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ReportNo. 11642-MLI
Mali
Country EnvironmentalStrategyPaper
CountryOperationsDivision
SahelDepartment
Africa Region
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11642
MLI
CURRENCYEQUIVALENTS(January 1994)
CurrencyUnit CFA Franc (CFAF)
US$ 1.00= CFAF 592
WEIGHTS& MEASURES
MetricSystem
1 metricton (tn) = 2,205pounds(lb)
I hectare(ha) = 2 47 acres (ac)
1 kilogram(kg) = 2 2 pounds(lb)
GOVERNMENTFISCALYEAR
January I - December31
FOR OFFICIALUSE ONLY
ABBREVIATIONSAND ACRONYMS
AV
CILSS
CITES
CMDT
CRD
CRL
DNA
DNEF
DNHE
FAO
ILCA
IUCN
NEAP
NGO
ON
OPNBB
PIRL
PIRT
PNCLD
TLU
USAID
AssociationVillageois(VillageAssociations)
ComiteInter-Etatde luttecontrela Secheressedans le Sahel
(SahelianInter-StateCommitteeon DroughtControl
Conventionon the InternationalTrade of EndangeredSpecies
CompagnieMaliennepour le Developpementdu Textiles
(Malian CottonCompany)
ComiteRegionalde Developpement
(RegionalDevelopmentCommittees)
ComiteLocal de Developpement
(LocalDevelopmentCommittees)
DirectionNationalede l'Agriculture
(NationalDirectorateof Agriculture)
DirectionNationaledes Eauxet Forets
(NationalDirectoratefor Water and Forest)
DirectionNationalede I'Hydrologique
et l'Energie
(NationalDirectorateof Hydrologyand Energy)
Organisationdes NationsUniespour l'Agricultureet l'Alimentation
(Foodand AgriculturalOrganization)
CentreInternationalpour l'Elevageen Afrique
(InternationalLivestockCenterfor Africa)
InternationalUnionfor the Conservationof Nature
NationalEnvironmentalActionPlan
Non-governmentalOrganization
Officedu Niger ConsolidationProject
Officedu Parc Nationalde la Boucledu Baoule
(BaouleLoopNational ParkAuthority)
Programmesd'Inventairesdes RessourcesLigneuses
Programmesd'Inventairesdes RessourcesTerrestres
Programmne
Nationalede luttecontrela D&sertification
(NationalProgramfor DesertificationControl)
TropicalLivestockUnit
UnitedStatesAgencyfor InternationalDevelopment
This documenthas a restricteddistribution
andmaybe usedby recipientsonlyin theperformance
of their
officialduties. Its contentsrnaynot otherwisebe disclosedwithoutWorldBankauthorization.
TABLES OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
L BACKGROUND: POPULATION GROWTH, AGRICULTURE AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
II
1
Population Growth.....................................
1
The Economy .....................................
1
Agriculture .....................................
1
Natural Environment.....................................
2
Cultural Environment.....................................
5
H. THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
6
Land Degradation ...................................
6
Water Resources Degradation....................................
7
Biodiversity - Species and Habitat Loss....................................
9
Loss of Cultural Heritage ....................................
10
Air Pollution ....................................
10
Impact of Environmental Degradation on the Poor ...................................
10
mH.
ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION - DIRECT AND INDIRECT
CAUSES
11
Direct Causes of Land Degradation....................................
11
Causes of Rangeland Degradation ....................................
13
Causes of Deforestation ...................................
16
Degradation of Water Resources ...................................
18
Reduction in Biodiversity...................................
19
The Common Underlying Causes ...................................
20
Accelerating Causes...................................
24
IV. GOVERNMENT, BANK, DONOR AND NGO SUPPORTED
PROGRAMS
25
Environmental Programs of the Government ...............................................
25
The Bank's Portfolio .................................................
26
Programs of Other Donors and NGOs.................................................
28
V. TOWARD A NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY
29
Objectives of Environmental Strategy.................................................
29
Tackling the Causes.................................................
29
Protecting Cultural Heritage and Managing Tourism Development............... 32
Going to the Roots .................................................
32
Information Gaps.................................................
35
LIST OF REFERENCES
37
TEXT TABLES
1.1
1.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
Agro-climaticZones
GroundwaterResourceand EstimatedAnnualUse, 1987
Decompositionof ProductionGrowthin Major Crops, 1985-1991
RegionalPopulationGrowthRates, 1987-2000
EnvironmentalDegradation:Sunmmary
of Problemsand Causes
3
5
16
27
32
BOXES
2.1 Pollutionof UndergroundWater Systemin Bamako
3.1 Loss of LivestockMarketsand RangeDegradation
APPENDICES
AppendixI Mali - Environrmental
PolicyAnalysisMatrix
10
19
PREFACE
This Country EnvironmentalStrategy Paper (CESP) is a result of a collaborativeeffort betweenthe
Governmentof Mali and the WorldBank. The originalreportwas preparedby Mr. H. Kordik(consultant)
under the supervisionand guidance of Mr. EmmerichSchebeck(AF5DR). Key contributorsto this
documentwere H. Van der Tek (consultant),H. Hennrich-Hanson(AF5CO),N. Sefta (AF5IE),C. Dejou
and J. Hall (AF5AG)and Francois Falloux(AFTEN). J. Taboroff (ENVAP)preparedthe draft notes on
culturalproperty. The report also benefittedfrom the commentsof Messrs.J. L. Sarbib (AF5CO),J. van
Beuzekom(AF51N),W. Lusigi (AFTEN)and W. Floor(IENPD)
The originalJune 1992versionof the reportwas discussedwith the Governmentduring 1993in the context
of the National EnvironmentalActionPlan processwhich is currentlyongoing. It was reviseddirectlyby
the Governmentin April 1994 so as to incorporateMaliancommentsand priority concerns. The report
documentsthe major environmentalproblemsfacingMali,theirdirect and indirectcauses and their impacts
on long term growth prospects. It focuses on the critical linkages between population growth and
environmentaldegradationin Mali as well as on the institutional,legislativeand macroeconornicpolicy
frameworkfor addressingtheseproblemswithinthe contextof a nationalenvironmentalstrategy.
The report is dividedinto five chapters. ChapterI providesa generalintroductionto the rest of the report:
an overviewof the country,recent economicperformance,descriptionof the natural environmentand an
overviewof the country's culturalheritage. Chapter 11examinesthe increasingenviromnentalproblems,
with particularemphasison landdegradation,surfaceand groundwaterwater pollution,loss of biodiversity
(both speciesdepletionand habitatloss) as well as loss of culturalheritage. ChapterIII analysesthe direct
and indirect causes of environmentaldegradationand relates these to populationgrowth. Chapter IV
examinesthe on-goingprogramsand plannedprojectsof the government,the Bank, donorsand the NGO
community in environmentaland natural resource management. Finally, Chapter V provides the
frameworkfor an environmentalstrategyfor Mali.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Population Growth and EnvironmentalDegradation
i.
Populationpressure on scarce arable landwithina fragile ecosystemis the singlemost important
factor influencingthe rapid rate of environmentaldegradationin Mali. Mali's populationis estimatedto
grow at an annual rate of 2.6% per year. With a fertilityrate of 7 (wellabovethe Africanaverage),the
country'spopulationis estimatedto doubleto 17 millionby the end of the nexttwo decades. This relatively
high populationgrowthis occurringin an already fragile biophysical(and to some extent, socioeconomic
environment),characterizedby inadequateand irregularrainfallpatterns and droughts. Rainfalladequate
for rainfedagriculture(estimatedat above600 mm per annum)occurs in only about 25 % of Mali's total
area, mainlythe Sudanian-Savannah
agro-climaticzone. In addition,only a third of the country'stotal land
area of 1.24 millionkm2 is arable. Given these constraints,the unregulatedinteractionof population
growth, fragile ecosystemand erratic rainfallhas resultedin serious environmentalproblems,withmajor
economicand social consequencesfor the rural poor, especiallywomen. Major environmentproblems
include land degradation(farmland, range and forest), pollution of surface and undergroundwater
resources, decliningbio diversity (both specie and habitat losses), loss in archaeologicaland cultural
property,air pollutionand drought.
ii.
Landdegradation. Landuse practices(agriculturalpractices,livestockmanagement,deforestation
and fuelwoodutilization)remainthe major causes of land degradation. Agriculturalproductionis largely
labor intensivewith productionincreasesresultingmainlythroughexpansionof cultivatedareas ratherthan
through intensiveuse of arable land resources. Conversionof natural forests into cropland and pastures
has increasedby nearly 33 % over the last two decades.Fallowperiod,a natural meansof agriculturalland
rejuvenationunder low populationpressure,has beenprogressivelyreducedto betweentwo to four years.
In some highpopulationdensityareasof the south,fallowperiodis virtuallynon-existent.
iii.
Rangelanddegradation. The degradationof Mali's rangelandshas beenacceleratedby inadequate
range managementpractices,large populationsof livestockand low offtakesfrom existingherds. Cattle
offtake rates (the percentageof animals slaughteredto size of natural herd) have declinedconsiderably,
from a high of 16% in 1984to about 12%in 1987, mainlyin responseto declininglivestockexports,the
lack of alternativesfor small producersto investreceiptsfrom livestocksales in rural areas and attitudeof
livestock producers toward risks of drought. Consequently,rangelandsare often utilized at rates far
exceedingtheir carrying capacity, leading to accelerateddegradation. These factors also impedethe
adoptionof long term conservationstrategies.
iv.
Deforestation. Onlyabout2% of Mali'stotal naturalforests area of 17.4millionha is in reserves
and parks. While a Forestry Code exists, the lack of enforcementand dependenceon fuelwoodhave
resultedin the over-exploitationof both forestsand forest resources. Prices set by governmentin order to
control the cutting and distributionof fuelwooddo not often reflectthe economiccosts of fuelwoodand
revenuecollectedfrom sale of permitsand licensesdo not allowfor self-financingof the sector. In some
cases, tax policies,combinedwith lax enforcement,have actually acceleratedthe rate of deforestation,as
firms expandtheir operationsin orderto recouprevenuelost for tax purposesand from periodicdroughts.
v.
Deterioratingwater resources.
In spite of the occurrenceof persistent droughts, Mali has
substantialendowmentof water resourcesin both surfaceand groundwater(aquifers). Both the Niger and
Senegal Rivers account for about 44.1 billion m3 /yr of surface water. In addition, clean underground
water reserveshave been estimatedat 2,720 billionm3 with annual replenishmentof over 66 billion m3 .
However,surface water supplies are facing increasingpollutiondue to improper disposal of urban and
industrialwastes, mainlyfrom the gold miningsector. An increasingnumberof people(about 35% rural
and45 ent use of water occurs throughpoorlymanagedirrigationsschemes,resultingin annual wastageof
about 10,000m3 /ha per annum.
vi.
Biodiversity. Mali's ecosystem,despiteits fragility,providesa natural habitat for a diversified
bird and mammalfauna, especiallyaround the innerdelta of the Niger River. More than 136 speciesof
mammalsand 640 species of birds have been documented. In practice, however,very little proactive
species,notablythe cheetah,
conservationactuallyoccurs due to limitedresources. Severallarge mammnal
scimitar-hornedoryx and Korrigum, and someplant speciesare alreadyextinct. Poachingand other illegal
activitiesremainwidespreadin protectedareas. Habitat lossesalso occur due the expansionof agriculture
and deforestation.The Deltaalso containsa largenumberof speciesof fish. It is also the originalhomeof
African rice (Oriza africana) and bourgou(Echinocloastagnina). It is a uniqueeco-systemin the Sahel
and shouldbe preserved. Mostof the large mammalspeciesof Maliare threatenedwith extinction.
vii.
Cultural Heritaae. Mali has a rich and diversecultural heritage includingfour UnescoWorld
Heritage Sites (Old Townsof Djenne,Bandiagara(DogonCountry),Timbuktu,and Gao) and more than
800 archeological and historical sites. But like its natural environment, Mali's cultural heritage is
threatened by both natural and human factors. Looting and uncontrolled exports of artifacts destroy sites
and deplete the country's patrimony while migration, especially of the Dogcn people, from rural to urban
centers results in abandonment of historical settlements. Current protection efforts are insufficient to
prevent and conserve these irreplaceable resources.
viii.
Air pollution is not as yet a serious environmental problem in Mali. However, as urban population
increases the rate of air pollution, mainly from automobiles and the burning of fuelwood, reaching annual
estimates of 6.7 million m3 for primitive stoves and 3 million for open f.ires, is expected to increase.
Industrial pollution, even though not large in absolute terms, has effects on surface water resources. Most
factories do not have treatment plants and dump wastes directly into the Niger River. In 1989, an interministerial commission undertook an extensive study of industrial waste and! issued proposed measuresto
reduce it, after which several plants were cited as being particularly polluting.,
Indirect Causes of Environmental Degradation
ix.
While population pressure continues to be the driving force behind Mali's environmental decline,
other contributing factors are lack of economic alternatives, especially among the rural agricultural
population, general absence of environmental awareness, limited institutional capacity to enforce existing
regulations, the absence of a comprehensive land use policy with clearly defined tenurial rights,
macroeconomic policies and absence of general institutional standards. The lack of alternative economic
activities have led, among other things, to overdependence on, and over-exploitation of, agriculture land.
At the macroeconomic level, the loss of traditional livestock exports markelts due to loss of international
competitiveness,price policies for fuelwood and inefficienttax system for forestry have contributed
indirectlyto the risingenvironmentalproblems.
Role of Government,Bankand otherDonors
x.
The governmentof Mali has becomemoreconcernedabout the increasingenvironmentalproblems
directlyaffecting food production,water resourcesand biodiversityand has, especially in recent years,
adopted appropriate interventions with the assistance of the World Bank and other donors. In 1987 the
governmentof Mali initiatedan eight-pointprogramfor desertificationcontrol (PNLCD)with particular
attention to land management,training, research, fuelwood economyand developmentof appropriate
policies. A householdenergyconservationstrategywas drawn up in 1990. A nationalfamily planning
programto check rapid populationgrowth is currentlyundervay, as well as a Rural DevelopmentMaster
Plan, Water Use Plan and TourismDevelopmentPlan. All these exercisesrepresentbuildingblocks of a
national environmentalaction plan (NEAP). Such a plan would make the linkagesbetweenthese more
sectoral exercisesand set them within an overarchingframeworkthat clearlylinks Mali's environmental
concernsto its developmentstrategy and definesenvironmentalpriorities. The next step in finalizinga
nationalenvironmentalaction plan will be to identifymissing elementsin the environmentalstrategyand
strengthenpublicparticipationin the overallprocess.
The Road Ahead - Future Strategies
xi.
Mali's long term objectiveis to identifythe primary factors affecting degradationand develop
strategies for (a) halting the current rate of degradation, (b) preventing future deteriorationof the
environmentand (c) restoring a functionalnatural environment. The strategy involvesdevelopmentof
coherent policies on population growth, promotinggreater efficiency in public resource management,
training and better environmentalawarenessand increaseparticipationof communityassociations. Key
componentsof this strategy are developmentof local capacity, i.e., of community-basedassociationsto
foster stronger grassroots participation, provision of appropriate incentives, and revision and
implementationof landtenurelaws.
I.
BACKGROUND: POPULATION GROWTH,
AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1.1
Overview. This chapter provides a background to the rest of the report; it focuses on population
growth, recent economic performance and the natural environment, especially the constraints and
endowments of each agro-climatic zone.
POPULATIONGROWTH
1.2
Mali has one of the highest fertility rates in Africa (an average of 7 children per woman) with an
estimated population growth rate of 2.6% in 1991. Even after accounting for out-migration, these statistics
imply that Mali's current population of 8.5 million will double in the next two decades. Urban population,
estimated at 19% of the total population, continues to increase rapidly, due to the high rate of rural to
urban migration mainly in search of often elusive economic opportunities in urban areas and to escape the
effects of intermittent droughts. Mali's urban population growth rate was estimated at 4.9% in 1991 and is
expected to reach 3.2 million by the year 2000. Bamako, the capital and principal economic center, has
been the target of most recent migrants: the population of Bamako doubled during the last decade, from
450,000 to about 850,000 and is projected to reach 1.5 million by the end of the decade. As will be shown
(Chapter III), high population growth in combination with the existing institutional weaknesses and limited
resource base has played a major role in exacerbating land and range degradation as well as in the
disappearance of biodiversity.
THE ECONOMY
1.3
Economic growth in Mali has been marked by major fluctuations which are linked directly to
climactic conditions and the country's dependence on agriculture (see para. 1.6). Real GDP has averaged
about 3.3% since 1985 but population growvthabsorbed most of this growth, enabling a per capita income
growth of only 1% per annum. The overall Government budget showed, despite significant improvements
over the past decade, a deficit of 11.3% of GDP in 1991, limiting severely the potential scope for financial
support by the government to promote specific (such as environmentally beneficial) economic activities.
The current account deficit was estimated at 13.7% of GDP in 1991, despite equally significant
improvements over the 1980s, pointing to the need for further export promotion (even if it may be
conflicting with environmental considerations).
AGRICULTURE
1.4
Agriculture and livestock are Mali's most important sectors. Cultivation is primarily rainfed,
although important irrigation schemes exist for rice cultivation. Cereals, mostly sorghum/millet and maize,
are the most significant food crops, grown by 90% of the farmers. They represent 60% of all agricultural
production, as well as 80% of caloric and 70% of protein intake. Cereals are primarily cultivated for home
consumption; only about 20% of total production is marketed. Rice is also increasingly important in
consumption, particularly, but not exclusively in urban areas.
1.5
Cotton is Mali's most important cash crop, representing 11% of agricultural output. It is the major
export crop, which provides 45% of foreign exchange eamings. Mali produced about 235,000 tons of seed
cotton in the 1989-90 season and has over previous years experienced rapid expansion in cotton output.
Groundnuts and maize are other, less important cash crops, grown for domestic consumption in the
2
southern areas of Mali. Livestock, mainly concentrated in the Sahelian grazing zone, accounts for about
30% of total exports and 20% of total GDP.
1.6
Average annual growth in agriculture is estimated at about 2% over the last ten years. However,
annual growth rates fluctuate widely as a result of the large variations in the amount and distribution of the
yearly rains. Agricultural output plummeted during the 1982-1984 drought period but has since recovered
strongly due to several good rainfall years and an improved policy environment. Mali is today essentially
self-sufficient in the production of coarse grains while it was heavily dependent on commercial and food aid
imports during the 1982-1984 drought years. However, much of the agricultural growth has come as a
result of expansion of agricultural land rather than intensification and this, in the absence of appropriate
farming practices, has been a major cause of degradation.
1.7
Mali's formal industrial sector is very small, contributing only about 5% to the country's GDP.
Most existing industry is agro-based. In addition, the mining sector, in particular gold mining, although
still small, has been a growing source of export earnings and offers potential for further expansion.
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
1.8
Agro-climatic Zones. Mali's environmental conditions are characterized by two major factors: its
location in the Sahelian zone of West Africa, and the Niger River flowing through the heart of the country
and forming a large inner delta in its center. Other factors important for the analysis of Mali's environment
are aquifers (groundwater), land, and biodiversity. Mali has four broad climatic zones, whose boundaries
are defined by the rainfall isohyets: Sahel North, Sahel South, Sudanian Savanmah, and Guinean Savannah.
Description of these zones are in Table 1.1.
1.9
The Saharan zone covers about 56% of Mali's total surface area. It produces, however, in a normal
rainfall year only about 10% of the total herbage biomass. Most of this area receives less than 150 mm
rainfall and both woody and herbaceous vegetation is sparse. The remaining part of this zone, receiving
150-200 mm p.a., has better vegetative cover. Population density is very low and most people are herders.
1.10 The Sahelian zone covers about 19% of Mali and receives a modest annual rainfall of 200-600
mm. This zone contains, however, most of the inner delta of the Niger. The productivity of the natural
pastures in this zone largely depends on flooding, which is highly variable. Rainfed crop production,
mainly millet, takes place in non flooded areas. Herders are, however, also commonly found. Population
density is higher than in the Sahel North.
1.11 The Sudanian Savannah zone covers about 14% of Mali and receives good rainfall (600-1200 mm
p.a.). It contains a small part of the flood plains of the Niger river. This zone has the most productive
pastures and cropland in the country and a higher population density than the Sahelian zones. The Guinean
Savannah zone represents about 11% of Mali and receives high rainfall (over 1100 mm p.a.). It is covered
with lush grasses, thick bush and tree cover, where it has not been cleared for crop cultivation.
3
Table 1.1:
Agro-climatic Zones
Zone
% of
Total Area
Annual
Rainfall
150 mm
Vegetation
Population
Density
sparse
low
woody,
herbaceous
shrubs
low,
(high near Niger
delta)
Saharan
(Sahel North)
56
<
Sahelian(a)
(Sahel South)
19
150-550 mm
Sudanian-Savannah
14
550-1 100 mm pastures,
cropland
dense
Guinea Savannah
11
> 1100 mm
high
Lush, thick
cropland and
forests.
(a) Contains most of the inner Niger delta.
Source: Schema Directeur, 1990.
1.12 Most of Mali is dry, since practically no rain falls north of the 19th parallel. The rainy season
lasts four to five months at Bamako but only about seven weeks at Gao. Average rainfall values are
rnisleading because rainfall is extremely erratic from year to year, both in quantity and in distribution.
These fluctuations are reflected in agricultural production and thence in performance of economy.
1.13 Mali is essentially flat with very little topographic relief. In most of the country, the Pre-cambrian
Basement Complex rocks are overlain by loose sands or by flat bedded Primary sandstones with sheet
intrusions of dolerite and gabbro. In a few places the sandstone is eroded into steep scarps, the principle
ones being the Tamboura south of Kayes, the Manding Mountains and the long rise along the border with
Burkina Faso. The other major relief feature is Adrar des Iforas, an extension of the Ahaggar mountains
from Algeria whose dry valleys bear witness to formerly wetter conditions. Loose sands cover most of the
rest of the country and are a relic of dryer climatic conditions. They are very extensive on the long border
with Mauritania and Algeria.
1.14 Water Resources. The Niger River is, together with its tributaries, the most important river system
in Mali. It is vital both as a waterway and as the lifeblood for the local conomy which is based on flooddependent activities: flood recession agriculture, livestock and fishing. Over the last 20 years, irrigation las
also become increasingly important. Flowing from southwest to northeast and then southeast again in a
great arc, the river is divided into two navigable stretches by the rapids below Bamako, and used for
transportation on both sides. As the seasonal floods retreat, they leave pasture for livestock. Flood water
is sometimes retained for swamp rice cultivation. The flow in the Upper Valley is managed to some extend
4
with canals and simple barrages. The Lower Valley in the inland delta region, site of an old lake in preTertiary times, is extensively managed by the Office du Niger (ON) for rice production, with an important
dam and a network of irrigation canals.
1.15 Groundwater supplies provide a major source of water for the rural population, for livestock and
for crop irrigation. Groundwater resources have been estimated at 2,720 billion m3 with annual
replenishment of 66 billion m3 (Table 2.2). The use of aquifers is concentrated in Kayes, Koulikoro,
Sikasso and Mopti which together account for about 6 % of annual groundwater use. There are no deep
aquifers in the southern part of Mali, and the surface alluvium that covers much of the region is too shallow
to hold much water. This surface layer is, however, quite heavily exploited. It is recharged by runoff and
by direct rainfall. The highest yielding aquifers in the south occur in fissures of the sandstones at Koutiala,
Sotuba, Sikasso and a few other sites. Depth to Nvatertable varies from half a meter to 35 meters.1
Table 1.2 : Groundwater Resource and Estimated Annual Use, 1987
Utilization
Aquifer System
Reserve
(bn m3 )
Human
Livestock
Irrigation
(%)
Continental Terminal/
Quartenaire
920
11,795
11,076
5,897
27.0
Cretace Superior/
Eocene Inferior
250
404
638
259
1.2
450
315
758
259
1.3
3,967
1,987
9,SI15
9.3
Infracambrien Tabulaire 113
20,401
12,391
8,554
38.9
Infracambrien Plisse
15
1,963
3,107
1,231
5.9
Socle
98
7,125
6,759
3,413
16.3
Total
2,720
452970
381690
,600
100.0
Continental I
interclaire
Cambrien
34
Source: Schema Directeur, 1990.
IUSAID,1990.
5
1.16 Biodiversitv. Mali makes a significantcontributionto the planet's biodiversity,despite the
negativeimpactof many years of drought duringthe 1970sand early 1980s. It is particularlyrich in bird
and mammalfauna, with, accordingto one report, more bird species(640) than North America,most of
which are concentratedin the Niger innerdelta2 . Officialattemptsat wildlifeprotectionin Mali date back
to 1938 and a numberof game reserves has been created, includingan elephantand a giraffe reserve.
There are also severalforest reservesin the southwith buffaloesand the giant eland,as wellas the Boucle
du Baoule complexof reservesnorthwestof Bamako,in the Sahelianzone,with a rich flora and fauna,
includingprimates, lions and other carnivores,ungulates,elephantand a great variety of birds. Most of
these parks are today largely nominal, since resourcesfor protectionare meager. Poachingfor food or
sport is acknowledgedto be widespread.
CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
1.17 Archaeologicaland Historical Heritage. Mali has an importantarchaeologicaland historical
heritage,reflectingits culturaldiversityand its locationon the trans-Saharantrade routes. The Old Towns
of Djenne,Bandiagara(Dogoncountry),Timbuktu,and Gao are inscribedon the UnescoWorld Heritage
List. Nearly800 archaeologicaland historicalsites, manyof whichare concentratedin the Dogonarea,the
inlandNiger delta, and Mena (Dead Delta)area, havebeen notedin the literatureand it is likelythat there
are manymore. Rock shelters,mounds,tells, and ancientsettlementsare amongthe most commoncultural
vestiges. Early agriculturalsites suchas Asselarprovideevidenceof pastoralismas earlyas 3,300 B.C. A
range of tells with a long sequence of occupationare subjects of archaeologicalinvestigation. In the
medievalperiod three kingdomsruled Mali: the empire of Ghana (6th to I Ith century), the Mandinka
Empireof Mali, and the SonghaiEmpire(15th-16th centuries). Colonialbuildingsof architecturalinterest
are found in Bamakoand Senou. The villagesalongthe Bandiagaraescarpment,with their multi-storied
housesand granariesbuilt intothe rock faces,are the uniquearchitecturalheritageof the Dogonpeoples.
1.18 The traditionof urban settlementsdates from at least the 9th century in Mali. It is now accepted
that indigenousurbanizationtook place in the inlandNiger Delta long before the developmentof transSaharan trade or the spread of Islam. Among historic settlementsof note are: the Dogon cliff area
(abandonedcity of Djenne-Djeno;Djenne, one of the best preserved medievalcities in West Africa),
Timnbuktu,
Kayes,Niani,and Sane. Bamakowas foundedin 1884as a militaryoutpost on the banksof the
River Niger; in 1906 it was chosento be capitol of the French colonyof French Sudan. Segou is also
distinguishedby its largely intactcolonialbuildings. ImportantIslamicarchitectureis found in Timbuktu,
Djenne,Mopti, and Nioni (GreatMosque).
2
Warshall,Peter, Mali - BiologicalDiversityAssessment
6
II.
THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL D)EGRADATION
Overview.
This chapter examines the nature of ecological deterioration in Mali, especially the
2.1
degradation of land and water resources, diminishing biodiversity, loss of archaeological and cultural
property and to a lesser extent, air pollution.
LAND DEGRADATION
2.2
Degradation of Mali's lands is a multi-faceted problem, including soil erosion, declining soil
fertility, as well as range degradation, desertification, and deforestation.
2.3.
Soil erosion is, on initial evaluation, not as spectacular in Mali as in some other countries, mainly
due to the country's gentle profile (see para. 1. 13). Despite the absence of steep slopes, soil losses on an
annual basis are, however, substantial, ranging from I ton/ha in the country's northern area to 10 tons/ha
on cultivated land in the southern parts.3 The consequences of soil erosion are multiple. Not only does
itcontribute to a continuous loss of a non-renewable natural resource, but also to a reduction in moisture
retention and a decline in soil fertility due to depletion of basic nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorous,
and organic carbon in the upper layers of cuitivated fields. Loss of organic matter is of particular concern
since it is badly needed to sustain "soil life" (bacteria, micro-organism, etc.), which has beneficial effects on
stabilizing soil texture, an important factor in a country where sandy soils prevail. Without the stabilizing
effect, soils would disintegrate into their basic components, sand and dust. Using crop residues as fuel in
areas with woodfuel deficits, or simply burning them, is another source of clecreasing soil fertility in some
regions.4
2.4
Degradation of the range is recognizable in most of Mali's ecological zones. It is most pronounced,
however, in the Sahelian zone and the Niger inland delta. In the Sahelian zone, the ecosystem is very
fragile and reacts immediately to unfavorable wveatherconditions and over-exploitation. Depletion of the
sparse vegetation cover, including the removal of the area's few trees/shrubs for use as livestock
fodder/fuelwood, deprives the sandy soils of stabilizing factors. Range soils are consequently exposed to
erosion, especially wind erosion and rain storms, leading to the establishment of sand dunes and eventually
permanent desertification. Although desertification is evident in Mali, no data seems available on the loss
of range land due to desertification. Pereinial grasses with deep roots, whose leaf growth is stimulated by
small amnountsof rainfall, have almost totally disappeared in the Sahel North zone and have been replaced
by annuals requiring more moisture to germinate and take root. Although it is generally accepted that the
Sahel vegetation is resilient and is recovering rapidly after climatic calamities - and without too much
negative interference by man - quality of the vegetation seems to suffer irreversible damage.
2.5
Availability of pastures and dry season grazing wvithinthe inner Niger delta has also been
drastically changed. Within the remaining grazing areas, Breman estimates that up to 51% of valuable
plant species have already disappeared (see para. 3.14). The best source of forage within the flooded area,
the bourgou (Echinocla stagnina), has been markedly reduced in area and yield because of competition
3
Bishop and Allen, 1989.
4
Experiments carried out in northern Nigeria during a 25 year period under ecological conditions similar to Mali indicate
significant declines in crop output. Groundnut yields declined from 10115 kg/ha to 511 kg/ha, millet from 922 kg to 330
kg/ha, and sorghum dropped from 543 kg/ha to 91 kg/ha. Source, Nye and Greenland, 1960.
7
withotherland uses. Removalof tree coverfor landclearingat an excessiverate is reducingshadingof the
soils therebyimpedingvegetativegrowthand consequentlyleadingto reducedfodderavailabilityduringthe
dry season in the southerneco-zones. Furthermore,the inlandDelta is no longerfloodedto the extent it
oncewas, due to smallerwaterquantitiesreceivedfromrain and seasonalriverflows.
2.6
Deforestation. Natural forest vegetationcovers some 17.4 millionha, 14% of Mali's total land
area, of which 12.9millionha are natural forest stands, and 4.5 millionha are man-inducedforests (bush
fallow, 2.5 millionha and forest parks, 2 millionha). Natural growth rates average 0.4 m3 /ha/year,
rangipgfrom 0.75 m3 /ha/yearin the well wateredSudano-Guineanzone, to only 0.05 m3 /ha/year in the
northerndesert regions. Total growth is thus estimatedat about 7 million m3 /year. Areas classifiedby
Governmentand legallyprotectedagainst encroachmentincludeforest and fauna reserves,nationalparks,
and gazettedforest areas. Togetherthese areas cover about 25% of the forest land, but owingto limited
governmentresourcesand growingpopulationpressure,unauthorized/illegal
exploitationoccurs.
2.7
More than 90% of Mali's domesticenergyrequirementsare suppliedby firewood. Estimatesput
firewoodconsumptionat about 0.8 to 2 kg/person/dayin the rural areas and 1.2to 3.0 kg/person/day(1.55
kg/person/dayin Bamako)in the urban centers. Basedon these estimates,annualfirewoodconsumptionat
national level is about 3 million tons (6.7 million m3 ) and this demand is expectedto increase with
populationgrowth. Several analyseshave drawn attentionto woodfueldeficienciesin Mali. A detailed
inventorycarried out in 1987 gives the most reliable overviewof the standingstock of Mali's forests.
Accordingto this inventory,the current situationis less dramaticin the souththan previouslythought. The
Sikassoand Koulikororegions,for example,are heavilyforested:60 to 80% of the surfacearea is covered
with old growthtimber (about 10 millionhectares). Annualproductivityof the accessibleportionsof these
natural forests can supply nearby urban populationsfor several decades, although pocketsof resource
degradationaround urban centersare developing.In sharp contrast,the northernregions(whichwere hard
hit by the drought)are experiencingincreasingwoodfueldeficitsas the resourcebase is being minedand
graduallydestroyed.
WATER RESOURCESDEGRADATION
2.8
Environmental problems regarding Mali's water resources are mainly (a) water pollution, which
results in reduction of clean and safe water supply and, (b) sedimentation of existing waterways due to
erosion and poor irrigation infrastructures and c) water control.
2.9
Pollution of Mali's water resources is a cause of increasing concern. While the most visible of
these problems is surface water, groundwater contamination is, however, also likely to have occurred in the
past and to continue unabated today. Monitoring of groundwater quality in designated areas is in progress
but no results are yet available.
2.10
Deteriorating water quality can be found in the form of biologicaUchemical as well as physical
pollution. The main contributor of this pollution is the draining of untreated sewerage into the rivers. Bank
staff estimate that about 2% of Bamako's liquid waste enters the Niger daily and some 20% disappear in
ditches and drains. Despite the introduction of improved latrines, seepage is still likely to occur. Staff is
convinced that the groundwater table in Bamako and other urban centers is severely polluted (see Box 2.1).
With an estimated population of about 850,000 inhabitants, and an average daily liquid waste discharge of
30 I/person, polluted sewerage enters the Niger at an estimated rate of 500 m3 /day. No precise data,
however, exists on this subject.
8
2.11
Some staff see the disposal of industrial waste with high content of biologically degradable
material (slaughter house) or toxic materials (tanning, gold mining) as equally of high risks to both surface
and groundwater due to drainage/infiltration as is household sewage. No data seems available on this
subject either. As the country is trying to promote both gold mining and agro-based industries, the problem
is also likely to become more important in the future.
Box 2.1: Pollution of Underground Water System in Bamako
Urban Water System
High rate of urbanization,limitedcapacityof municipalgovernmentand lack of resourcesto
provide services such as waste disposal and management has resulted in substantial pollution of
the underground water table in Bamako. An estimated 55 % of the population of Bamako
dependon wells for their water supply. However,thesewells are oftenpoorly constructedand
locatednear latrines and gutters. Additionally,the high levelof soil permeabilityhas allowed,
over the years, easy infiltrationof solidwastes to the extendthat the water is alreadypollutedat
source (underground).
Tested Samples
This was recently confirmed by the Direction Nationale de I'Hydrologique et l'Energie after
testing 103 water samples drawn from the Bozola, Nairela and Banconi quarters. The
laboratory tests revealed that underground water was heavily polluted with pesticides, metals
(mainlymercuryand lead) and other chemicals. The presenceof nitraterangedbetween0.1%
to 1.7%,morethanthree timesthe safe level.
Strate2ies
Strategies adopted by the municipality includes:
1. Bettermethodsof constructionof septictanks to minimize
seepage.
2. Respect of the required 15 meter distance wells and latrines
3. Generalpubliceducationcampaigns.
Source:L'Essor
2.12 Soil erosionfrom farmlandas well as from the catchmentareas of the Niger Riverhas resultedin
high silt transportby the rivers. With about 2 millionha cultivatedand soil erosionlosseshigh (1-10 tha,
averaging6.5 t/ha accordingto Bishop),on averageabout 13milliontons of soil are carried away by runoff water and winds. While part of the erodedsoil may settle in depressionsand the bas-fonds,substantial
volumes reach the main rivers, causing siltation of waterways and consequently hampering river
navigation. Silt also entersirrigationschemesand increasestheir operationand maintenancecosts.
9
2.13
Regarding the safe drinking water supplv, only 35 % of the niral and 55 % of the urban population
currently have access to clean water. The rest of the population obtains water from polluted sources. This
is contributing to high infant mortality and Mali's general poor healtlhstatus.
2.14
Mali's arid climate and the occurrenice of droughts do not necessarily imply a general water
shortage, at least at the current population size. The Schema DirectcurI 1990 presents the country's water
balance: total annual flow of the Niger River amounts to 33.3 billion m /year, and the total of the Senegal
River to 18.9 billion m3 /year; total Malian groundwater reserves are estimated at 2,720 billion m3 with
annual replenishment reaching 66 billion mn. Compared to this, the estimated groundwater use reached
only 106 million m3 in 1989. Despite this, unpolluted groundwater does not seem to be accessible to the
majority of the population.
2.15
There are also indications that Mali's water resources are not managed efficiently, in particular in
the large irrigation schemes such as the Office du Niger. One source estimates that about 3.2 billion m3
(25,000 m3 per irrigated ha) of irrigation water, mainly drawXnfrom surface sources, was used in 1989,
compared with actual crop requirements of 2 billion m3 (15,000 m3/ha). The Niger River loses an
estimated 30 billion m3 in the Niger delta in average years due to a combination of factors, including
evaporation, percolation, and inefficient irrigation systems. As a consequence, river flows below the delta
are already frequently insufficient to support downstream navigation. This problem is likely to be
aggravated in the near future, as the govemment tries to encourage greater use of available water resources
through private irrigation schemes, in an attempt to increase agricultural productivity.
BIODIVERSITY - SPECIES AND HABITAT Loss
2.16
Documentation of Mali's biodiversitv provides bleak scenarios of the future of plant and animal
resources. The IUCN (1989) lists a total of 136 mammals for Mali and indicates that 9 species are
threatened. Another study estimates that no significant large mammal populations will be left in Mali
within five to ten years, if no policy and funding changes take place. Two antelope species, the scimitarhorned oryx and the Korrigum were found to be already extinct. Elephants survive principally in the
Gourma Elephant Faunal Reserve (about 600 animials),and this is considered a priority baseline population
for West Africa. A further decline in this population is likely if no stricter measures are taken against
poaching and to resolve human-elephant conflicts.5 Addax and gazelle may survive in the northern desert
plains, but are under heavy pressure from poaching. All wetland species have apparently declined and a
unique habitat, the inner delta of the Niger River, is threatened. Among reptiles, the crocodile is now
seriously depleted throughout the country. Expansion of agricultural/irrigation development of the inner
delta has led to a reduction of available wintering places for palearctic birds. Mali is also a major exporter
of parrotsand it is possible that this trade has had a negative impact on wild populations. There does not
seem to be a consensus wvithinthe Bank on the impact of dam constniction along major rivers for
hydropower or irrigation developmenton bio-diversity. Disappearances of valuable grass/fodder plants due
to overgrazing has been mentioned above. Dying and disappearance of baobab trees and other tree species
in the Sahel zones has also been documented.6
5
University of Arizona, 1980.
6
Rochette, 1988.
10
Loss OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
2.17
Mali's cultural heritage is threatened by a number of human and nal:ural factors. Looting and
uncontrolled export of antiquities (especially terracotta statuettes) is a severe problem, resulting in damage
to archaeological sites and loss of important art objects to foreign markets. Other sites are deteriorating
due to erosion and flooding. Migration of rural populations to urban areas leads to the abandonment of
traditional villages and neglect of adobe buildings. The Unesco World Heritage Site of Timbuktu was
placed on the Sites in Peril List in 1990. The archaeological record is still insufficiently known: southern
Mali, south of Bamako is little explored as are areas outside the major known urban site concentration of
the Dogon country and Timbuktu.
AIR POLLUTION
2.18
Air pollution in Mali is mainly caused by bush fires, partially deliberately set in the hope of
regeneration of rangelands or flushing out animals for poaching purposes. Burning vast expanses of
bushlands destroys about 5 million tons of biomass annually. Equally imporltant as a contributor to air
pollution is the inefficient use of biomass through the burning of some 6.7 million m3 of firewood in
primitive stoves or in the open air (about 3 million tons). However, accordin,gto a recent Bank study,7
using hydrocarbon fuels in place of biomass fuels (except for charcoal) for household use may increase
atmospheric C02 emissions. Overall, Mali's contribution to global air pollution from deforestation can be
considered as extremely low. With relatively minor road traffic, with the exception perhaps of Bamako,
and relatively undeveloped industries, air pollution from burning fossil fuels is negligible.
IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON THE POOR
2.19
High population growth rates combined with some of the most dismal social indicators in the world
are indicative of widespread poverty in Mali. Per capita income, estimated as US$ 270 in 1991, is quite
low and this average masks much lower incomes in rural areas. About 90 °'o of the people depend on
agriculture which, despite accounting for more than half of GDP, is subject tc major annual fluctuations
due to weather. These factors combine to show how degradation of farm and rangelands, the crucial
resource base of the poor, has an instantaneous impact on their economic position (due to declining
production) and social welfare (due to water borne diseases and a lowering of the general quality of life). A
vicious circle is developed as the poor, in an attempt to insure food security, expand cultivation into more
marginal areas, further exacerbating the rate of degradation.
2.20
Women, traditionally the economic bulwvarkof the household, are among the most affected as farm
and rangelands deteriorate. Women play very crucial roles in maintaining household food security: in
direct production, in securing Nwatersupplies and gathering fuelwood for domest:icenergy needs. As ranges
are degraded and water supplies become pollited, these tasks become compoinded as women and children
have to extend their search for both fuel and water over much larger areas. These important roles played
by women in the rural economy indicate that strategies for environmental protection should include, to a
large extent, important input of women (see para. 4.10).
7
WorldBank, 1992, fEN Paper 51.
II
III. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
INDIRECT CAUSES
- DIRECT AND
3.1
Overview. This chapter examines the direct and indirect causes of environmental degradation in
Mali. The causes of degradation are, however, not easily identifiable as there are many contributing
factors, often mutually reinforcing. Direct causes, such as those resulting from human activities on the
land are considered first, followed by those factors which may accelerate the direct causes (institutional
weaknesses, macroeconomic policies and drouglhts).
DIRECT CAUSESOF LAND DEGRADATION
3.2
While some causes of land degradation may be beyond man's control, others, such as soil fertility
decline, erosion, or bush fires are within the purview of human control. In this sense, the main variables
leading to land degradation are, therefore, detemiined by man's behavior in relationship to his environment.
These include, in particular, the reduction in fallow pcriods, inappropriate farming practices, overgrazing
of rangeland, deforestation and use of fucilwood. Most of these variables are the results of underlying
causes of institutional, legal, economic and social natuLrethat are at the roots of the environmental
degradation.
3.3
Diminishing Fallow. Fallow has been reduced in areas of intensive cropping and/or eliminated
altogether. Data on changing land use patterns in Mali is scarce. IUCN 1989 estimates for the West Sahel
seem to reflect the existing situation in Mali: the cropped area has increased by a total of 33 %, or an
annual pace of 1.3 %, during the 1960/65 to 1985/87 period. Fallow, as a consequence of expanded
cropping, has been reduced to 3-5 year periods in the climatically favored areas, and in many instances has
been reduced to zero in the country's south8 .
3.4
This reduction in fallow should not so much be attributed to profit orientation of the farners - most
of the expanded acreage is farmed rather extensively - but rather to (a) attempts to achieve food security
under growing land pressure, (b) anxieties that tenure to the traditionally farmed lands has become
insecure, and (c) increased cash crop production. With declining mortality rates (12 percentage points in
30 years), and a sustained high level of fertility, population has been rising rapidly, leading to mounting
pressure on the land. In addition, farmers fear that lands under bush fallow are taken either by new/young
farmers - having the right under the tribal land tenure systemiito take over lands "not cultivated" - or by
influential people referring to national laws giving them individual land ownership. Traditionally, land was
managed by ethnic chiefs in accordance with existing cultural principles and rights suitable to the
management of lands in the various ecological zones. Under traditional land tenure systems, enforcement of
customary regulations governing land use was facilitated the homogeneity and production specialization of
the various groups within a given agro-climatic zone. Increasing population pressure, the recurrence of
drought, and, most of all, the imposition of new administrative arrangements since colonial times have
seriously eroded the enforceability of existing laws and thoir applicability to changing circumstances.
3.5
Acreage Expansion. Population pressure, insecurity of tenure and food security needs have caused
farmers to expand crop acreage into newv,and often marginal, areas. The use of low input production
techniques also encourage expansion to new cropping areas as soil fertility declines with shorter fallow.
8InterviewDr Sy, ex-directorof CMITD,1990
12
The expansion of cropping into new areas for the period between 1985-1991 is shown in Table 3.1.
During the period, growth in total production of all crops, except fonio, wvasdue mainly to acreage
expansion rather than to yield increases (intensification). The largest expansion in crop acreage occurred
for groundnuts, rice, cotton and maize. Extension of cropland into new areas wvasquite substantial given
the relative absence of improved farming technologies: at least 60 % of the increase in production for all
field crops was attributable to area expansion rather than to yield increases.
3.6
Although the general purpose of a land tenure law, be it traditional or modem/western influenced,
is to provide security of tenure, the present land use situation is characterized by a high degree of
uncertainty. The uncertainty arises not so much at the level of content of land statutes but at that of the
interface between the statutes and local rules. Such uncertainty has particular implications for resource
management: many of the actions that could be taken to prevent degradation of the land - such as antinot have high short-term payoffs;
erosion works or reforestation - are in fact not taken, because they wVould
9
due to the uncertainty, long-term payoffs are not taken into account.
Table 3.1: Decomposition of Production Growth in Major Crops, 1985-1991 (a)
.=_=
Production
Comnmodity Growth (%)
% of Growth Due to
_ = = - _ - = __.
Yield
Area Expansion
8,65
1.10
7.47
Coarse Grains 2.76
-1.15
3.96
Millet/Sorghum 3.19
-0.64
3.85
Maize
0.01
-4.98
5,25
Fonio
-3.87
8.81
-11.64
Paddy
11.03
2.29
8.54
Groundnuts
15.70
2.05
13.37
Cotton
(a) Growth rate in yield and area may not exactly equal to the corresponding
growth rate in production due to rotnding.
Source: Staff estimates based on DNA data.
3.7
Inappropriate Farming Practices.
environmentally safe farming practices,
9
Gorse and Steeds, 1987.
The cropping of land is often not accompanied by
ldentifiable problems causing ..and degradation include
13
unsatisfactory crop rotation systems, mono cropping, land preparation practices and soil moisture
preservation.
3.8
In the southern cotton growing areas, crop cultivation follows a cereal:cereal:cotton rotation which
does little to prevent soil erosion or enhance soil fertility. Cultivation of cereals - millet, sorghum, maize gives little protection to the grounds during the growing/rainy seasons. Top soil is exposed to erosion and
carried away by the unimpeded swift run-off water. Prior to the introduction of "modem" agriculture, with
its insistence on single cropping, farmers had mixed crop stands, i.e. cereals combined with leguminous
crops such as cowpeas. Not only did mixed cropping reduce production risks in years of adverse weather,
it also provided some degree of protection against top soil erosion because the foliage of the legumes
provided an early protective ground cover. In addition, these crops made a valuable contribution to
improving soil fertility due to their nitrogen-fixing capabilities.
3.9
With the introduction of draft animal mechanization, more land could be tilled by an individual.
Instead of working the soil with hoes, plowvingwas introduced. In certain circumstances, deep plowing
leads, however, to a reduction in fertility, erosion and poor wvatercycle. Absence of contour plowing
accelerates the erosion problem.
3.10
Farmers' knowledge is limited in regard to the importance of preserving/augmenting organic matter
content in the soils. While livestock numbers in Mali's southern agricultural zones are on the increase,
very little use of farm yard manure (FYM) occurs. In addition, phosphate fertilization - good
quality/solubility rock-phosphate which can be mined in Mali - is also not used extensively for stimulating
plant growth by subsistence producers.
3.11
Missing are also efforts to preserve soil moistLre, for example through water harvesting methods or
mulching. Lack of soil moisture not only reduces yields of planted crops, but also forces farmers to expand
cultivated areas to satisfy their food security rcquirements. Lack of soil moisture also leads to sparse
vegetation covers and consequently' to heating up of the atmosphere and lower rainfall. It also deprives
the growing livestock herds of otherwise valuable grazing and adds to the destruction of forest resources in
cases of branch! foliage cuttings to substitute for missing fodder.
CAUSESOF RANGELANDDEGRADATION
3.12
Degradation of rangeland vegetation is quite alarming; comparison of aerial photo by the
International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA) for the Mopti area showed that bare surface area has
increased by 3 times between 1952 to 1975. In addition, about 7.5 % of pastures in the naturally fertile
inner delta of the Niger River is degraded, leading to lost of some pasture species. However, caution must
be used when interpreting these trends which have occurred during a time of low rainfall. With increased
rain, rangeland productivity may bounce back.
3.13
Overgrazing. Overgrazing is the most important cause of rangeland degradation. It is visible in
many areas of the Sahelian zone and is putting enormous pressure on the fragile eco-systems in the
northern grazing areas.
Overgrazing is the result of the interaction between overstocking and
mismanagement of rangelands.
I°Charney,Rasool,op. cit
14
Overstocking. Pasture production in the Sahel North rarely exceeds 0.1 tons of dry matter (DM)
3.14
per hectare/year. Based on this, the desired carrying capacity of the area is currently estimated at 44
ha/Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU = 250 KG life weight) during years with norrnal rainfall (150-300 mm).
The Sahel South receives annual rainfall up to 600 mm and produces 1.05 tons DM/ha, implying an
estimated carrying capacity of 6 ha/TLU. The Niger inland delta has an estimated carrying capacity of 2.5
ha/TLU. One source reports that the build-uipof herds in Mali has been much in excess of the rangelands
carrying capacity: by 25 % in the Sahel North before the 1983/84 drought and by about 13 % in the South
zone in 1982.11 Recent developments of the livestock sector seem to indicate that livestock numbers in the
two zones have reached pre-drought levels, thus exceeding the safe carrying capacity.
3.15
Low offtake rates are one factor contributing to overstocking/ overgrazing problems of rangelands.
Past offtake rates, i.e. the percentage of animals slaughtered annually in relation to the national herd, are
estimated to vary between 9-11% per annum. The World Bank Livestock Subsector Review indicates a
takeoff rate of 12% for 1987 with 210,000 heads or almost 40% of that years output being exported.
3.16
According to official statistics, almost all of Mali's livestock exports of recent years went to Cote
d'Ivoire. The competitiveness of these exports is, however, negatively affected by subsidized frozen beef
from the EEC arriving in the coastal countries. Moreover, previous exports to Nigeria through Burkina
Faso and Niger have almost stopped due to the erosion of the naira's purchasing power following its
devaluation'2 , while the CFAF exchange rate has remained unchanged. This has led to a loss of export
markets, which in turn causes a faster overall growth of the national herd, with a devastating effect on the
grazing areas. The recent devaluation should increase the compteitiveness of livestock exports and boost
the livestock sector.
3.17
Even with more exports, growth of herds in the northern grazing areas may nevertheless continue
to exceed what could be considered a safe carrying capacity, given current management practices. The
Livestock Subsector Review found that the problem was not to convince herders to sell more animals.
Instead, the pastoralists' concern was what to do with receipts from livestock sales. Savings and loans
units within herder associations that can accept deposits and pay on demand do not exist. Once herd
owners are able to invest their money, they could be convinced to increase their offtake from their herds
during favorable rainfall periods, when their herds are increasing. It has been demonstrated in Kenya that
this procedure would reduce the number of animals perishing during droughts and decrease the grazing
pressure, thereby reducing environmental damage.13
3.18
Estimates of carrying capacity, and in fact the concept of overstockcing,are, however, much
debated among experts for at least three reasons: first, carrying capacity is largely dependent on land
management practices, and could thus increase with better management; second, the average capacity
masks large variations between different localities; and third, actual pasture production in a year is highly
unpredictable due to the large flucttuationsin rainfall. Many experts thus claim that the focus should be on
rangeland management and not on overstocking.
3.19
Rangeland Management. Traditional rangeland managemcentwas characterized by customary land
use rights over extensive grazing areas. But population increase and the institution of modem land tenure
It Breman et al., 1986.
12WorldBank,1990.MaliLivestock
SubsectorReview.
13
Bekureet al., 1988.
15
laws have led to considerable conflicts in land use, notably between transhumants and cultivators.
Traditionally pastoralists grazed their herds on unflooded areas during the rainy season and then reverted to
the inner delta of the Niger River during the dry season. But with population growth, transhumants
returning to dry season grazing areas often find their paths blocked by cultivated fields. Conflicts in land
use rights arose as cattle destroyed crops en route. Absence of land use planning has led to rangelands
being "colonized" by agriculture, with transhumant herders increasingly losing grazing rights over fields
where they once had grazed their cattle freely through "annexation" by the state and development projects
(notably irrigation), and "misappropriation" by new typ)esof livestock owners/investors.14
3.20
Annexation, a de facto nationalization of pastoral territory, by farmers and outsiders has
effectively negated pastoralists' rights relating to water, the land and grazing, forcing traditional herders to
use a diminishing resource while confronted with an incrcase in the number and size of herds. Land tenure
security seems even weaker than in the case of the farmers, and traditional rules and regulations governing
grazing rights are disappearing. Overgrazing is further exacerbated by the arrival of traders or other
businessmen who, as absentee herd owners, invest in livestock. Data on the reduction in size of pastoral
areas should be taken with caution, however, especially if they do not include recently abandoned
agricultural land or cultivated areas that becomc pastures once harvests are completed.
3.21
Lack of range protection around the watering facilities in the grazing areas is another expressed
concern.. Others consider this a minor problem thinking that only a small area immediately adjacent to the
wells is usually trampled by livestock, certainly very visible but without any lasting negative impact on the
environment.
CAUSESOF DEFORESTATION
3.22
In Mali, forest resources are the property of the state and exploitation is governed under the
Forestry Code, which contains laws governing utilization of forests and lands, forest clearing and fire
protection. It also governs inland fishing, hunting, managemenitof natural reserves and national parks, as
well as promotion of improved stoves. This rather comprehensive legislation stands, however, in contrast
to the lack of its enforcement. Specifically, the Forestry Code states that collection of fuelwood is a
traditional right exercisable by every citizen, even in forest reserves, In addition, commercial operations
are authorized only with a permit issue by the Direction National des Eaux et des Forets (DNEF). For
large scale commercial operations, a permit must be obtained before operations begin and a separate permit
is required before transportation of harvested logs. These activities arc coordinated through the DNEF.
However, poor record keeping and the low morale of forestry sector workers lead to gross violations.
3.23
Another important issue is the clash of religious/ traditional rules with the theoretically rather
restrictive Forestry Code. On one side, an understaffed forestry service with underpaid personnel is
expected to control the lawful use of a vast expanse of land and preserve and protect it against overexploitation, bush fires and illegal clearing. On the other side, religious laws that give the use rights to the
person who has cleared the forest, and a century old tradition gives the rural population open access to the
forest for the free use of what once was an ample supply of firewood, browsing ground for herds during the
dry season, source of construction material, and hunting area.
14GorseandSteeds,1988.
16
3.24
Between the centralized state authority and the tradition bound nrral population are smart
businessmen who buy favors from officials willing to strike private deals with them, albeit illegal. The
results have been a high rate of deforestation.
3.25
In addition, attempts to regulate exploitation through the imposition of taxes have proven
ineffective due to three main factors: (a) prices set do not reflect the economic cost of fuelwood, (b)
revenue collected does not allow for self-financing, and (c) prices paid for fuelvood does not provide
sufficient renumeration to producers. For example, the economic costs of fLielwoodwas estimated at
between 20 - 30 F/kg in 1988 while retail prices averaged between 12 - 20 F/kg, representing a difference
of 50 - 66%. Revenue collection amounts to only 2% of sales because of the lDwtax imposed. Revenue
from annual fuelwood sales is estimated at CFAF 6.5 - 7.0 billion (US$ 23 - 25 million before the
devaluation) while tax revenues amounted to CFAF 100 million (US$ 360,0(00 before the devaluation)
anmually.
3.26 Presently there is no control over the production of woodfuels and legal restrictions are largely
ignored. There is virtually no control exercised over woodcutters, the production areas, or the quantities of
woodfuels produced. The present level of woodfuels taxation is far too low and collection is only sporadic
at best. Furthermore, most of the fees collected have only been used to strengthen custodial activities.
However, the fixed costs associated with this collection system largely outweighs the gains. Based on these
findings, the forestry department is now working out newvtax legislation in conjunction with the gradual
shift of forest resource management responsibilities to local communities.
3.27 Additional damage to forests is done by the deliberate burning dowvnof large tracts of forest land,
be it to clear land for farming, for regeneration of grazing or for flushing out game. A survey on current
practices is undervay, in the context of the second forestry project, the results of which are to be discussed
at a national conference later this year, which could lead to proposals for the revision of existing codes
regulating forest burning and hunting.
3.28
While lacking awareness of long-term effects of forest degradation on their environment, the rural
population has never been asked to take on responsibilities for the protection of assets they need for future
survival. Transfer of control/guarding activities from the centralized, authority to village responsibility
would seem a step in the right direction and will be supported by thc LIpcoming Household Energy - Private
Sector Development Project (para. 4.12).
3.29
High Dependency on Fuelwood. While alternative sources of energy (petroleum, solar energy) do
exists, these options are either very costly (as in the case of petroleum imports) or underdeveloped (as in the
case of solar energy). About 90% of Mali's domestic energy needs are satisfied by fuelwood and charcoal
and this will remain the dominant source of energy in Mali for the foreseeable fiture. There is a marked
trend, however, especially in urban areas to switch to smokeless charcoal for cooking purposes. It was
found that charcoal as the principal energy source has growNn
from 3% in 1978 to 11% by 1989 in Bamako.
Due to weak energy output of charcoal in comparison with fire woodt5 increased quantities of wood, in
excess of population growth, will be required in the future to satisfy growvingdemands, thus accelerating
over-exploitation even more. Prices of both wood and charcoal currently do not reflect the economic cost
of wood, since wood is often collected free of charges (see para. 3.22) and attempts at levying taxes to
15 About 8 tons
orwood are required to produce one ton of charcoal.
Ilowever, charcoal lhas double the caloric energy
comparedwitlhfirewood,tlhuiswoodrequiremenitis increasedby 400% whenfirewoodis replacedby charcoal.
17
increase the price of wood to consumers seem to have been largely unsuccessful. As villagers are not in
charge of forest management, they have no financial incentive to protect this scarce resource.
3.30
Most of Mali's households, in particular in rural areas, are apparently still using traditional open
fire cooking facilities with high energy loss. Improved stoves bring firewood savings of up to 35%.
Replacing traditional cooking methods could thus result in savings of about 1.7 million m3 of wood per
year based on a conservatively estimated rate of 20%. Although the purchase of improved stoves has
become mandatory and information campaigns are ongoing, they have not yet reached the majority of the
population.
DEGRADATION OF WATER RESOURCES
3.31
Two major factors contributing to the degradation of Mali's water resources are insufficient
pollution control (for both surface water and aquifers and poor water management. They are in turn
caused by factors such as the legal and institutional environment, the lack of environmental awareness and
inadequate policies. Reliance upon these two sources for household supplies lead to high incidence of
water-borne diseases.
3.32
Inadequate Pollution Control. Despite an increasing role of the central government in providing
improved rural water supply, water pollution still continues largely unabated. Insufficient pollution control
is due to a combination of factors, including the legal framework, institutional setup and urban population
growth. In 1989, the government made an attcmpt to ensure that industries close to the Niger river installed
pollution control equipment. But this policy turned out to be impossible to enforce. In 1990, a first law on
industrial pollution, including requirements for toxic waste, was apparently under discussion. But is still
unclear as to whether a decree has been signed making this a law or whether new environmental quality and
operating standards have been set.
3.33
Urban sanitation is under the responsibility of the district and municipal governments. There
currently appear to be no national laws regulating environmental aspects of urban sanitation. At the central
government level, there also seems to be no institution to address issues cutting across ministries, such as
water management, health and environmental planning.
3.34
Urban sanitation in Mali is very poor wvithdetrimental effects not only on health, but also on
productivity. This is due to the lack of good basic municipal services, such as garbage collection, cleaning
of ditches and provision of water supply and sewage. This lack of service provision is due to a
combination of factors. First, the rapidly increasing urban population (para. 3.44 - 3.46), is creating
pressures on the urban environment where there is inadequate infrastructure already exist. Second,
municipal revenues are currently inadequate xvith little cost recovery of investments. Third, service
delivery, given the scarce existing resources is inefficient, leading to absence of investment in urban
pollution control. High population growth rates has also led to expansion of unplanned settlements in
Bamako, especially along the banks of the Niger River, further resulting into direct pollution of the river.
Inefficiency of municipal governments, in tLrn. ensures that little is done about cleaning up sewage or
ensuing quality of water.
3.35
Access to Clean Water. Mali has a substantial endowment of underground water, often
replenished during the rainy season. Most of this water is not of the best quality and is being contaminated
through seepage of industrial wastes. Although the government has, together with donors, made efforts to
18
equip many villages with boreholes and hand pumps, these have thus far benefited less than half of the
population in rural areas. More than 580 hand pumps were drilled under the Rural Water Supply project
and others are planned under the Second Health operation. Improvement of rural water supply are still
hamnperedby inadequate cost recovery for investment and maintenance, as well as by shortage of skilled
personnel. Attempts to involve villagers more in the improvement campaign, to kceepthem informed of the
health benefits of safe drinking water and to motivate them to assume responsibility for operating and
maintaining their water points have been very successful in parts of the country where they have been
implemented.
3.36
Poor Water Management. Most of the irrigation perimeters in the inner delta of the Niger are in
need of rehabilitation. Due to poor maintenance of canals and other structures, most of the irrigated land
receives more water than needed. Stnuctures to control water application are no longer functioning except
in the relatively small perimeters rehabilitated with donor assistance. The uncontrolled flow leads to waste
of water to the detriment of water users below the delta area. Slow moving water in overgrown, not
maintained irrigation canals provides breeding grounds for snails/schistosomiasis and malaria.
3.37
The reasons for the lack of adequate maintenance in the biggest irrigation system, the Office du
Niger, can be found mainly in weaknesses in the institutional, legal and macro policy framework, which are
currently being addressed under the Office du Niger Consolidation Project. These weaknesses included an
unclear relationship between the government and the Office du Niger, poor financial management of the
Office, government's inappropriate intervention in cereals marketing and pricingyand in Office du Niger
management, insecure land tenure of farmers, and a lack of technical capacity.
REDUCTIONIN BIODIVERSITY
3.38
Causes for the reduction in Mali's biodiversity can be found at both the national and international
level. At an international level, it is important to note that Mali has signed many conventions regarding
protection of biodiversity. Although data is difficult to obtain, it is evident that economic interests outside
Mali, in particular in Europe, for rare birds, skins of endangered species and ivory has encouraged
poaching.
3.39
At a national level, the lack of proper control and law enforcement also contributes to poaching,
not only in the forests, but also within the National Parks, thus causing the disappearance of some rare
wildlife species, and threatening the survival of others. Commercial hunting in Mali seems largely
uncontrolled. To some extent, subsistence hunting also has a negative impact on biodiversity. Hunting for
subsistence is important to increase food security in years with poor harvests. The disappearance of
wildlife due to excessive commnercialhunting is therefore likely to not only reduce biodiversity, but to also
increase the risk of insufficient food supply for people relying on hunting to avoid the risk of starvation.
3.40
Loss of habitat and destruction of plant species through degradation of the range is believed to be
high even though not quantitative information exists at present. Some areas of the northern regions, once
covered with plants (see para. 3.11) are now quite bare. Major pasture grasses also disappearing due to the
loss of their habitat through overgrazing. For example, between 45 - 51% of Orizaies spp., 36 % of
Vetivera and Eragrostic spp. and about 20%/o
of Aclropogon spp. lhavebeen loss to damage to their natural
habitat.
19
3.41 The most probable explanation of the marked reduction in fish catches, which have declined from
about 120,000 to about 50,000 tons per annum in recent years, includes over-fishing, fish perishing in the
polluted rivers, and reduced river flows caused by major dam constructions. In the past, major
constructions were undertaken without any actions to mitigate damages to biodiversity, despite potentially
serious impact on wetlands, wildlife, and fisheries.
THE COMMONUNDERLYINGCAUSES
3.42
Most of the direct factors described above as contributing to environmental degradation are, to a
large extent, propelled by underlying forces that are at the root of the environrnental problems. Principal
among these underlying causes are: (a) population growth, (b) lack of economic alternatives, (c) lack of
environmental awareness, (d) failure to implement existing legislation, (e) inadequate land use planning,
(f) macroeconomic policies which adversely affect the environment, (g) limited institutional capacity, (h)
poverty and (i) the lack of a horizontal governmental stnmcturein charge of environmental questions.
3.43
Population growth is still and wvillremain for the foreseeable future the main underlying factor
determining the demand for additional land to satisfi\ food requiremenetsor firewood for household energy.
The limits on suitable land available will, in the long term, force increasing numbers of rural people to
leave their homes and migrate to urban centers in search of economic alternatives not available in rural
areas. Fast, unplanned growth in urban centers will, in turn, contribute to further degradation of the urban
environment.
3.44
The extent of population pressure on land can be gleaned from the regional projections of Mali's
population up to the year 2000 (Table 3.2). While demographic data are not very reliable, these
projections are based on a World Bank growth rate of 3.0%. Given this scenario of population growth, the
regional share of total population would increase in Koulikoro, but decline slightly in the other regions.
The increase in Koulikoro region is mainly due to the considerable increase in Bamako, the capital, which
would have a population growth rate of 6.7% per annum. In three other provinces lying within better
rainfall zones and with large urban centers, (Koulikoro, Kayes and Segou), population growth rates would
at least equal to, or exceed the national growth rate of 3.0%/o.
3.45
With increasing population pressure for non-renewable resources, farmers will tend to focus more
on food security issues and would adopt farming methods/systems adapted to producing some level of
output even in drought years. This would require expansion into new areas as in the case of food crops, or
maintaining high stocks in the case of livestock. These risk avoidance strategies were well-suited to
conditions of low population density, but face increasing constraints in the face of growing population
pressure.
20
Table 3.2: Regional Population Growth Rates, 1987-2000.
Growth Rates
Regional Population Shares (%) (% p.a,)
Region
1987
1990
1995
2000
1987-2000
Kayes
12.1
12.7
12.5
12.2
3.0
Koulikoro
of which:
Bamako
29.6
30.6
32.5
34.4
4.7
8.5
9.3
10.3
12.7
6.7
Sikasso
24.5
24.1
23.8
23.6
2.8
Segou
15.7
15.8
15.6
15.3
4.0
Mopti
11.8
11.1
10.2
9.4
1.7
Timbuktu
3.4
3.0
2.6
2.3
-2.3(a)
Gao
2.9
2.7
2.8
2.8
1.2(a)
Mali
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0 3.0
(a)
For these regions in the Sahel North, population growth projections are based on estimates of rural
populations; urban population growth rates are significantly higher at 9.0 % for Timbuktu and
5.6% for Gao.
Source: ESMAP, 1991.
3.46
Lack of economic alternatives as an underlying cause of environmental degradation manifests itself
in two ways. Mounting population pressure in the rural areas with increasing land constraints forces
people to migrate to urban centers or abroad. The fast growth of Mali's cities and towns strains, amongst
others, municipal services such as trash removal and sanitation provisions. With the inability to cope with
these increasing problems, urban degradation will increase.
3.47
Absence of economic alternatives is also felt at the rLral level by forcing ifarmersto adopt one sided
croppingpatterns which increase the risks of soil erosion/loss of soil fertility though they might have higher
currentreturns. Elimination/reduction of groundniuts in the crop rotation is a case in point and illustrates
the narrow range of alternatives available to farmers when, as in this particular case, an important export
commodity had to be phased out due to a lack of international competitiveness.
3.48
Lack of environmental information and awareness is another factor contributing to the degradation
of the country's natural resources. Indications are that at grassroots level, among the farming as well as the
21
urbanpopulation,awarenessof environmentalproblemscausedby certain "traditional"practicesis often
nonexistent.Farmersmay be aware of reducedsoil fertilityducto shortenedbush fallowperiodsbutseem
in compensatingfor lost bush fallow and for
unawareof required interactions of fertilizers-manlure
restoring/maintaining
soil fertility. Theymay not be awareof integratedplant protectiontechniquesand/or
thenegative implications of indiscriminate pesticide use.
3.49 Lackof environmentalawarenessmay not havcbeena problemwith the old traditional
herdersbut
is missingamongthe "new"investorsenteringthe livestocksector. Pastoralists,supplementing
livestock
feeding by cutting down foliage/branches from already thinned stands of savannah trees, seem not to be
aware of their contribution to range degradation. Indiscriminate hunting of wildlife will not only diminish
supplementarymeat supplies but deprive local people of future economic alternative incomes such as
tourism. Urban dwellers, craftsmen, dealers have not bcen taught the serious consequences of depositing
harmful waste, chemical substances in waste dumps or the sewers.
3.50
Lack of environmental awareness can also be blamed on municipal leaders who may not have
recognized the need for organized solid waste collection, orderly depositing, and treatment of sewerage.
Lack of comprehensive environmental infonnation for policy makers at all levels has also contributed to
insufficient focus on needed policy changes. The government has, with donor support, launched two
satellite mapping programs, the PIRT and PIRL (Programmes d'Inventaire des Ressources Terrestres et
Ligneuses), in an attempt to identify the state of Mali's natural resources.16 The first has been completed,
while the latter is still ongoing. While these programs are helpful in describing the environment at a given
point in time, they are only a starting point to pUt in place a continuous monitoring system. A criticism of
this approach has also been that they wvercdriven by sciCentistsrather than by demand for environmental
information by potential clients.
3.51
Failure to implement existing policies can also bc considered an important factor underlying the
environment problems. Despite clearly defined boundaries, the Government of Mali has been unable to
exercise proper control over the gazetted forest areas. Bush fires set by poachers and uncontrolled
exploitation of forest resources are examplcs of the consequences. The highly centralized admrinistration
that encourages little local participation in decision making is unable to enforce this law, which is clashing
with other laws and customs and thus possibly not implementable. Attempts to impose unrealistic pollution
regulation on industry in Bamako has equally failed.
3.52
Absence of land-use planning. The open access to the land resource base and its de facto
unregulated use are main contributors to the degradation problem. With expanding rice cultivation in the
inner delta of the Niger and developing dug wells in large numbers, the traditional land use control,
previously exercised by traditional chiefs has been erodcd. Control of resources is gradually passing to
more strictly defined social units and influential towvnpeople. This is not only contributing to reducing the
grazing area available, but also to blocking access to dry season grazing and water points for transhumant
livestock, leading to conflicts between cultivators and transhUmnantherders.
3.53
Transhumant livestock production was founded on exploiting pastures in the unflooded areas
during the rainy season and returning to pastures along the inner delta during the dry season. If the
expansion of cultivation is allowed to continuc. this mode of livestock production will be jeopardized,
leading to range degradation problems outside and inside the delta zone. The absence of land use planning
16
At a scale of I :500,000 and 1.200,000 respectively.
22
pastoralists more than any other segmentof the rural populationbecause of agriculture'sand
victinmizes
irrigation'sencroachmenton traditionalgrazinggrounds.
3.54 Transhumantshave already been forcedto move further south into the Sudan/Guineansavannah
zones where the influx of northernlivestockherds has led to conflicts betweenfarmers and herdsmen,
exacerbated by the fact that sedentary farmers have heavily invested in livestock (draft oxen, other
livestock). Both the Sudanianand Guineanecozoneshave morecarryingcapacitythan presentlyused, but
demarkationof croplands,pastures, and wvoodlands
at villagelevelwotildbe required. Land demarkation
wouldalso needto take into accountlandqualityto preventmarginallands from beingagriculturallyused.
This process should also take into considerationquality to avoid further agricultural exploitationof
marginallands.
3.55 Macro-economicpolicy. With regardto livestock,the country's inabilityto maintainits important
livestockexport market share in the coastal West Africa is a case in point. The CFA devaluationmay
improvethe situation by increasingthe competitivenessof Sahelianexports. Increasedexport possibilities
may leadto a higheroffiakeof livestockso reducingthe likelilhood
of overgrazing.
3.56 There is also currentlya lack of incentivesto reduce the size of herds, which is often the only
available saving or investmentinstrument for livestockproducers. Establishrnentof saving and loan
institutionsin pastoral areas would be neededin order to convinceherders to increasetheir offtake from
their herds during favorable rainfall periods, when their herds are increasing. Increased marketing
opportunitiesshouldbe exploredand created.
3.57 Regarding farm land degradation,incentivesto farmers to follow certain practices that are
beneficialin the long-runmay require short-termsubsidies,which the governmentcan ill afford. At the
current exchange rate and given the country's inadequatetransport system, planting of crops other that
cottonand cerealsmay, however,not be a profitableenouglhalternativefor farmerswithoutany subsidy.
3.58 One of the reasonsfor forest degradationis the inadequatepricingof fire wood. Efforts to tax
woodand controlits illegalcollectionand distributionat pricesfar belowthe economiccost have so far not
beensuccessful.
3.59 Althoughthere is littleinformationreadilyavailableon local taxationand,budgets, it appearsthat
Mali's taxationsystem is highlycentralizedgivingfew resourcesto the lowerlevelsthus at the sametime
restrictingdecentralizedmanagement.
3.60 InstitutionalWeaknesses. Two major institutional problems are currently inhibiting a better
environrmental
managementin Mali: a high degreeof centralizationand a lack of coordination. Despitean
officialpolicy to encouragegreater decentralization,decisionmaking in Mali is at this time still highly
centralized. Regional and local strucltres currently exist in the form of "Comites Regionals de
Developpement"(CRD) and the "Comites Locals de D6veloppement"(CLD) which represent all
ministerial technical services and have established commissionsin charge of different sectors of the
economy. They have,however,insufficientcapacityto direct and manageprojectsand programs. As for
local populations, they have fitted in well with the dynamic of project design and implementation,
particularlyin test zones of the CellulePNCLD. Thereis also littleparticipationof local populationsin the
designand implementationof projectsand in the processof definingand evaluatingresourcemanagement
problemswith whichthey are confronted.As a resllt of this lack of responsibilityat the locaUvillagelevel,
23
the population often does not perceive itself as a part of the prescribed solutions to environmental
management, leading in turn to the non-implementation of these programs.
3.61
There is not a single ministry or other central government institution in charge of all aspects of
environmental management. This dispersion of crucial responsibility leads to poor coordination among the
responsible parties (as in the case of fuelwood) or lack of planning (as in the case of land use policy). The
ministries concerned include Rural Development and Environment; Economy, Finance and Plan; Health;
Mining; Industry and Energy; Transport; and Public Works and Urban Development. With the elaboration
of the National Plan to fight desertification (see para. 4.3), a structure ("cellule provisoire de suivi,
d'evaluation et de planification") was created in the livestock ministry to monitor its implementation. It was
subsequently transferred to the new Ministry of Rural Development and Environment. The recent
government restructuring, while eliminating the conflict between agriculture and livestock, and combining
environment and rural development, has not fully resolved the issue of coordination on environmental issues
across all concerned ministries. A recent decree set up several "cellules de planification et des statistiques"
in various ministerial departments. There continues to be a lack of coordination between various technical
services in the field such as DNEF, DNHE and DNA as the extension work is mainly sectoral, as well as
between different levels of the state apparatus. One can also see a lack of exchange of experience between
projects and experts and insufficient donor coordination, given the large number of donors involved in the
environmental field in Mali. A synopsis of the direct and indirect causes of environmental degradation is in
Table 3.3.
ACCELERATING CAUSES
3.62
Droughts. In addition to both direct and indirect causes, recurrent drought, more than any other
single factor, accelerates the pace of environmental degradation. Over the last 20 years, countries of the
Western and Central Sahel have experienced below average rainfalls, exacerbated by severe droughts.
While neither the droughts nor the years with rainfall deficit are peculiar in themselves, recent concerns
have centered on the unbroken runof deficit years. Scientists are not yet sure - due to the relatively limited
period of weather monitoring - if this dry period represents part of a declining trends or it is part of the
normal cycle of rainfall oscillations that are a governing fact of life in the Sahel.
24
IV.
GOVERNMENT, BANK, DONOR AND NGO SUPPORTED
PROGRAMS
4.1
Overview. This chapter documents the current and planned strategies of the governmentof Mali,
the Bank, donors and NGOs in addressing the multifaceted problems of environmental degradation. In
particular for the Bank, both investment operations and economic and sector work with major
environmental contents are discussed.
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMSOF THE GOVERNMENT
4.2
The govemmcnt of Mali has intervened in several key anras in addressing environmental issues,
especially in recent years. Major areas of governmelntconcem have been (a) desertification control, (b)
domestic household energy policies, (c) forestry management through a system of reserves and parks, (d)
development of niral water supply, and (e) rationalization of land tenure system, (f) urbanization and
sanitation and (g) population policy.
4.3
Desertification Control. The setLp of the Nationial Plan for Desertification Control (PNLCD) in
1985, (and updated in 1987), demonstrated a serious commitment to address the issue of environmental
degradation. This was further expanded by the establishment of a coordination unit with the role of acting
as horizontal liaison among governcmnt agencies. Thle PNLCD focused on eight priority areas, mainly
with substantial donor input. Specifically. the eight-point strategy for desertification control covered:
(a) National land use planning - the establishment of community-based natural resource
management capacity with substantial NGO input.
(b) Protection against desertification - concentrated mainly in the Sixth and Seventh
Regions
of Mali.
(c) Coordination and monitoring - using an integrated approach to environmental management
involving the livestock, agricultural and forestry sectors.
(d) Training and public education - these activities vere targcted at the primary, secondary
university levels through the inclusion of natLral resource managemelnt syllabi in the curriculum.
and
(e) Research - mainly on applied methods of desertification control.
(f) Household energy - promotion of efficient LISC of bio-energy through tl1epromotion of more
energy-efficient stoves.
(g) Enactment of laws - to promote better land use policies, control deforestation and
land tenure issues, and
(h) Program flexibility - allows adjustment of components of programs to fit desired
situations as they arise or add new componeintsto strenigtlhenon-going programs as they
necessary.
clarify
become
25
Althoughthe setup of the PNLCD at this early stage is to the credit of the government,the
4.4
followingweaknessesshould be stressed: (a) it deals separatelywith different parts of the programn,
although some of them overlap and need to be addressedin an integratedfashion; and (b) the abovementionedcelluleto implementthe PNLCDhas not beengivensufficientauthorityto fulfillthis task.
HouseholdEnergy. Governmentstrategies in fuelwoodmanagementhas revolvedaround the
4.5
promotionof greater access to domesticsourcesof energywhile attemptingto reduceforest degradation
due to excessivedependenceon wood and charcoal. With the help of the Bank and other donors, a
nationwidestudywas initiatedin 1990in order to developlong-termstrategiesfor efficientmanagementof
the sector. These strategies centered around (a) management of existing fuelwood resources, (b)
developmentof moreefficientprice policies,(c) accelerationof programsto promotemoreefficientstoves,
(d) eventual reduction of demand for fuelwood through investmentin and developmentof alternative
sourcesof energyand (e) developingthe capacityof community-basedassociationsto play a greaterrole in
fuelwoodmanagement.
Forestry management. Closelyassociatedwith the energystrategy is the managementof Mali's
4.6
forests. In this respect,the governmenthas worked in developmentof a Forestry Code (Lawof March
1986)which establishedcriteria for forest resourceexploitationthrougha system of licensesand pernits.
In addition,the law sets guidelineson the type of productwhich can be harvested,the quantity, site of
operationsand the period of operations,as well as penaltiesto be applied if rules are not observed. As
already stated (see paras. 3.19 - 3.20),these regulationsare not adequatelyenforced. Projectsdesignedto
improve forest resource managementinclude semi-industrialreforestation,village reforestation,agroforestryand natural forest improvement.
Populationpolicy. Recognizingthe effect of high birth rates, the governmenthas also in March
4.7
1991 adopted a population policy, including a family planning strategy, which is currently being
operationalizedwith donorassistance. A nationalpopulationpolicywas adoptedin May 1991,whichis to
be followedby an action plan for its implementation.
THE BANK'S PORTFOLIO
Environmental concerns are central to the Bank's development agenda in Mali. The cornerstone of
4.8
better integrating environmental concerns into the development is the NEAP process which allows a
country to examine environmental concerns, make explicit any trade-offs and define policy priorities and
choices. Within the Bank's internal process of project approval, all projects undergo an environmental
assessment prior to their appraisal. In addition, environmental concerns are also, to some extent, addressed
by the urban and energy projects, as well as indirectly by the education project. Regarding projects in the
agricultural and forestry sector, three projects that have been ongoing for several years should be
mentioned. The Mopti Area Development Project, initially agriculture and animal health oriented, has
encouraged the creation of pastoral associations which will be essential in setting up sustainable rangeland
management practices in the Sahelian part of the country. The Forestry II project was designed to address
the increasing threat of deforestation, the diminishing supply of fuelwood and bio-diversity conservation.
The Office du Niger Consolidation Project aims at rehabilitating and maintaining existing irrigation
structures and at improving the institution's management, thereby reducing soil erosion, siltation and water
losses due to poor functioning of irrigation canals.
26
More recently, an Agricultural Services Project was approved, which foresees specifically the
4.9
extension by single agents of messages relevant simultaneously to agricultural, livestock, and natural
resource management. The Agricultural Sector Adjustment/Investment operation, which started in 1990,
addresses environmental concems in two ways. First, in the context of the preparation of the Mali-Sud
investment program, a special environmental reconnaissance mission was carried out for the Bougouni
region to assess environmental measures necessary to minimize potential adverse impacts resulting from the
development program. On the basis of that mission's recommendations, the executing agency for that
project (CMDT) and the MDRE are undertaking the following measures: (a) a wildiand management plan
will be established by March 1992; a natural resource inventory on the Bcugouni region, with numerous
soil maps, has already been completed, and (b) the impact of pesticidc/fertilizer use on the water quality of
the Bani River will be monitored carefully by analyzing regularly water samples. Secondly, the credit's
adjustment component supports natural resource management measures to be taken in coordination with the
recently approved Natural Resource Management Project: (a) the complete and adequate staffing of the
national coordinating unit; (b) the presentation of a national resource management strategy by July 1991;
and (c) the completion of a study on traditional and modern land use rights in different regions. A first
series of studies on experiences and legal issues conceming land tenure in Mali has already been launched
under CILSS and USAID financing. Taking advantage of the results of those studies which were available
in September 1991, a second series of applied studies of local land tenure problems and solutions were
begun in 1992.
4.10 The recently approved Natural Resource Management Project would provide rural communities
with the instruments of a proper utilization of their agro-sylvo-pastoral resources. This project will be
iinplemented in close coordination with the above-mentioned Agricultural Services Project. An important
component of the Natural Resource Management project is its focus on the development of communitybased associations through the provision of technical assistance to increase their roles in environmental
management. In these activities, special emphasis is being placed on the development of women
organizations in various communities in order to have greater involvement of women in environmental
management decision making.
4.11
The ongoing Health, Population and Rural Water Supply Project deals with several of the causes
of environmental degradation described above: the health component aims at increasing the coverage and
quality of health care, focussing on decentralization and community participation; the population
component is designed to strengthen the institutions in charge of disseminating and implementing the
national population policy and of planning, managing and evaluating family planning programs and to
improve family planning services; the rural wvatersupply component should improve the supply of safe
drinking water in rural areas.
4.12
A further project that builds on the lessons learmt in Forestry II is the GEF Household Energy
Private Sector development Project, currently under preparation. The two rnainobjectives of the project
are to improve management and promote rational use of energy resources. These objectives will be
achieved through: (i) the reduction in the consumption of fuelwood through the dissemination of efficient
stoves by the private sector adapted to local cooking habits and purchasing power of the urban population;
(ii) the transfer of natural forest management and exploitation control and responsibilities from the State to
the local population, (iii) the development of pricing and fiscal measures pertaining to all household fuels to
ensure that these reflect their economic costs of production and regeneration; (iv) promotion, through the
private sector of substitute fuels (kerosene, LPG); (v) the promotion of solar energy (PV) systems for nonelectrified peri-urban areas; and (vi) the strengthening of public sector institutions involved in the
implementation and monitoring of the strategy for the household energy sector.
27
PROGRAMSOF OTHER DONORSANDNGOs
4.13 Several other donors and NGOs are involvedin environrnentalmanagementin Mali through
projectsof various sizes throughoutthe country. A total of 130natural resourcemanagementprojectsare
currentlyin progresswith over 84 % under executionby NGOs. These includeabout 52 projectsin water
resourcemanagementand erosioncontrol,nine in the energysector, 52 in agriculturaldevelopment,12 in
livestock,16 in forestry and three in fisheries. Donorand NGO activitiesin natural resourcemanagement
took on prominenceafter the droughts,mainlyas a mobilizationof internationaldrought relief effortsand
later, as a meansof developingdomesticcapacity. However,whilethereare substantialNGOs and donors
involvedin environmentalrelated projects in Mali, these efforts are often not coordinated,leading to
duplicationof efforts (both in programsand in research).
4.13 Major donorsand NGOs are Africarewith about fiveprojects in rural water development,ACDI
with eightprojects(four projectsin rural water supplyand four in agriculture)and FAC with four project
in rural water supply,six in agriculturaldevelopmentand one in livestock. CARE/Malihas threeprograms
underwayin agriculturaldevelopmentand anotherin livestock;BAD/FADhas two projectseach in rural
water supply and domesticenergyand five projects in agriculture. Major active donorsin environmnental
and natural resourcemanagementare France,Netherlands,Switzerland,Italyand USAID.
28
V.
TOWARDA NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY
5.1
Overview. In this chapter, strategies for addressing environmental decline in Mali are discussed.
The strategy involves (i) tackling the direct causes such as farming practices, (ii) developing long term
strategies for the underlying causes such as population growvthand limitecl institutional capacity and (iii)
providing an enabling environment required to achieve these goals. An environmental policy analysis
matrix is used to analyze the direct and indirect causes and recommendan action plan.
OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTALSTRATEGY
5.2
At the much broader level, the objectives of an environmental strategy for Mali are to halt further
degradation of the environment, prevent future ecological decline and restore a more functional natural
environmental base. In addition, a strategy would be developed to preserve Mali's rich archeological and
cultural heritage. This strategy would target both the direct and indiirect causes of environmental
degradation in an integrated manner and enhance the technical capacity of community-based groups
(through research, training and education) to get more involved in these activities which directly affects
them. The strategy would, at the minimum, develop a system for national institutional building and better
coordination of current and future multi-sectoral activities through the development of a national
environmental infornation system (EIS) to better inform policy making. These activities would be aimed
toward the development of a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). An environmental policy
analysis matrix (ANNEX I) examines these strategies in detail.
5.3
Mali's most serious environmental problems are in the first instance related to the use/abuse of its
land resources which have led to soil erosion/loss of soil fertility, degradation of the range/desertification,
and over-exploitation/destruction of forests. Management of the water resources in general is also crucial
in the Malian context. Although having not yet reached alarming proportions, urban waste disposal
problems contribute to the pollution of rivers and groundwater and to health hazards. Bio-diversity is also
threatened mainly due to the changing use of the Niger inland delta, the wetlands, and poaching, as well as
climatic changes and their consequences. Its cultural and archeological resources are also being destroyed.
Air pollution, though concentrated in urban areas, is considered negligible and will therefore not be
discussed in detail, even though dust storms coming from the north are becomriinga cause for concern.
xi.
The Bank strategy, through its lending programs and economic anld sector work, has been to
provide long term assistance in better environmental management, strengthen the capacity of the existing
institutions to enforce laws, and tackle the underlying causes through specific operations in health,
agriculture, forestry, education and the urban sectors. Environmental impact assessments of planned
operations have become mandatory for all investment operations. Of paramount importance is a recently
approved Natural Resource Management operation whiclh will, among other things, provide the needed
technical assistance for the organization and strengthening of community-based associations as the primary
vehicles for implementing environmental prograns at the local level.
TACKLINC THE CAUSES
5.4
Degradation of Farmland. Strategies aiming at the prevention of farmnland degradation should
focus on the improvement of farming practices and technologies. Special attention needs to be given to
introducing/reintroducing crop rotation systems that would provide better soil cover/erosion protection
29
during early cultivation/vegetationperiods (intercropping,mixed cropping). Improved crop rotations
wouldalso be beneficialif moreleguminouscrops were introducedto buildup soil fertility.
5.5
Soil fertility would also be improved by expanding "mixed" crop/livestockfarming in the
climatically favored southern regions of the country. Farmers should be encouraged to introduce
leguminousfoddercrops on fallowland,plant foddertrees as windbreaks/hedges.Applicationof farmyard
manure/compostshouldbe promoted,possibilitiesof mulching,rock-phosphatefertilizationand land tillage
soil
suitable to erosion reduction need to be researched. All methods leading to preserving/increasing
moisture would make a valuable contributionto intensifyingagricultural practices. Intensificationof
farmingpracticesshouldlead to the eliminationof marginallands from cropping,returnof the bush fallow,
and introductionof fodder crops as fallow alternatives. This requires in the first instance training,
extensionto communicateavailableinformation. To bring about any sustainablechange in agricultural
practices, it will however,also requirea solutionto the deeper underlyingproblems,in particular a new
land tenuresystemand the controlof populationgrowth.
5.6
Degradationof the Range. Preventingfurther range degradationwould require an integrated
managementapproach, which would look both at the direct causes of
crop/livestock/environmental
biophysicaldeclineas wellas the changesin the socio-culturalenvironment,such as land tenurelaws. One
such areais the open ran,e policy. Under the open range policy, absenteeherd ownersare permittedto
enter and disturb traditional existing grazing patterns with little regard for conservation. Under the
prevailingsituation, any successfuleffort at range improvementundertakenby the traditionalherderswill
only bring in moreoutsiders. A majorelementof the rangestrategywouldbe to assist herdersto establish
and manage pastoral associationsin grazing areas, giving them responsibilitiesin formulatingland use
plans and enforcementof rules and regulationsfor their implementation.This must be done in the context
of a multi-sectoralapproachdevelopinggeneral land LISCplans that definegrazing, farm, and forest land.
Help should be extendedin developingwater points, improvingrange resources, establishing/operating
markets and banking/credit facilities, greater seeking of commercial outlets and investment in industrial
transformationof animalproducts.
5.7
Degradationof Forests. The first priority should be given to the creation of a positive and
permanentstatus for productiveuse (wheretimber harvestrights would be given on the basis of a longterm managementprogramand in accordancewith local traditions),protectivepurposes(for watershedsor
catchmentsto prevent soil erosion and regulatesupply of water) and conservation(of bio-diversityfor
intra-and inter-regionaldiversity).
5.8
Efforts also need to be directedat reducinginefficientuse of firewood. The HouseholdEnergyPrivate Sector DevelopmentProjectwill aim to improvethe managementand more rationaluse of all of
Mali energy resources. Since firewood substitution by other energy sources will be possible on
economic/financialgrounds only on a limitedscale for the foreseeablefuture, low cost improvedstoves
must continueto be promoted,as currentlydone under the PNLCD. The new project will also continue
workin this area. At the sametime, the use of solar energy,whichmaytoday be economicalonly in smallscale applications, should be further researched,given the natural conditionsin Mali and the rapid
technologicaladvancein the field,and thus its potentialfor the future.
5.9
Due to over-exploitationof forests.firewood/charcoal
suppliesare ampleand cost of the traditional
householdfuels are too low to encouragetheir economicuse. While taxation of fuelwood is often a
desirableoption, it has, nevertheless,proven insufficientin controllingthe collectionand distributionof
fuelwoodin the past; there is no indicationthat this is a viableoption. Possibilitiesof establishinga more
30
effective tax on bio-energy use therefore needs to be further investigated. The implementation of a system
of forestry tax collection by community association, part of the proposed Household Energy Private Sector
Development Project, will be a way to encourage a more rational use of forest resources. Under this
project, stumpage fees will be adjusted to take into account the value of standing wood in different
production areas.
5.10
Reforestation efforts focusing on marginal lands, wind breaks, hedges, planting of "multipurpose"
trees (leguminous trees which would provide fodder, fuel, construction poles, and improve soil fertility)
should be encouraged. Based on discouraging experiences of the past, successful development of such
programs could only be expected if and when villagers are interested and willing to take over maintenance
and protection responsibilities. Both reforestation and the management of still existing forests, including
gazetted forests, require a transfer of ownership or control over forests to village communities as an
incentive, an action planned under the Household Energy Project.
5.11
Through training and education, the concept of integrated natural resource management, including
forests, should be communicated to farmers. This will require a shift in development strategies towards
broader-based integrated programs at the national and regional levels, based on comprehensive land use
planning, and incorporating institution building, protection, agro-forestry, fiielwood, industrial and research
initiatives.
5.12
Water and Waste Management. To improve the access of the population to clean water supply, the
ongoing efforts to equip villages and outlying areas of cities with boreholes and make them responsible for
adequate maintenance must be continued and accompanied by information campaigns regarding the
important health aspects.
5.13
To increase the efficiency of water management in existing irrigation schemes, maintenance of
irrigation structures and canals must be further improved. This requires further institutional strengthening
of the rural development organizations in charge, such as the Office du Niger, as well as extension and
training. Improved maintenance of irrigation facilities would not only make more water available to users
below the delta area but also reduce the incidence of schistosomiasis/m.alaria. As irrigation is being
promoted, it will become more and more important to also put in place incentives for water conservation.
5.14
To cope with increasing waste disposable problems of the urban areas with their rapidly growing
population in the years to come, efforts will be required at an early stage, to plan for an environmentally
safe disposal of solid and liquid waste. One major problem preventing cities/townships from constructing
sanitation infrastructure or organize trash collection seems to be their narrow tax base. Local taxation
therefore needs to be studied and municipal revenues possibly increased. An ongoing cadastral survey
under the second urban project will provide part of the basis for this by providing the relevant information
for better policy. To improve the use of municipal resources, municipal service delivery needs to move
away from force account to private contracting. Involvement of the local population in these aspects of
urban planning and information campaigns about the benefits of better waste management and its potential
impact on health will be equally important. The control of the rapid population growth in urban areas will
be key to success.
5.15
There is consensus that industrial development, although welcome in Mali, may contribute
disproportionally to water and air pollution and/or soil contamination. Each industrial undertaking in the
future would therefore require an assessment of its likely impact on the environment and protective
measures against toxic or polluted waste/air have to be incorporated in any construction design. This
31
should in particular apply to gold exploration, as this activity is becoming more important. Furthernore,
government and industry need to start developing pollution standards and control systems and review the
pollution laws and their application.
5.16
Biodiversity. Action to prevent further reduction in biodiversity is required at the national and
international level. At the international level, donor pressure could contribute to reducing illegal imports of
endangered species into European countries. At the national level, a first action was the signing of the
CITES treaty. This will, however, only have an effect if it is accompanied by more information campaigns
and the inclusion of environmental education in school curricula and training courses. Both must stress
incentives to protect bio-diversity through a partnership with local communities, such as the transfer of
wild life control and land use rights to local communities, and potential for development of tourism. It will
also be imnportantto establish a network of national reserves, that will be maintained at a minimum, if not
expanded.
PROTECTING CULTURAL HERITAGE AND MANAGING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
5.17
Protection of cultural heritage in Mali suffers from inadequate institutional cooperation and lack of
resources. Legislation is not enforced so that looting continues and sites are damaged. Improved
inventories and regular site monitoring would be an important step to improved protection. Training of
local staff in site inventory and management is also needed. Adoption of Environmental Impact
Assessment requirements will greatly reduce negative impacts to cultural property from development
projects. As with biodiversity, action is required at the local, national, and international level to prevent
further loss. Local participation in safeguarding cultural heritage should be strengthened. Museums - at
the national and local level - can play a vital role in increasing awareness of the value and diversity of
cultural heritage and the need to protect it.
5.18
Well-designed tourism projects, in which local populations are involved in planning and operation,
can benefit the economy and help finance cultural preservation activities. In October 1990, the
Government adopted a national tourism plan (Plan directeur de developpement du tourisme au Mali) which
aims to improve this sector's contribution to national development. However, its implementation has been
delayed doe to recent events in country. Currently, an intermediate program is being developed that will
lead to implementingthe plan in the Mopti-Djenne- Dogon Country regions.
GOING TO THE ROOTS
5.19
Population Growth. Any strategy aiming at environmental protection/rehabilitation, will have to
consider the rapid population growth and the population's quest for security of survival. Confronted with
insufficient rainfall and frequent droughts, the reaction of the farmnershas been to plant as much land as
possible and to cultivate it rather extensively. Similar reactions in the survival efforts can be found among
herdsmen who increase herd size as a precautionary measure in anticipation of likely high livestock losses
during droughts. This is done in most cases without improving herd/ range management.
5.20
Rapid population growth as the most important contributing factor to Mali's environment has to be
the main topic of all discussions aiming at correcting/ preventing environmental problems. All measures
leading to reductions of the extremely high birth rates will have beneficial effects on all measures
32
safeguarding the environment. The recently adopted family planning strategy and population policy must
therefore quickly be operationalized and implemented.
5.21
Climate changes. Mali has signed the Global Convention on Climate Change. Given its position
as a Sahelian country threatened by droughts that have become endemic, the Govenmuenthas pledged to
support all international initiatives aimed at reducing the negative effects of climatic change and protecting
the ozone layer.
5.22
Economic and Technological Alternatives. The focus of an environmental strategy must be on
drought control and relieving pressure on the land. This could be supported by the intensification of
agricultural as well as livestock and forestry production which would permit farmers/herdsmen to obtain
identical if not increased returns from smaller acreages. Diversification of agricultural production would
be another alternative. Pressure on the land could also be reduced through identification and support of
economic alternatives such as the creation of cottage/village industries or the promotion of village
craftsmen, as well as job opportunities in urban areas.
5.23
With a major focus on intensify'ingagricultural/livestock production and diversification, research,
on improved
in particular appliedand adaptiveresearch,will haveto play a major role. Recommendations
improved
fanning
drought
tolerant
crops,
breeding
of
of
soil
fertility,
crop rotations, restoration
technologies,improvedrangemanagement,the natural forest regenerationprocess,conservationof natural
fertility and identificationof sylviculturaltreatments in conformitywith the conservationof biogenetic
diversitywill be needed. The first step would be the identificationand cataloguingof pertinentresearch
informationalreadyavailable. This shouldbe followedby the preparationof a programof appliedresearch
to be carriedout by nationaland internationalorganizations.
5.24 In addition,adaptiveresearchon availabletechnologyregardingfor examplecrop rotation,fertility
conservation,mulching,mechanicaland vegetativesoil erosioncontrol,use of perennialplants, shouldbe
contractedto projects, NGOs, private enterprisesand commercialfarmers. Moreover,research must be
carried out on the socio-economicdimensionof natural resource managementactivities, including (a)
identificationof sector economic and policy reforms, (b) cost-benefitanalysis of natural resource
management,includingthe assessmentof externalities,(c) definitionof new institutionalarrangements,
including in the area of research, and (d) financial issues such as subsidies for natural resource
conservationand incentivesto mobilize private and communityinterests. Finally, the results of this
researchmust be widelydisseminated.
5.25 Environmentaland Information Awareness. Training and environmentaleducation, including
environmentalinformationin school curricula, should take place at all levels, with special emphasison
youth and supervisorypersonnel,in order to enhancepublic awarenessand participationin protectingthe
environment.Again,informationcampaignsthroughpublic mediawill be needed. It shouldbe mentioned
that CILSS is currentlydevelopinga schemeof environmentaleducationat the primary, secondaryand
tertiarylevel.
5.26 Followingthe establishmentof the researchinventoryand the determinationof further research
needs, as well as time required for obtaining research results, extension programs in support of
environmentalmeasureswith the focus on higherintensityfarming/rangemanagementshould be prepared
and, to the extent possible,incorporatedin existingextensionprograms. Theseextensionprograms should
be precededby informationcampaignswhichwouldsensitizethe localpopulationto specificenvironmental
problemsencounteredin their homearea.
33
5.27
At the same time, an environmental information and monitoring system responding to the needs of
potential users must be set up. This effort could start with the gathering of existing environmental data.
An environmental information system should eventually support the decisions of farmers as well as policy
makers.
5.28
Legislative/Land Tenure. Existing legislation has failed to control land tenure and protect natural
resources. Confrontation of religious:traditional:modem laws goveming land tenure contribute to
insecurity of land ownership and consequently to over-utilization of land/soil resources. A new strategy
would define the lands for which religious/traditional niles wvouldapply and those which would be
subjected to modem laws of individual land ownership. Simultaneously, studies should be carried out to
determine the reasons for the unsatisfactory implementation/enforcement of existing legislation pertaining
to natural resource management, and it may have to be revised in collaboration with the local population.
In urban areas, new pollution standards and regulations for industries need to be developed, that would
limit their impact on water pollution, while not discouraging much needed industrial development. The
same applies to gold mining.
5.29
Land Use Planning. The objective of land use planning is to integrate forestry, agricultural and
livestock activities at the local, regional and international level, taking into account the sustainable use of
natural resources. A land use plan would have to combine and find a balance between a central policy and
local strategies. A nation-wide multi-sectoral master plan would delineate marginal lands that should not
be farmed, or preserve grazing lands from encroaching agricultural use. At the same time, within a
decentralization strategy, village land management plans would be formulated and implemented.
Responsibilities for implementing the land management plans as well as safeguarding identified land use
zones could be conferred to local communities, with Government providing legal, technical, and financial
backing together with training members of the communities in managing their land resources. By the same
token, more participative urban planning could help improve the deteriorating urban environment. In
addition, land use planning has a direct impact on the survival of cultural resources. Appropriate zoning is
necessary to maintain historic areas. Earth moving projects should, in their assessment of environmental
impact analysis, also pay attention to the impacts on cultural property.
5.30
Macroeconomic Policy. At an international level, sensitizing of the international community to
linkages between policies such as the subsidization of exports and environmental degradation must take
place. At a national level, macroeconomic planning needs to take environmental considerations into
account. While it would not be feasible to incorporate them in the national accounting system in the
foreseeable future, environmental considerations could for example underlie decisions regarding the public
investment program, as an environmental assessment could be required for all or certain types of projects.
Regarding public finance, the decentralization of taxation, with a greater budget being managed at the
regional and local level must be studied in detail. Mali's financial situation may currently not allow the
payment of subsidies to promote certain environmentally beneficial activities. The instrument of taxation
to discourage detrimental activities can, however, be used. Not much research seenmsto have been done so
far in Mali on the impact of existing incentives/disincentives,and how they could best be implemented in
the future. The recent devaluation of the CFA franc will have various consequences for the environment in
Mali. The NEAP provides an opportunity to study these in more depth and suggest any measures that
might be necessary to counteract possible environmental harm.
5.31
There is a strong need for expanding savings and loans operations in rural areas to allow for
alternatives to investment in livestock. Marketing, of livestock as well as other products, would also
34
require strengthening to promote economic alternatives to current practices. Possibilities of producing
higher quality beef through stall feeder programs in higher rainfall areas, for example, would warrant the
improvement/ strengthening of marketing facilities and industrial transformation of animal products.
5.32
Focusing on Institutions. One of the most important aspects of an environmental strategy must be
to establish the right institutional framework adapted to the new policies. Any action to protect the
environment, including the built historic environment, will require cooperation/coordination,
decentralization and institutional strengthening. First, cooperation is necessary between various ministries,
government agencies, municipalities, farmer/herdsmen associations as well as outside donor organizations
to make an integrated multi-sectoral approach possible. This applies specifically to resolving conflicts
among national programs which are necessary for environmental protection. All of these groups would
therefore have to be actively involved in the process of a NEAP. Where different approaches to natural
resource management exist, such as between some of the donors, better coordination is required.
5.33
Second, protection of forests, wildlife, range and farm land as well as the urban environment is
unsatisfactory because of a highly centralized authority which is in no position to carry out its obligations.
Cooperation of the local population in protecting natural resources has so far hardly been solicited. The
ongoing destruction/depletion of forests, for example, has not been identified by the local population as a
loss of "property" but as the disappearance of something belonging to the "state/common ownership".
Transferring ownership rights of forests, grazing and farming areas to villages and village/pastoral
associations, as part of a general administrative decentralization, would be a solution to provide for
increased environmental protection/control. Giving villages the control and rights to economic use of
forests and share of benefits, to proper game management and exclusive grrazingrights, should stimulate
their interests in preserving "their" valuable natural resources. The elaboration of an eventual NEAP
would have to fully involve villagers.
5.34
Third, institutional strengthening for environmental protection deserves high priority. Discussions
with the government should lead to the identification of ministries or government agencies which would
become executing agencies and/or responsible for formulating/ implementing environmental programs/
projects. While there should be one leadership locus for the development oi an environmental strategy and
a NEAP, such as an "Haut Commissariat" currently under discussion, eventually environmental concerns
must become an integral part of all ministries. Preparation of any action program will also need to focus
on staff requirements, training and the financing aspects of proposed' activities. Another area of
importance is the need to develop a greater national capacity to carry out environmental assessments. This
will be necessary for the systematic introduction of environmental impact analysis before undertaking any
private or public investments.
INFORMATIONGAPS
5.35
Several information gaps currently exist that make the development of a national environmental
strategy or a NEAP difficult and should thus be closed to the extent possible. The most important
information gaps currently seem to exist with regard to: (a) the extent of environmental degradation, (b)
their economic impacts and (c) the domestic capacity to respond. The Bank. undertook a study which tried
to quantify the economic impact of soil erosion in Mali, but insufficient information seems to exist on the
general loss of soil fertility.
35
5.36
Regarding range degradation, no economic quantification of environmental damage could be
undertaken due to the absence of data and differing views concerning the overstocking/ overgrazing issue.
General agreement seems to exist that the carrying capacity of natural pastures would depend on range
management. However, there is no information available on the economics of overstocking/overgrazing
under different ecological conditions or within the given ecological zones. The issue is further clouded by
the uncertainties of Malian livestock export prospects.
5.37
No information could be found on areas lost to "desertification" and the consequent impact on the
economy. Old aerial photographs may exist and their comparative analysis with photos to be taken should
be helpful in supplying more precise information.
5.38
Forest degradation is definitely a problem especially near urban/rural habitats. However, only
insufficient or conflicting information is on hand regarding the extenitof the problem. A study to identify
the most seriously deforested areas would be helpful for conceiving reforestation programs.
5.39
There is insufficient knowledge of the causes and consequences of water pollution in Mali though it
is of increasing concern. The main culprits are gold mining, tanning plants as well as sugar mills. A study
of water pollution is planned within the context of the NEAP.
5.40
Substantial information gaps exists in the location of archaeological sites which lead to
unnecessary destruction and inadequate protection.
5.41
Regarding the determination of land use rights, little information is available as to how locally
managed integrated natural resource management schemes work in practice.
5.42
There is little information on the impact of farm and rangeland degradation on the most vulnerable
groups of society, especially women.
5.43
Two main areas identified above as roots of many environmental problems that have so far not
been paid adequate attention are the institutional framework and administrative decentralization. These
areas need to receive particular attention in future economic and sector work.
36
LIST OF REFERENCES
International Livestock Center for Africa. Masai Herding: An Inivestigationof Pastoral Productionon
Group Ranches in Kenya. edited by S. Bekure, P. de Lecuw and B. E. Grandin. ILCA, 1988.
Bishop, J. and Allen, J., The On-Site Costs of Soil Erosion in Mali, World Bank, November 1989.
Bremen, H., Traore, M., Bonfiglio A., Eriksen, H.H., Ketelaars and Sawadogo. "Analyse des conditions
de l'1evage et propositions de politique et des programmes: Republique du Mali", Wageningen, 1987.
Geerling, de B., "Ecological Limits to the Conservation and Sustainable Exploitation of Natural
Resources", 1990.
FAO, Mali, Lutte contre la d6sertification. Programme nationale de gestion des ressources naturelles.
Rome, Italy, 1990
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Sahel Studies, Geneva, Switzerland, 1989..
Lal, R., "Soil Erosion Problems on Alfisoils in Western Nigeria VI: Effects of Erosion on Experimental
Plots". Geoderma, 25, 1981.
Nye, P.H. and J. D. Greenland, The Soil under Shifting Cultivation.
Technical Communication No. 5 1. Commonwealth Bureau of Soils, England., 1960.
R6publique du Mali. Schema Directeur de Mise en Valeur des Ressources en Eau du Mali, DCTD,
Decembre, 1990.
Rochette, R. M., "Le Sahel en lutte contre le desertification", June 1988.
University of Arizona, Draft Environmental Report on Mali, Tuscon, Arizona, May 1980.
Warshall, Peter, Mali - Biological Diversity Assessment, March 1989.
World Bank, National Environmental Action Plans in Africa, Washington, D).C.,December, 1990.
World Bank, Second Forestry Project, Report No. 1654-MLI, December 1985.
World Bank, Desertification Control and Renewable Resource Management in the Sahelian and Sudanian
Zones of West Africa. Technical Paper No. 70, Washington, D.C., 1988.
World Bank, Desertification in the Sahelian and Sudanian Zones of West Afiica, Washington, D.C.
World Bank, Mali - Livestock Sub-sector Review, Report No. 9075-MLI, October 1990.
World Bank, Strategy Paper on Tropical Forests, April 1991.
37
World Bank, LiberalizingReiional Markets for LivestockProducts: An Action Plan for Mali, Burkina
and Cote D'Ivoire. ReportNo. 9799-AFR,October,1991.
WorldBank, Mali - Natural ResourceManagementProiect,ReportNo. 10370-MLI,May 1, 1992.
WorldBank, Mali - Issues and Optionsin the EnergvSector,ReportNo. 8423-MLI,November1991.
World Bank, CO Emissions bv the Residential sector: EnvironmentalImplicationsof Inter-Fuel
Substitution,Industryand EnergyDepartmentWorkingPaperNo. 51, March 1992
Appendix I
Page I of 3
COUNTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS MATRIX
ACTION NEEDED
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM/ISSUE
OBJECTIVES OF
POLICY
ACTIONS TAKEN OR IN
PROGRESS
SECTORAL
INSTITUTIONAL
l
|
LEGISLATIVE
MACROECONOMIC
POLICY
I. LAND DEGRADATION
A. Farmland
Inappropriate farming
and land use practice
leading to soil erosion
and soil fertility decline.
Halt/reduce soil erosion.
Maintain/increase soil
fertility.
Protect marginal lands.
Land management, desertification
control program established under
PNLCD in 1985; fuelwood
management policy initiated under
Forestry 11project in 1986.
Better integration of PNLCD
needed; promotion of more
intensive farming using
mixed systems, improved
techniques and modem
inputs. Expand integrated
extension programs.
Community-based associations to
be formed under NRM Project.
Expansion into marginal
lands due to population
pressure and insecurity
of tenure.
B. Rangeland
Overgrazing of livestock
and expansion into
marginal lands.
Reduced population
pressure; develop national
land use plan and provide
security of tenure.
I
National Population and family
planning strategy begun in 1991.
Traditional and modem land tenure
laws reviewed under CILSS in
1991.
I
Better management of
rangeland resources;
control desertification;
more control over land use
at community-level.
Expanded training of farmers.
Implementationof family
planning programs.
I
Planting of leguminous species
under Forestry 11project; some
pastoral associations formed under
....... project; integrated message
for agriculture, livestock and
resource management initiated
under Agricultural Services
project; better use of resources
under Natural Resource
Management Project.
Levy of more efficient tax
on fuelwood to control
both collection and
distribution.
Revision and
implementation of
Land Tenure Code.
I
Halt open range use policy;
expand and strengthen
pastoral associations;
establish rural saving
associations for livestock
producers.
Develop integrated approach
to NRM issues.
Clarify land use
rights between
agriculturalists and
pastoralists.
Institute policies aimed at
making the export of
livestocks more
competitive.
Appendix I
Page 2 of 3
COUNTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS MATRIX
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM/ISSUE
OBJECTIVES OF
POLICY
l__________________________
|ACTION
_
NEEDED
ACTIONS TAKEN OR IN
SECTORAL
PROGRESS
LEGISLATIVE
|
|
~~~~~~~~~~~INSTITUTIONAL
MACROECONOMIC
POLICY
C. Deforestation
Increasing rate of
deforestation; lack of
enforcement of existing
laws.
Better management of
forest resources, establish
local capacity to protect
reserves and parks.
Forest reserves and parks
established under Forestry 11.
Forestry Code developed.
Increasing pollution of
surface water system.
High sedimentation rate
caused by flooding and
soil erosion.
Revised Forestry
Code to strengthen
loophole in and
distribution of logs.
Revise permit
system.
Research and invest in
alternative energy
sources, i.e. solar.
Revise and
strengthen the
existing pollution
laws to deal
effectively with
multi-sources of
pollution including
gold mining.
Develop industrial
waste management
policy.
Establish macroeconomic
framework for industrial
waste management by
providing the right
incentive/disincentive
structure.
Establish more efficient
taxes for fuclwood.
Better coordination of
agencies such as DNEF,
DNHE.
11. WATER RESOURCE
DEGRADATION
A. Surface Water Pollution
(rivers and streams)
Develop better local capacity
to enforce existing laws;
promote more efficient use of
fuelwood through promotion
of efficient stoves.
Reduce surface water
pollution.
Establish urban and
industrial waste disposal
policy.
Improve sedimentation
control.
Some urban drainage systems
rehabilitated under the Urban 11
project. But pollution exacerbated
by high rate of urban population
growtll.
Some sedimentation control
achieved under Office du Niger
project.
Some dams (Markala Dam) and
irrigation structures rehabilitated
but program suffers from problems
of management and O&M.
Inventory of aquifers conducted in
1990.
Establish national capacity to
deal with cross-cutting issues
of water management, health
and environment.
Improve capacity of
municipal govt to control
Niger River pollution.
Strengthen institutional
capacity of the Office du
Niger to improve O&M of
critical dams and irrigation
systems.
AppendixI
Page 3 of 3
COUNTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS MATRIX
ACTION NEEDED
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM/ISSUE
B. Groundwater Pollution
(acquifers)
OBJECTIVES OF
POLICY
ACTIONS TAKEN OR IN
PROGRESS
SECTORAL
INSTITUTIONAL
LEGISLATIVE
Protect integrity of
groundwater system.
Groundwater development and
rural pump installation expanded
under Rural Water Supply Project
in 1984. Study to evaluate water
points begain in 1989. Study
underway to determine extent of
underground water resource.
Need to complete study of
acquifer resources to better
inform policy decisions.
Give greater control to local
communities in management
of local boreholes.
Enact laws clarifying
access and rights to
underground water
resources.
Protect species and habitat;
curb illegal activities.
Operpational procedures for
management of national parks set
under Forestry II Project. More
parks and reserves established but
capacity to enforce existing
regulations is limited.
Increase capacity to enforce
cxisting regulations; involve
more local participation in
park management and tourism
development.
..... to sign CITES
and curb trade in
endangered species.
Protect cultural property
and develop tourism.
Some 800 sites cataloguedby
UNESCO.
Cultural property issues to be
addressed under NRM Project.
Promote education and
community involvement.
Complete inventory of sites.
Invest in tourism local with
community management.
Establish law to
control trade in
artifacts.
This source of environmental
degradation considered negligible.
No specific strategies have been
developed.
Initiate studies to determine
the extent and projections of
air pollution in order to
develop appropriate
strategies.
Seepage of urban waste
in acquifer system.
l
1
MACROECONOMIC
POLICY
III. LOSS OF DIVERSITY
Losses due to
deforestation,
encroachment, and
destruction of habitat
IV. CULTURAL AND
ARCHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTY
Inadequate protection of
sites.
Site inventory incomplete
l_______________________
V. AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution increasing
due to bushfires and high
dependency on bio-energy
Promote more efficient use
bio-energy. Encourage
long term investments in
alternative energy sources.
Ban all exports of
threatened species and
their products.
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