l i f e a n d p r o p e r t y .
A n unusual
if that
these abductors
feature o f the
in w h a t m u s t sure l y be a s urvival o f m o r e p r i m i t i v e
the m o s t
22
interesting question ar i s i n g from this i n vestigation
l e g a l a t all b u t a p e r s o n a l one.
whatever the m eans b y which
have been
the abductor
the w i f e - a b d u c t o r h a d to p r o c u r e a n e w w i f e w i t h h i s o w n m o n e y
Perhaps
choice,
betrothal being
for example,
In t he B u r g u n d i a n cod e ,
a n d d e l i v e r h e r to t he a g g r i e v e d m a n ' s h ouse.
is n o t
law,
l i a b l e to the loss o f al l h i s p r o p e r t y or,
to enslav e m e n t .
laws of Kent,
concerns,
In V i s i g o t h i c
H a d t he w o m a n a n y f r e e d o m of
she ent e r e d
into m a r r i a g e ?
largely negative for this early period,
Judgments
and the a d monitions of
lawgivers ag a i n s t the iniq u i t y of giving w o men to m e n w h o m they disliked
have
understandably been
i n t e r p r e t e d as p r o o f o f t he p r a c t i c e .
To Liutprand's
"There can be no w orse t r e a t m e n t than a w ard's b e ing forced to m a r r y a m a n
she does not want," and Aethel r e d ' s
"A w i d o w is to c h o o s e w h a t
she h e r s e l f
wills,"
C n u t a d d e d , " N o w i d o w o r m aiden i s e v e r t o b e f o r c e d t o m a r r y a m a n
23
she d i s l i k e s . "
But was this a revolutionary innovation or simply part
of the n e v e r - e n d i n g struggle
to m a i n t a i n h a r m o n y a n d fair d e a l i n g ,
a
p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l o f w h i c h h a p p e n e d to g e t i n t o t he laws a t t h i s p o i n t ?
We
have a lready noted cases where women consented to their own abduction,
fines being diminished appropriately,
a n d t h e r e is some e v i d e n c e t h a t in
r e g u l a r b e t r o t h a l s w o m e n d i d i n d e e d h a v e a s a y in t he c h o i c e o f mat e .
I n t h e d o c u m e n t C o n c e r n i n g t h e B e t r o t h a l o f a Woman, w e r e a d t h a t i f
the idea of m a r rying a particular man
arrangements could go forward.
contracts from pre-Norman England,
a
the b r i d e g r o o m g i v e s the b r i d e - t o - b e
" p o u n d o f g o l d to i n d u c e h e r to a c c c p t h i s s u i t . "
things,
grooms as well as brides
and freedom of choice
comes
be
"pleases her and her kinsmen," then
A n d in o n e of t h e t wo s u r v i v i n g m a r r i a g e
is n o n e t h e l e s s b e c a u s e o f
from the eleventh century,
late also.
a n d the b e t r o t h a l t ext h a s b e e n jud g e d to
D o r othy Whitelock adds,
(975-1030)
for the
"the stressing of the need
t h e w o m a n h e r s e l f is t o a c c e p t
the s u i t o r s u g g e s t s
But was
I would suggest
t his r e a l l y so n o v e l ?
"groom-price"),
it. T h i s m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t
B u t i n s u p p o r t i n g L i . e b e r m a n n 's d a t e
latter document,
Money can b u y many
(Robin F o x c a l l s a d o w r y
it w a s n o t , n o r d o
w e n e e d to c r e d i t t h e c h u r c h w i t h b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e s
that
t h a t it is n o t early.
I think
innovation here.
The
e a r l i e s t p e n i t e n t i a l s in E n g l a n d r e v e a l a c h u r c h
existing law a nd order,
but obliged,
with stubborn maidens.
Theodore's
states that
seventh-century
to come to terms
P e n i t e n t i a l , for example,
if the g i r l d i d n o t w i s h to live w i t h t h e m a n t o w h o m she h a d
been betrothed,
one third.
fir m l y o n the s ide o f the
like e v e r y o n e else,
s i non v u l t h a b i t a r e , h e s h o u l d g o t h i s m o n e y b a c k , p l u s
Again,
if a m a i d e n p e r s i s t e d
in h e r o b s t i n a c y ,
i l i a omnino
r e s i s t a t , her f a m i l y c o uld t r y a n o t h e r suitor or, i f she w ished, she c o uld
enter a c o n v e n t . ^
C a n we go
of a woman
to f i n d ,
further and find evidence of other than mere resistance —
initiating courtship?
but we have one clause
"if a g i r l
In the nat u r e o f things,
this
is h a r d e r
in t h e B u r g u n d i a n c o d e w h i c h s t a t e s
seeks the m a n of her o w n w i l l and com e s to his house,
intercourse with her," he must pa y her marriage price three-fold.
w a y round,
it w o u l d h a v e c o s t h i m n i n e - f o l d . ^
St.
is a r e m i n d e r t h a t m e n ,
Julian
Finally,
that
and he has
The other
Aelfric's story of
too, m i g h t r e s i s t f a m i l y p r e s s u r e
to
marry,
in h i s c a s e a r e s i s t a n c e w h i c h c o n t i n u e d i n t o t h e m a r r i a g e b e d i t s e l f ,
where,
we a r e told,
holy visions helped sustain him and his wife
self-imposed chastity.
tinued well
example,
into m o dern times
in r o y a l
in the i r
P u b l i c w i t n e s s of e n t r y into the m a r r i a g e b e d c o n ­
in c a s e s w h e r e
it w a s
important,
as,
for
families, b u t that, o f course, g u a r a n t e e d nothing.
Proxim­
ity d i d no t h e l p E f f i e w i t h J o h n R u s k i n ;
insist on consumnation as an essential
The
law,
as always,
and the c h u r c h has b e e n r i g h t to
27
feature of marriage.
leav e s m u c h unsaid, a n d the o u t c o m e o f e ach
must have depended on things of which we have no record,
c a p a c i t y to p a y and the p o w e r to col l e c t fines a n d o t h e r p a y m e n t s ,
degree of affection between parent and child which,
suggested,
would determine
be i n f l i c t e d . ^
different
the
or the
as Wilda and Grimm
in p r a c t i c e w h a t p r o p e r t y loss,
if a n y ,
might
T h e b a r g a i n i n g p o w e r s of e a c h f a m i l y m i g h t n o t b e so v e r y
from today's,
alth o u g h we know that virgi n i t y was
and specifically safeguarded,
abduction
i f t h e g i r l w a s r e t u r n e d " u n c o r r u p t e d ."
is a r e a s o n a b l e
incident
for example,
fines,
then m u c h prized
for e x a m p l e , b e i n g r e d u c e d
Statistics
we have none, b u t
supposition that marriages by abduction were
it
far less
numerous
than what were obviously considered proper marriages by negotiation
29
between kindred.
The t r e a t m e n t o f the a b d u c t o r a n d the size and d i s t r i b u ­
tion o f the p a y m e n t s n e e d e d to
legalise
the u n i o n all p o i n t to the
p r e d o m i n a n t r o l e o f the k i n d r e d in this as
l aw .
The k i n d r e d set the norm,
and what
in o t h e r a s p e c t s o f b a r b a r i c
is n o r m a l l y a c c e p t e d u s u a l l y
d e t e r m i n e s w h a t i s r i g h t a n d w h a t is w r o n g .
recorded history,
our evidence
And whatever
the practice before
f rom the o n s e t o f l e g a l l y - o r d e r e d so c i e t i e s
c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s t hat a b d u c t i o n of w o m e n was then c o n s i d e r e d u n a c c e p t a b l e
30
to m a r r i a g e .
as a means
The
size o f some o f the fines
in t h e s e e a r l y c o d e s m a y g i v e a m i s l e a d ­
ing i m p r e s s i o n that o n l y the w e a l t h y w o r r i e d a b o u t a b d u c t i o n s .
of human appetites
is m a d e u p o f m a n y c u r r e n t s w h i c h c a n d i s t u r b t h e e v e n
t e n o r of a n y lev e l o f ^ s o c i e t y in u n f o r e s e e n ways.
one o f m a n 's m a n y e f f o r t s to control
abduction of women
But the surge
Legal systems are but
the t u r b ulence of nature,
a n d the
is o n e o f t he s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f b a r b a r i c l a w w h i c h
e n a b l e us to s ee s o m e o f t he n a t u r a l
unceasing pressure on all systems,
f o r c e s w h i c h c o n t i n u e to e x e r t t h e i r
however
sophisticated or responsive.
University of Toronto
NOTES
T h i s p a p e r w a s r e a d at the S y m p o s i u m o n the T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f L a t e A n t i q u i t y
held a t the Centre for Medieval
O c t o b e r 1983.
Studies, University of Toronto,
I w o u l d l i k e to t h a n k the H u m a n i t i e s a n d So c i a l
R e s e a r c h Corranittee, U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o ,
^ Georges Simenon,
1964)
trans.
J.
in
Sciences
for a g r a n t - i n - a i d .
S t e w a r t , M a i g r e t ' s S p e c i a l Murder
(London
178.
2
R.
Huebner,
(London 1918),
1966)
trans.
quoted
F.S.
in L.
P h i l l b r i c k , A H i s t o r y o f P r i v a t e German Law
K r a d e r , A n th r o p o l o g y and E a r l y Law ( N e w Y o r k
140.
^ "The s l a v e w h o d a r e s to m a r r y a free w o m a n o r g i r l
life":
Rothair's Edict
(Philadelphia
19 7 3 )
95
(A.D.
643)
(hereafter,
221 in K.F. Drew,
Drew).
the f ree p a r t n e r w a s l oss o f freedom:
K.A.
shall
lose his
The Lombard Laws
In Salic law the p e n a l t y for
Eckhardt,
ed.,
Lex S a l i c a i n
MGHt Legum S e c t i o 1 ( H a n o v e r 1 9 6 9 ) X I V , 7, 1 0 o n p p . 1 2 8 a n d 1 3 0 ( h e r e a f t e r
Eckhardt).
In V i s i g o t h i c
law,
however,
"totally a b h o r r e n t was the idea
o f sexual liaison between a freewoman and her own slave
. . . both
. . .
were
flogged and then burned":
Kingdom ( C a m b r i d g e 19 7 2 )
4
P. V i n o g r a d o f f ,
N e w Y o r k 1971)
I,
178
King,
Law and S o c i e t y i n t h e V i s i g o t h i c
King) .
O u tlin es o f H isto ric a l Jurisprudence
196.
"Marriage was
a c c o r d i n g t o F. S e e b o h m ,
customs
P.D.
(hereafter.
comparing Kentish,
Cymric,
Dargun,
rpt.
two k i n d r e d s "
and continental German
i n T r i b a l Custom i n A n g lo - S a x o n Law ( L o n d o n 1911)
L.
(Oxford 1920:
a fair contract between
466.
M u t t e r r e c h t und Raubehe und i h r e R e s t e i n g e r m a n is c h e n
R e c h t und L eben.
( U n te rsu c h u n g e n z u r d e u t s c h e n S t a a t s - u n d R e c h t s g e s c h i c h t e
16 , B r e s l a u 1 8 8 3 )
(hereafter,
Dargun).
Robin Fox,
"In the b e g i n n i n g t h e r e w a s p r o m i s c u i t y
(K i n s h i p and M a rriage
[Harmondsworth
discussing McLennan,
. . . finally monogamy
1967)
17).
. . . ."
For a recent example of
w o m e n ' s h i s t o r y v i e w e d as e v o l v i n g f r e e d o m f r o m " p r i m i t i v e G e r m a n i c "
the middle
years"
189 ;
ages to the d r a m a t i c " e m a n c i p a t i o n
s e e S u z a n n e F. W e m p l e ,
a l s o R.W.
( N e w Y o r k 19 4 7 )
B.
Hinsdale,
Dmytryshyn,
III.
1973)
F. P o l l o c k
196 8 )
II,
( P h i l a d e l p h i a 1981)
4 36 a n d 437;
R.H.
Lowie,
23.
M e d ie va l R u s s i a : A S o u r c e B o o k , 900 -17 00 ( 2 n d e d . ,
7; D a n i e l H. K a i s e r ,
( P r i n c e t o n 1980)
R ussia
( L o n d o n 19 3 6 )
through
in the last one hun d r e d
Women i n F r a n k i s h S o c i e t y
F i r t h , We The T i k o p i a
P rim itiv e S o c ie ty
. . .
The Growth o f t h e Law i n M e d ie v a l
168 an d 263 n.22.
and F.W.
M a i t l a n d , H i s t o r y o f E n g l i s h Law (2nd e d . ,
490; b u t c o m p a r e L i e b e r m a n n :
have been distinguished
"Marriage b y abduction,
from rape or concubinage
G e setze der Angelsachsen
[Halle 1903-16]
II,
Cambridge
raubehe, must
f r o m t he b e g i n n i n g "
3 6 8 a n d 3 69 n . 2
i
(Die
[hereafter
L i e b e r m a n n ] ).
Q
A e t h e l b e r h t 's L a w s ,
English
82,
t r a n s l a t i o n in F.L.
(Cambridge
19 2 2 )
14-15
83,
84 i n L i e b e r m a n n 1,8;
Attenborough,
I I,
15-16.
T e x t and
The Laws o f t h e E a r l i e s t E n g l i s h K i n g s
(hereafter, Attenborough);
English only
i n D. W h i t e l o c k ,
E n g l i s h H i s t o r i c a l Documents ( 2 n d e d . , L o n d o n 19 7 9 ) I, 3 9 3 ( h e r e a f t e r , E .H .D .)
^ Seebohm
Rape
I, 6 2 - 6 6 ;
73(2);
(at n . 4 )
(noun)
is
Attenborough
487-492.
"niedhaemed."
74-76;
L a w s o f W i l l i a m I,
E.H .D. I, 413.
12 i n L i e b e r m a n n
and E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n in A.J.
fro m Edmund t o Henry I
Robertson)
S.E.
Mass.
19 6 8 )
a n d E .H .D .
Cf. A l f r e d ' s
Robertson,
[ C a m b r i d g e 1925]
Laws,
25,
A e t h e l r e d V I,
I, 2 5 6 f . ,
3 4 6 f .,
29 in L i e b e r m a n n
39; C n u t I I ,
52,
3 6 0 f . , 500f.
(text
The Laws o f t h e K in g s o f E ngla nd
1 0 2 f . # 2 0 2 f . , 2 1 2 f . , 2 5 8 f . , (hereafter,
I, 4 4 6 n . 7 a n d 4 6 3 .
T h o r n e , B r a c to n on t h e Laws and C u s t o m s o f E n gla nd
II, 4 1 4 f .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
any m a n had intercourse w i t h a w o man
(Cambridge,
for 1087 records that
against her will,
he was
forthwith
"if
castrated":
D.C.
D o u g l a s a n d G. W.
D ocuments II ( L o n d o n 19 5 3 )
12
Laws of Alfred
Attenborough
68 f.;
164.
8 , 8 ( 1 ) , 8 (2 ) , 8(3) in L i e b e r m a n n I, 5 4 f .;
E .H .D . I, 4 1 0 f .
On "Nydniman,"
"to a b d u c t , "
L i e b e r m a n n I, 3 6 0 f . ; R o b e r t s o n
14
K i n g 2 32; D a r g u n 113.
Bavarian Laws
Rothair
XXXII,
III,
186,
187,
1977)
188,
187
65 a b o v e ;
129
Cnut
II,
73( 2 )
in
I, 466.
Rivers,
trans.,
(hereafter,
Laws o f t h e Alamans
Rivers).
86 a n d 87; P a c t i s L e g i s Alamannorum
1 8 8 in D r e w
2; B a v a r i a n L a w s V I I I ,
Rothair
s e e p.
212f.; E.H.D.
1 in T . J .
(Philadelphia
and B a v a r i a n s
G r e e n w a y , e d s ., E n g lish H is to r ic a l
6 in R i v e r s 55 a n d 139.
in D r e w
87;
Lex Alamannorum L I I I , 2; L, 1 , 2 in
R i v e r s 8 4 a n d 83.
^ V i n o g r a d o f f (at n . 4 ) 197.
19
B a v a r i a n L a w s V I I I , 7 in R i v e r s
20
Liutprand
30,
1 in D r e w 159;
139.
.7. G o o d y ,
The D e ve lop m e nt o f t h e
F a m i ly and M a rr ia g e i n E urope ( C a m b r i d g e 19 83) 211; B a v a r i a n L a w s I, 11
in R i v e r s
21
122.
Rothair
190,
192
in D r e w
87 a n d
88 ; K i n g
228.
i n L i e b e r m a n n I,
22
8 ; A t t e n b o r o u g h 14, 15; E .H.D. I, 393.
R i v e r s 83;
227f.
L e x S a l i c a XV, 1, in E c k h a r d t
King
1 30 a n d 131.
B u r g u n d i a n L a w s LII
Code ( P h i l a d e l p h i a 1 9 7 2 )
59 a n d 60.
in L i e b e r m a n n
I,
242f.
and 360f.;
4 4 2 f . ; E .H .D .
I,
Fox
W.
I, 4 6 7 .
596 and A.J.
in K.F. D r ew,
A e t h e l r e d V,
21 a n d C n u t
R o b e r t s o n 84f. a n d 212f.;
("Wifmannes Beweddung")
A n g lo - S a x o n C h a r t e r s
Dargun
112.
74
E.H ,D. I,
Bk.
II,
ch.
XII,
(Cambridge
33,
193 9 )
3 4 in A . W .
n o.
I,
W.E.
Wilda,
(London 1881-1900)
77.
Haddan and
C o u n c i l s and E c c l e s i a s t i c a l Documents ( O x f o r d 1 8 7 1 ) III,
A e l f r i c 's L iv es o f the S a in ts
28
5;
II,
in L i e b e r m a n n
^
B u r g u n d i a n L a w s X I I , 4, 1 in D r e w (at n. 2 2 ) 31.
27
" P a s s i o n o f St. J u l i a n a n d h i s W i f e , B a s i l i s s a , "
ed.,
The B u rg u ndia n
O l d E n g l i s h M a r r i a g e A g r e e m e n t f r o m K e n t i n E .H .D .
Robertson,
(at n. 5) 238.
25
Theodore's P e n iten tia l
Stubbs,
L in
L e x Alamannorum
A e t h e l b e r h t 31 i n L i e b e r m a n n I,
A t t e n b o r o u g h 8 , 9; E .H .D . I, 393.
23
L i u t p r a n d 1 2 0 , IV in D r e w 1 9 7 .
4 4 5 a n d 446.
24
"Betrothal of a Woman"
A e t h e l b e r h t 83
in W.W.
201.
Skeat,
I, 9 1 ff.
Das S t r a f r e c h t d e r Germanen ( H a l l e 18 4 2 )
75
29 In early Welsh law, the "gift of the girl by her kindred," costing
three payments, was the "normal." way of marriage: D. Jenkins and M.E. Owen,
eds., The Welsh Law of Wo men (Cardiff 1980) 117.
30 R. Koes tler thought that marriage by abduction, raubehe, was
"probably never common except through war and feud "
("Raub-, Kauf-,
und Friedelehe bei den Germanen," Zeitschrirt der Savigny-Stiftung f:ir
Rechtsgeschichte Germ. Abt. 63
[1~~31
1l5),but the laws are too detailed
and specific for u s no t to suspect that abduction was a familiar,
if
limited, occurrence in normal times, whatever. th e case in time of war or
feud,
for whi c h we have little or no legal evidence.
For some useful word
studies and their inadequacy as guide" to Anglo-Saxon marriage customs,
see A. Fischer, "Engagement, Wcddjng and Marriage in Old English"
diss., Basel 1981).
(unr ub .