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Computer terminology in Japanese : the need for analogy, figuration and semantic transparency
辻, 幸夫(Tsuji, Yukio)
慶應義塾大学藝文学会
藝文研究 (The geibun-kenkyu : journal of arts and letters). Vol.73, (1997. 12) ,p.494- 507
Journal Article
http://koara.lib.keio.ac.jp/xoonips/modules/xoonips/detail.php?koara_id=AN00072643-00730001
-0494
Computer terminology in Japanese·
the need for analogy, figuration
and semantic transparency
Yukio Tsuji
1. Introduction
One of the major strategies for constructing new knowledge is
the utilization of analogical thought and figurative languages. (Gentner
1988, Lakoff 1987) Analogy is a cognitive process that is typically
embodied
in linguistic representations,
especially in figurative
expressions. Metaphor, for example, is more than merely either a
certain type of figure of speech expressing a perceived similarity or a
rhetorical device (Tsuji 1990), it is also a manifestation of analogy
based on relational similarities. (Gentner 1983, Gentner and Jesiarski
1993, Gibbs 1994, Vosniadou and Ortony 1989) It is also a matter of
cognitive interface between linguistic and conceptual knowledge and
processing. (Tsuji 1996b) Likewise, metonymy and synecdoche also
play important roles in forming mental models that lead to
systematically structured conceptual webs.
In this brief note, computer terminology, mainly Japanese, will
be discussed with special reference to its 'semantic transparency' or
intelligibility. A need for analogy and figuration as a means to improve
man-machine interface will be argued; the need is urgent because there
has been a long-standing difficulty in handling computer terms in
-494-
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Japanese. And then they are required to access what the words actually
mean. This makes the Japanese environment of man-machine interface
more complex and difficult
to deal with than the English, and so
discourages novices from going further.
But thanks to the recent development of GUI (Graphical User
Interface), beginners may find it easier and may feel more comfortable
in handling their machines. (Tsuji 1996a) What they (unless experts)
need here are good analogies and both linguistic and visual figurations
in the interface. This is why metaphors and other figurations are
essential. They need firm analogical foundation, based on the user's
knowledge or experience. This aspect will be discussed in the next
section, in terms of how analogy and figuration are at work-or how
they may not be at work-in relation to these.
3. Analogy and figuration found in computer terminology and
some related problems
Analogy and figuration are indispensable in forming a knowledge
system. When users are faced with a new term, in order for it to form
a part of the representation of the target domain, they need to activate
some relevant knowledge that will serve as the source domain. The
users also need to connect the two domains, by mapping the structural
knowledge of the source domain to the target domain. Once the
mapping is verified, they will grasp the meaning of the term and fit it
into their existing knowledge system. This process, the structural
network of concepts, underlies much of our acquisition of word
meanings. Some of the basic analogies typically found in computer
science may be schematized as the mapping from a human brain to the
computer's processing units: (e.g. Johnson-Laird 1988, Lakoff 1987,
-498-
Leary 1990)
Source/base domain
Target domain
HUMANS
COMPUTER
(1) human brain
---------->
(its structure, function, and
processing units
(CPU, ROM, RAM, OS, etc.)
process)
The above analogies can be systematically represented by the computer
terminology shown in (1) '. The chart illustrates some analogical
models through metaphorical uses of existing words in the lexicon.
These metaphors are widely used in the cognitive science fields including the research on artificial intelligence.
(1)' cerebrum
CPU, ROM, RAM and other
processing units
long-term memory
data on a hard disk or ROM
working memory
data on RAM
thinking
processing, calculation
neuron
a processing unit called 'a cell'
a network of nerve cells
a neural network system as in
connectionists' or PDP (Parallel
Distributed Processing) models
natural language
artificial language
learning
registration in memory
understand
follow the instructions
(bio) feedback
(electro-) feedback
Another analogical model may be found in (2) with the relevant terms
-499-
listed in (2').
(2)
(2)'
human (manual) activities- -----
-> operations and processes
cut and paste
cut and paste
drag
drag
copy
copy
click
click
communicate
communicate
does not work
does not function
does not move or think
freeze, hang or crash
The terms in (2)' might seem to display more of the extended usage
of the source words. In most of the cases the same forms are retained
in the transferred usage. But note that you do not, for instance, 'cut'
anything in the way you do in the real world using scissors. They are
semantically mapped structurally from the source to the target domain.
This makes it easy for users to understand what they are doing on the
display even in an environment which lacks iconic graphical user
interface. If users, whether learners or advanced, are able to activate
the analogies properly, then they will readily understand the terms even
if they have not encountered them before.
The extended usage of conventional word meanings can be found
in the terms used in word processing or editor programs such as 'styles',
'format', 'deletion', 'line', 'insertion', 'page', 'outline', 'footnote', etc.
These are the terms systematically transferred from the source domain
'conventional writing activity,' to the target domain, 'electronic writing
activity'. Other terms like 'calculation', and 'making data base', also
involve domain to domain transfer, supported by analogy and
-500-
metaphorical expressions. It is recognizable here that semantic and
conceptual knowledge are efficiently extended through the cognitive
process of categorization. (Tsuji 1991)
At this point metonymy and synecdoche are also important.
'Pen', 'eraser' and 'paper', for instance, are prototypical instruments in
the
conventional
writing
system.
Indeed
they
are
utilized
metonymically in the instruction menus on various interfaces. Instead
of technical commands, the words and the icons depicting these
referents may be used to express the writing process on the computer.
They not only embody 'domain-to-domain' metaphorical transfer that
users can readily understand but also represent users' existing
knowledge
structures
and
experience.
Good
metonymical
representations, which still require the application of analogical
reasoning, minimize the inference process that users might need to go
through. Synecdoche also play an important role similar to that of
metonymy. 'A painting brush' both in its linguistic and iconic
representations are often used to denote drawing activities as a whole
on the interface. (cf. Kusumi 1995) If it refers to a particular
instruction, then it is a case of metonymy.
Difficulties arise when users are not capable of activating the
analogies, or rather, when they cannot form proper mental models in
order to produce new knowledge structures. This phenomenon could be
observed in the recent development of the 'internet', where apart from
some cases such as 'organismic viruses, versus computer viruses' and
'conventional mail system versus electronic mail system'. The
multifarious new terms being coined do not fit into existing analogies.
Even computer specialists are sometimes unfamiliar with terms outside
their own particular field because of the rapid and uncontrolled
expansion in neologisms which lack analogy and good figuration. Many
-501-
users find it difficult to make good mental models in order to connect
the new terms to their existing knowledge. They do not have to access
and utilize the conceptual networks that they maintain in their longterm memory. These are admittedly cases where metaphors prove in
helpful both to novices and experts ; they might, for example, rather
disturb the appropriate learning process, if they are not grounded on a
proper analogy. (Rumelhart and Norman 1981) There is nevertheless
sufficient empirical evidence to show that beginners find it easier to
learn even abbreviated commands if they are given felicitous
metaphors.
Another crucial factor for Japanese, however, lies in a different
aspect. This is the excessive prevalence of terms classified as types (B)
and (C) and their compounds (D) explicated in the preceding section.
Those words now possibly account for more than 60 % of the whole
relevant terminology, and are not semantically 'transparent'. Again,
this causes users some serious difficulty in grasping the proper
meanings that these words convey. This tendency is expected to
continue. Even native speakers of English often find English operating
systems unmanageable, the difficulties facing Japanese speakers hardly
need saying.
This indicates a weakness which the disorganization which
characteriges
flexibly
but
neatly
structured
knowledge
and
multidimensionally connected lexical networks may exacerbate. Any
user will find it difficult to acquire the specific meanings of a series of
newly coined terms. The situation will not be eased by the fact that no
user is required to possess every single word knowledge they encounter
or supposed to use every function that computers may perform. In
principle, users can collaborate with each other in a complementary
way in order to achieve computer-related tasks beyond the capacity of
-502-
any one of them ; in practice, they often end up fumbling in isolation,
hopelessly constrained. Actually, some of my colleagues, regardless
their different language backgrounds, are reluctant to use computers
despite the fact that scholars of the same disciplines have effectively
used computers and other related networks. It is, of course, up to
individual preference whether one uses computers or not. Utilization of
computers in principle has nothing to do with the validity of research,
and it is also true that what one can do with computers is quite limited.
Yet, it seems to me that the reason why at least some of the cyberphobe
hate using computers is because they do not want to spend their times
in memorizing a set of abbreviated command-based instructions. The
point here, then, is that a large part of Japanese computer terminology
has been spawned anomalously, without the semantic transparency that
Japanese words have, and thus do not activate the appropriate
analogical thought and figuration that will lead to the comprehension
and construction of structural knowledge.
4.
Summary
We should of course distinguish between computer specialists
whose interests reside in computers themselvers, or professionals who
work extensively with computers, and those who only need computers
for ancillary purposes. However, many businessmen and students, for
example, have to learn an increasing amount about computers, and so
about interface terminology, regardless of their preferences. As I
mentioned at the beginning of this paper, analogical thought and
figuration are the main strategies by which we learn or produce new
conceptual structures. In order to acquire efficient knowledge
networks, we need to extend our range of analogies and figuration; this
will enable us to form proper mental models. Terminology too needs to
-503-
be carefully selected to suit the end-users. It is not always necessary for
general users to share with professionals the same terminology and
rule-governed command abbreviations. Thus, besides analogy and
figuration, on-line help programs on the interface and more visually
discernible information, in the from of as appropriate 'icons', are
required. These also are required to fit into our existing mental
framework as closely as possible.
Unfortunately Japanese are in a difficult situation in that they
must inevitably deal with the semantically unintelligible vocabulary of
'English-based computer architecture', as listed above. On the one hand,
using English on the computer is the most straight forward way to
participate in the highly globalized 'cyber-environment'. Yet it is also
necessary to construct better Japanese environment on the computer
interface. After all, the language the users speak is less important than
the relation of terminology within it, and the user-friendliness of the
interface-the extent, that is, to which it reflects human lerning
strategies. It is hoped that cognitive scientists and the interface
specialists work more serious in order to improve the present situation;
otherwise it might get worse. What we need is to fit computers to us,
and not vice versa.
NOTE: This study is partly supported by Keio University Academic Grant
Gakujutsu Shinko Shikin 97-98. I also indebted to professor Neil
McLynn for both stylistic and liguistic suggestions.
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