The use of Subcultures in the Fashion Industry
Chiarra C. Joseph
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Master of Fine Arts Fashion
at
The Savannah College of Art and Design
© November and 2012 of submission, Chiarra C. Joseph
The author hereby grants SCAD permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic
thesis copies of document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created.
Signature of Author and Date
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________/__/__
Dean Sidaway
Committee Chair
____________________________________________________________________________/__/__
Carol E Harris Date
Committee Member 1
____________________________________________________________________________/__/__
Marie Aja-Herrera Date
Committee Member 2
The use of Subcultures in the Fashion Industry
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Fashion
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Fine Arts
Savannah College of Art and Design
By
Chiarra C. Joseph
Savannah, GA
November, 2012
13619 is dedicated to my friends and family. I would also like to dedicate to those who continue
to lead in their own footprints, instead of following along with the majority. It is them who give
my life meaning and the right to expressive my creativity. Without them, my passion for Fashion
designed would have faded.
In honor of:
The designers who continue to keep the rebellious state of mind alive
Acknowledgements
I would like to give thanks to the fashion faculty at
The Savannah College of Art and Design in Savannah.
Dean Sidaway
Carol E. Harris
Marie Aja-Herrera
Evelyn C. Pappas
Christopher McDonnell
It has been with their support, patience and knowledge that I was able to develop my body of
works throughout my studies here at SCAD, I will treasure each moment.
Table of Contents
Figures……………………………………………………………………………………………..1
Abstract ………………………………………………………………..……………….…………2
Outline………………………………………………………………………………….………….3
I.
The Development of a Subculture……………………………………………….........6
II.
The reasoning behind the development………………………………………..…….20
a. “Beatniks”……………………………………………………………..………....24
b. “Ted Boys”…………………………………………………………………….....25
c. “Manchester Scuttlers”……………………………………………………..........27
d. “Rude Boy”……………….……………………………………………….…….29
e. Skinheads……………………………………………….…….…………………32
III.
Punk Revolution………………………………………………………………….….34
IV.
The Influence on the Post-Modern Youth…………………………………………...41
V.
Mainstream expose punk culture and gains profit…………………………………..44
VI.
Thesis collection reflection on subcultures………………………………….........…56
VII.
Thesis Presentation………………………………………………………………….59
VIII.
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...62
IX.
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………....63
Figure References:
II. The Reasoning behind the Development
Figure -2.1 Teddy Boy Group, Princedale Road, 1956- Page: 25
Figure-2.2 Scuttler Broughton at the beginning of the 1890s-Page: 27
Figure-2.3 Young Teddy boy, Tottenham, 1954-Page: 29
Figure-2.4 Punk Girls from the 1970s-Page: 29
Figure-2.5 Rude Boys from Jamaica, 1960s-Page: 31
Figure-2.6 London Skinheads1970 F.A. Cup Final, (Chelsea F.C) - Page: 32
Figure-2.7 The Specials, Circa 1980s- Page: 33
III. Punk Revolution
Figure-3.1 1971, Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood- Page: 34
Figure-3.2 The punks 1976 -1979-Page: 35
Figure-3.3 Vivienne Westwood in Punk Attire, London 1977- Page: 35
Figure-3.4 Jean Paul Gaultier Fashion Retrospective: 1976- Page: 36
Figure-3.5 Marc Jacobs, Parsons School of Art & Design, 1984- Page: 37
Figure-3.6 Alexander McQueen, Central Saint Martins, 1992-1994- Page: 37
Figure-3.7 In The Gutter - by Val Hennessy- (Photograph from interior)-Page: 41
IV. The Influence on the Post-Modern Youth
Figure-4.1 James Dean: 1955 Rebel Without a Cause: Photo Warner Brothers- Page: 41
Figure-4.2 Marlon Brando 1953: The Wild One Photo Stanley Kramer Productions- Page: 42
Figure-4.3 Paul Newman. Cool Hand Luke. 1967. Photo Warner Brothers-Page: 42
Figure-4.4 1983 The Outsiders Photo: Zoetrope Studios-Page: 44
V. Mainstream Expose Punk Culture and Gains Profit
Figure-5.1 Hot Topic clothing Advertisement-Page: 49
Figure-5.2 Hip Hop, Street Style 90s-Page: 50
Figure-5.3 Chanel Runway hip hop inspired 90s-Page 51
Figure-5.4 Calvin Klein 1992-Page: 51
Figure-5.5 Maison Martin Margiela-Page: 52
Figure-5.6 Kurt Cobain spotted outside in Seattle 1992-Page: 53
Figure-5.7 Chav- Youth on the street of London 2011-Page: 54
VI. Thesis Collection Reflection on Subcultures
Figure-6.1 Collection “13619”- Pages: 56-59 Photographer-Nuno Serrano
VII. Thesis Presentation
Figures-7.1 Thesis Collection: “13619”-Page: 60 Still images-Kurdice Neal and Allie Ann
Figures-7.2 Thesis Collection: “Formed and Forged”- Page: 60-61 Photographer- Allie Ann and Cedric Smith
1
The use of Subcultures in the Fashion Industry
Chiarra C. Joseph
November, 2012
This thesis focused on how the fashion industry brings certain subcultures to the mainstream
market to profit of their lifestyles, such as the Punk Subculture; a subculture, in which the
mainstream does not clearly understand, nor practice their ideals. The primary focus of thesis is
to educate the mass market on subcultures. The thesis explores their true ideas, values and their
development, instead of the false ones the industry has made on their own. This is a focused
review of the Punk Movement and how the industry has exploited it in order to gain profits.
Furthermore, this thesis is an attempt to speculate what will be the next subculture that will
emerge from the youth culture.
2
“The use of Subcultures in the Fashion Industry”
Thesis: The current method of the adoption of subcultures within the fashion industry is to take
the most prevalent part of the culture and use it in a way that will maximize profitability within a
current trend. Specifically looking at the subculture of punk which was originally a counter
culture to the corporate trend. Adopted by the fashion industry sold as a theme to the corporate
trend.
I: The Development of a subculture:
A. The initial dominant culture
a. Power and dominance of the controlling culture.
b. Specific values of that dominant culture.
B. Movement of the Counterculture
a. A Reflection of Opposite Ideals
b. The underground
i. “Within the dark of night…”
ii. Defining of traits to be a part of that specific counterculture, i.e. Teddy
Boy, Scutters, Mods, Hard Mod, Beatnik, Hippies, Skinheads, Punk,
Grunge, etc.
c. The development of the rules into a community
C. Growing popularity due to postwar and financial recession
a. Initial resistance to the counterculture.
b. Eventual adoption into the mainstream
i. Made popular by: Celebrity, Musician, Television and Film.
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ii. Social Implications of the adoption.
II: Turning the Counter Culture into Profitability
A. Corporate Takes Notice
B. Using the counterculture to make money.
a. H & M, Hot Topic, Urban Outfitters.
C. Developing marketing strategy in order to best appeal to the mainstream.
III: Response of the Subculture
A. Weakening of the original values of subculture.
a. The culture becomes commonplace.
b. The individuals who were originally part of the culture are now seen as being
a part of a trend.
B. Subculture begins placing value on “true” members
a. “Posers”
b. Subcultures begins to develop further in order to differentiate true members
from the “Posers”
IV: Fashion and the Street Culture: Designers who were apart of the culture that kept the ideals
and why.
A. Vivienne Westwood and Punk Culture
B. Antwerp 6, Martin Margiela
C. Marc Jacobs and Grunge
V: My collection as reflection
A. Achieving the same ideals
a. Reflecting on the experiences of my own interaction with street culture.
i. Punk
ii. Grunge
iii. Army
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iv. Traditional Dressing with personal interpretation
B. How those experience are reflected within the garments themselves
a. Use of materials
b. Shape and movement
c. The act of mix and match
i. No specific use can be moved and adjusted according to your own
specific style.
VI: Thesis Presentation
a. Visual interpretation for the collection 13619
VII: Conclusion
The fashion industry adopts subcultures and heavily uses their values and beliefs as a
form to maximize profitability. By taking a subculture such as Punk and not having a full
understanding on the life style or why it was developed in the first place by the people, it is
detrimental to the subculture existence. When those from the outside use or exploit a livelihood
and misinterpret the style, the values are changed. After all punk philosophy is all about "DIY"
and rejecting the masses. This has been a continuous an occurrence within the fashion industry,
punk which was originally a counter culture to the corporate trend, is now being sold as a theme,
the true punk identity is being erased. Punk culture in itself has been heavily used and will be
continually be use, the question is which other subculture will fall victim to the masses? The
fashion industry is its own subculture, which follow rules and direct people in a direction of selfexpression. These expressions can be inspired by the streets, religion, science, and many other
things. It is how we approach and use these inspirations; there is a need for respect and
interpreting them in an intellectual state of being.
5
I.
The Development of a Subculture
The current method of the adoption of subcultures within the fashion industry is to take
the most prevalent part of the culture and use it in a way that will maximize profitability within a
current trend. Specifically looking at the subculture of punk which was originally a counter
culture to the corporate trend. Adopted by the fashion industry sold as a theme to the corporate
trend.
The punk counterculture is based on the punk rock music style. Since emerging in the
United States and United Kingdom in the mid-1970s, punk has spread around the globe and
evolved into a number of different forms. Punk culture revolves around a set of varies styles
distinct from those of popular cultures and other subcultures. Punk ideology is concerned with
the individual's fundamental right to freedom, and a less restricted lifestyle. Punk ethics advocate
the role of personal choice in the development and pursuit of a greater freedom. Their ethics
include a deep-seated rejection of conformity; do -it-yourself mentality, political change, and
never selling out. The earliest signs of punk arose in the north-eastern United States in cities such
as Detroit, Boston, and New York City. Bands such as, the Stooges, Velvet Underground, and
The Dictators, laid the foundation for punk in the US. The versatile communities of New York
inspired the New York Dolls in 1971, which developed the glam rock movement. During the
1970s the drug culture helped shape the New York City punk scene, especially the heroin users.
The punk culture and the drug culture are heavily intertwined with one another and shared
similar interests (Versluys, Hans).
6
Los Angeles was facing economic hardships during the early 70s. Gang culture was
developing and forming their own cultures and the youth were spiraling out of control. The youth
of this era helped to develop the earliest punk scenes. The original punk subculture was made up
of a loose affiliation of several groups that emerged at separate times under different
circumstances. There was significant cross-pollination between these subcultures, and some were
derived of others. Examples of some larger subcultures would be the Teds, Mods, and the
Hippies. Most of these subcultures still exist, while others have vanished. Economic recession,
strikes, instilled much frustrations with life among the youth of industrial Britain. Punk rock in
Britain corresponded with the end of the era of post-war consensus politics that preceded the rise
of Thatcherism in 1975. British punk bands displayed an attitude of angry social alienation. Their
musical lyrics, state of dress, and street riots, showed anger and resistance among their peers,
they decided that they will be seen and would be heard. Music is a key aspect of the punk scene.
Punk music has a specific style of the rock music genre, though punk musicians sometimes
integrate elements from other genres. Punk subcultures often differentiate themselves by having
a unique style of beats and vocal styles, though not every style of punk rock has its own
associated subculture. Most punk rock involves simple arrangements, short songs and lyrics that
promote punk values. The music was part of the foundation of forming many of the subcultures
of our time. It was a vehicle of promoting the movement and passing along their individual
values among their peers within the specific subcultures (Versluys, Hans).
Subcultures are made up of a diverse mixture of smaller subgroups, each with its own
take on styles and culture. These groups distinguish themselves from one another through
differences in attitude, music and dress. Some of these groups are hostile towards one another,
and there is prevalent disagreement within punk whether or not some are even part of the larger
7
subculture. The Teds and the Punks were often fighting among each other, because of their social
standards. Depending on the people who are involved in a subgroup, some divisions are tied to
particular regional or local scenes. The subcultures are represented by others, such as hardcore,
are widespread throughout the entire subculture. Punks come from different economic classes;
when compared to some other cultures, punk share gender equalist values when dealing with
their principles. There number one principle within the punk culture would be rejecting the social
norm. Although, the punk subculture is anti-racist, it is predominately made up by Caucasian
ethnicities other groups such as African Americans, Latinos, and Asians have contributed to the
development of the punk subculture. Most African Americans, Latinos, and even Asian have
been discriminated by those who make up the majority in America pass history (Versluys, Hans).
For example, the African culture went from being less than equals, given rights, but these rights
had their stipulations. The Jim Crow laws made it hard for African American to climb the social
ladder in society. These Jim Crow Laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had
previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans with no invention of
equality. Even those times are better and with the Jim Crow laws no longer being enforced, the
African Americans are still trying to prevail and work against these social misshapes that were
placed on them (Birnbaum, Jonathan and Taylor, Clarence). Living in ghettos, not having a
strong education, and still having a stain from the past casting shadows of doubt; makes it easy
for those who are considered the minorities in American history to isolate themselves from
others and form their own supportive network amongst each other. Drug abuse has also been
affiliated with the punk scene. One notable exception was with the straight edge in 1970s.
Violence has also appeared in the punk subculture, especially when it comes to fighting against
those who threaten their livelihoods.
8
What actually is a subculture? How does it define a culture, ethnic group, or even an
individual of a certain life style? In the early 1950s David Riesman who was a professor at the
University of Chicago and also taught American Character and Social Structure at the University
of Buffalo Law School. In 1950 he was the Authored The Lonely Crowd, which was a detailed
group study that was conducted on individuals who were reluctant to conform to traditional
society norms. It was a sociological study on modern conformity, which theorized the existence
of the "inner-directed" and "other-directed" personalities. Tradition-directed people, who strictly
obey the golden rules, rarely flourish in modern ways of thinking or experimented, in the forever
changing societies. Inner-directed people lived as they were taught in their childhoods. They tend
to be confident in their beliefs and consider as being described as unyielding. Other-directed
people are more flexible and willing to accommodate with others to win their approvals. Within
Riesman’s studies he argues that the character of post-WWII American society encouraged
individuals to "other-directedness", the haves were examples of being modern suburbia, where
individuals seek their neighbors' approval and fear being outcast from their community.
Riesman went on stating that this certain lifestyle has a coercive effect, on individuals who are
on the outside looking in. There is a need for socially acceptance, and if one chooses to step
outside the norm, they feel as though they will be punished and socially isolated by their peers.
He goes on by saying that those who was yearn to be part of the in-crowd, making them leave
their individual way of thinking and self-expression, causing them to abandon "inner-direction"
of their lives, and induces them to take on the goals, ideology, likes, and dislikes of their
community. "The other-directed person wants to be loved rather than esteemed,” according to
Riesman. They do not want to be controlled by others, they rather relate. Those who are consider
being other-directed need assurance that they are emotionally in tune with people around them.
9
This was the thinking in the 1940s; the other-directed character was beginning to dominate
society, and still continues being the dominated way of thinking in our modern society ways.
David Riesman writes about three different types of characters within his book The
Lonely Crowd. The first type was the “tradition directed”, which are driven by cultural demands
and act in an approved manner, this is enforced by fear of being shamed or losing honor in the
most prevalent in society. We see this type of behavior being described in a large number of
individuals who are feeling this among us. The second type is “inner-directed”, Riesman
describes this as an "inner gyroscope" where ones inter core is being tilted in the direction of
whoever is in control of it. That is primarily control by our parents’ and the influences they have
among us. The inner-directed person behaves according to this "internal piloting" and feelings
are often steered towards guilt, rather than shame, when his/her behavior alters from their parentinstilled family values. The third and final type described by Riesman, other-directed, is the
group that Riesman calls "the lonely crowd." The behavior of other-directed individuals is
directed mostly by their set of peers at any given moment. According to Riesman, other-directed
individuals have internal “radar” for sensing and responding to their peers and make them
"capable of a rapid if sometimes superficial intimacy with and response to everyone." The
"lonely crowd" of inner-directed individuals is where most Americans youth today would belong
according to Riesman's categorizations.
The "lonely crowd" type of personality varies greatly from both the “Tradition-directed”
and “Inner-directed. Instead of following the behaviors set by parents or traditional roles, the
“lonely crowd” is influenced by the behavior of their peers and responds based on their own
perceptions. The key difference between the lonely crowd, the Tradition-directed and Inner-
10
directed are the size of the group that their behavior is drawn from insecurities. The “lonely
crowd” type, react to a countless number of individuals, as many as he/she meets within their
lifetime. Since the inner "radar" of the “lonely crowd” type accepts many indicators even from
people passing by on the streets. In contrast these behaviors of passing connections hold little
significance to both the traditional and inner directed (Riesman, David)
Those who consider being part of tradition-directed crowd are hardly ever seen with
those who are classified as part of the lonely crowd. The tradition-directed are stuck in their
ways and trying to live up to what is expected of them from their families. They are not
pressured into acting out against authority figures. Those who are not part of the in crowd are
usually isolated from the popular crowd and can suffer from inner-anxiety. They often feel they
will not be able to conform or fit in properly amongst society. The inner-crowd is aware of their
actions and decides to behave in a manner that does not bring negative attention to them. They
fear being humiliated by their peers or outcast if they decided to act out and defy the social
norms. When it comes to our American society we traditional follow along with the innerdirected values when forming our communities. Those who are part of the inner-crowd follow
the early practices of the Protestant beliefs. These strict guidelines were place for the
traditionalist to obey and pass down from generation to generation. Slowly we as a society have
shifted our views and how we express our selves, we be identify as being other-directed, instead
of inner-directed. We cherish our freedom to express ourselves and be our own individual, no
matter what others think. American history has gone through vast changes try to make a different
and change the ways of traditional thinking that has shape our nation identity, Women Suffrage,
Civil Rights, and Same Sex Marriage are just a couple of examples.
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The ability to mask ones identity to fit into the social standard and to behave properly is
fundamental for Americans. To mind the norm and societies roles are an expectation from a very
young age. A consequence of continually responding to the signals picked up by the inner
"radar" and the need to be friendly with everyone, leaves little time for people to develop strong,
lasting friendships as previous generations did. We are repeatedly on display for one another,
trying to assimilate into what is accepted in a given setting (Riesman, David). The internet is
another source that expands the inner "radar" to learn what people are doing around the world.
The internet has made the world accessible at the click of a mouse; but a consequence of using
this technology people are becoming more and more isolated from one another. This is making it
difficult for individuals to have the same sense of self that an inner-directed individual would
have. This creates a foundation for the lonely type to a merge. All of these elements combined
have provided the frame work for our current state of American society becoming a "lonely
crowd.” With economic issues, religious, political, sexuality and social differences, there is a
huge gap being drilled into those who consider themselves as traditionalist and none
conservatives.
Inappropriately, this creates a tightly grouped crowd of people that is yet incapable of
truly fulfilling each other's desire for sexual, political, religious expressions, especially in our
youth of today in modern society. Riesman's book was a breakthrough in defining different
American cultures and groups, his studies were a good introduction into the mind of modern
youth, as well as representing an early example of what sociologists refer to now as 'public
sociology'.
"The Lonely Crowd" was an illustration of what goes on mentally in the minds of an
individual. It offers an attempt at understanding for those who were trying to understand the
12
phenomenon of a subculture. It was the distinguished between majorities and minorities in our
society. In simpler terms it was the haves and the have not’s This way of thinking came about
not having the ability to be a part of the Majority who were able to move up and have a fighting
chance in society, those who were less in fortune and had to survive on what they have and were
taught, these people would formed groups to protection against those who threaten their
livelihoods. Riesman's intention with his statement in the 1950s was to highlight that a
subculture is something that is in which passively accepted commercially, and provides a style
and meaning to a group. A subculture actively wants a minority style that is interpreted into
having revolutionary values. These values are adopted into a life style, that forms a code of
ethics and moral standards that define someone to a certain street cultures.
Richard "Dick" Hebdige is the author of Subculture: The Meaning of Style. He is known
as an expatriate British media theorist and sociologist. Hebdige is mostly associated with his
studies of subcultures, and its resistance against the mainstream of traditional society values.
Hebdige received A Master of Arts at The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in
Birmingham, United Kingdom. His book The Meaning of Style was published in 1979. During
the late 70s he was teaching at a well-known art schools. Hebdige's Subculture: The Meaning of
Style builds on his earlier works at Birmingham on youth subcultures. Much of his research was
conducted during his studies at Birmingham. His main focus was on the relation between
subcultures and social class in postwar Britain. Hebdige studied the youth culture closely,
especially the dialogue between African American and Caucasian youths. He goes on to state
that punk emerged as a mainly white style when African American youth became more separatist
in the 1970s in response to discrimination in British society. Previous research done on
subcultures described only a homology; which displayed a similar attributable of a common
13
origin between the different characteristics of a sub-cultural choice of dress, hairstyles, music
preferences, drugs habits, social settings and values of an individual. He believed that punk in
London in the mid-70s borrowed from all other subcultures and its only homology was chaos.
Dick Hebdige's Subculture was giving a clear understanding of the styles of the British youth
cultures. Hebdige argues that style, through the rebellion of common objects, allows the British
youth subcultures to characteristically separate themselves from the mass culture to which they
belong to. By having the ability to break free of the masses, they are able to define a separate
division that creates a secret language through dress, music, and political values; these
subcultures challenge tradition, by denying the societal norms of the mass culture. In this way,
Hebdige felt otherwise powerless teenagers can be transformed into the socially significant
“punk rockers” and "social misfits".
Hebdige did not only focus on the punk cultures; he expanded his research and went into
a wide range of subcultures, from the devoted Rastafarians, villainous skinheads, and the
chameleon-like mods. He went into grave details of each subculture, and considered not only
why they existed, but also how these subcultures came about. Hebdige observes the ways in
which style reflects and articulates the fundamental principles of subcultures, both within and in
the framework of society. By examining these subcultures, Hebdige explores the theories which
were, at their core of their existence, and being essential to human in nature. By studying the
environment in which the individuals of the subcultures stem from, Hebdige took into
consideration both structural elements and Marxist concepts to carefully examine and clearly
understand the concepts of each subculture; and what there were trying to demonstrate within
their society.
Hebdige believed that society presents a complex system of interconnected parts with the
14
significance of people, places and things defined by a governing compromise among the people.
When subcultures seek out to define a world on their own terms, a conflict will usually be the
result. Hebdige defines this conflict as an “expressed style”, in fashion; it seems there is room to
places restrictions on subcultures, especially if the group is of the leading cultures. The
prevailing cultures; react by moving to absorb the subculture into a narrative. This narrative then
becomes either a false definition of a subculture or becomes their social values. This either sends
off a negative association to the subculture or makes them seem desirable to the impressionable
youth.
When discussing the African American influences on white youth subcultures, Hebdige
noticed that “Punks” stemmed their value of style from reggae's concept of "dreads," humanizing
an impressive aesthetic that was inspired by the distinctiveness of African American culture.
The “hipsters” scene, was represented by a neat- clean appearance, stylish clothes, that embrace
the 'American dream' of upward mobility; whereas, the “mixed beats of the street,” their torn
jeans and high-top sneakers, embraced and glorified black poverty. For Hebdige, black people
served as a benchmark. He considered them the standard by which other subcultures are judged
by. He discusses the idea of subcultures as a “cultural noise”, which is creating representing
interfere of the meaning of dress in the mass culture. He believes that the noise suggests a
blockage, where society has failed to address the needs of certain individuals. Style is the method
in which these needs are revolutionary expressed. By misbehaving or challenging society's
traditional characterizations, subcultures bring awareness to those blockages. Hebdige states that
society either moves to correct these blockages, understand them, or invalidate the subculture's
style.
Within The Meaning of Style, Hebdige describes several ways in which the dominant
15
culture can undermine style. Through the use of comedy, media scrutiny, an understanding of
style can be achieved apart from its related subculture, by removing it from the context and
applying judgments by foreign standards, the style becomes motionless, unable to articulate the
needs of the subculture. A subculture deprived of its style, is then left to expressive itself in
many different ways. People can also wear and mistake its styles meaning to something that is
less valued. An example of this would be the reggae’s concept of dreads; those who wear them
are part of the Rastafarian Movement. The movement partially expressed as alienation from
contemporary society, it’s a spiritual use of cannabis (drug) and rejection of western society.
With that being said there are some who just wear dreads as a hair style with no values attached.
They are unaware of its true meaning and origins.
Hebdige concludes that style cannot be understood outside of its context. Therefore
Hebdige concluded that none of the considered youth cultures would be able to recognize
themselves if not within their own subculture. In order to attempt to understand subcultures,
Hebdige believes that our imagination needs not to unsuspectingly fill the many blanks that are
out there in our society. He states that style is truly found only in its living expression as style.
We can write about it, read, and talk about, but this only serve part of the story about the many
different subcultures. It would be difficult to understand everything that is involved or what truly
makes up a subculture.
Subcultures represent noise (as opposed to sound): interference in the orderly
sequence which leads from real events and phenomena to their representation in the
media. We should therefore not underestimate the signifying power of the spectacular
subculture not only as a metaphor for potential anarchy ‘out there’ but as an actual
mechanism of semantic disorder: a kind of temporary blockage in the system of
representation. (Hebdige 1979: 90)
16
Hebdige explains how style is always recurring. It begins in the domain of the mass
culture, only to be adapted to be used as style by applicants of the subculture. Style is an
expression of a form of communication that can sometimes clash between subcultures and
dominant cultures. Once this impression is set, it develops into acceptable and then accessible to
the mass culture. Stripped of its original sub- cultural association, style becomes commercialized,
ready for mass cultural consumption. What starts out being in the domain of mass culture is
revived and repositioned in its original communication. An illustration of this theory would be
the use of the safety-pin goes from commodity, to punk adornment, back to commodity again.
The use of the safety-pin role in the punk culture becomes a plain cross-reference in its identity.
One cannot help but to associate the safety to the punk movement, the definition and use of the
safety pin was misinterpreted differently by both the traditionalist and punks.
Hebdige notes a distinction between the African American subcultures and white
subcultures in reference to which generation is involved. African Americans subcultures is not
just the young people an example Reggae, is shared by both young and old and is culturally
based on a long historical narrative of racial oppression. Middle class whites American tend to be
more mainstream; where the youth makes up the subcultures. He believes that white subcultures,
by dissimilarity, are limited to a short-lived social outlook. Whites have the options of taking on
a productive role in the dominant culture; whereas African Americans are demoted to a
subsidiary role, handicapped by racial prejudice with our nation’s history. Subcultures
throughout history showed fearless expression of resistance of traditional culture, fighting
against restrains that are put on the different social classes. These subcultures are made up of
what we consider the underdogs and outsiders, and the comebacks of a potentially political
working-class in our society. These groups distant behavior is hard to ignore, just as the
17
discourses that have shaped the theorization of subcultures in the past twenty years. The work of
Dick Hebdige remains a backdrop for many contemporary theories of subcultures. Hebdige
broke down these subcultures into several sections teds, mods, rockers and punks became
emblematic objects of dominant culture and transformed their everyday naturalized meaning into
something magnificent and unfamiliar. Style became a form of resistance.
The dominant cultures in our society refer to the established native languages, religions,
behaviors, values, rituals, and social customs that are set by the majority. These traits are often
the norm for the society for people to follow on a daily practice. The dominant culture is usually
in the majority, but not always. They attain their dominance by controlling social establishments;
such as, educational institutions, artistic expressions, laws, political process, business, even the
way we communicate (Hebdige, 1979).
Cultural dominance can be achieved through many different means such as; economic
power, the threat of force, or through more subtle processes of dominance and subordination.
The dominant culture can change over time in response to internal or external factors. Dominant
cultures are usually, resilient and able to transform themselves effectively from generation to
generation. Most of our societies are made up of largely homogenous cultural groups and can be
separated even more by status and, or wealth. These distinctions are reinforced by cultural forces
that effect patterns between generations (Hebdige, 1979). When, one culture becomes the
dominant culture merely because it is the culture of a large majority of people; this type of
cultural dominance can lead to conflict, as the dominant cultures often fail to seek to understand
smaller cultures, while the smaller cultures struggle to survive.
18
Economic power often determines which culture is dominant within a given society. The
wealthy have a great deal of power in most societies, and their cultural values are backed by that
wealth and power. Our modern societies often produce rebellious cultures that protest against a
dominant culture. Subcultures, such as the revolutionary punks or hippies, attempt to challenge
the dominance of established cultures. In some cases, subcultures fashion out niches for
themselves to establish their own existence. In other cases the dominant culture adapts some of
their behavior or ideas, but hardly ever do subcultures move up to become a dominant culture.
Dominant culture, other than traditional societies, can be distinguished by uniformity of cultural
traits and customs; modern societies are generally a mass of different, often competing, cultures
and subcultures. A dominant culture is one that is able, through economic or political power; to
impose its values, language, and ways of behaving on a subordinate culture. This can be
achieved through legal or political restraint of other sets of values, patterns of behavior, or by
monopolizing the media communication of a smaller culture. It includes educational background,
politics, religion, parenting, government, the media and other public influences (Hebdige, 1979).
The counterculture of the 1960s developed in the United States and United Kingdom and
spread throughout much of the western world between 1960 and 1973 (Hebdige, 1979). The
movement gained force during the U.S. government's widespread military interference in
Vietnam. As the 1960s progressed on, extensive tensions developed in American society that
cross the generational lines among the youth regarding the war in Vietnam, race tensions,
sexuality, women's rights, traditional models of authority, experimentation with drugs, developed
differing interpretations of the American Dreams among many. This included the entertainment
industry with bands such as like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and The Hollies, who
encouraged change and a need for revolution actions. The British invasion of pop culture
19
influenced the youth, promoted sexual gravitation, self-expression, and feeling free led to the
hippie movement. This led to the rapid evolution of a youth subculture who emphasized change
and experimentation with drugs and sexuality. The United Kingdom and America, songwriters,
singers and musical groups of the 60s came to impact the counterculture movement (Jentri,
Anders).
II.
The Reasoning Behind the Development
The Cold War era, between communist verse capitalist involved surveillance on a global
scale, along with political and military interference in the internal affairs of lesser nations drove a
wedge between the people and their government. Unethical decisions set the stage for
disappointment with and distrust of post-war governments. The Soviet Union’s negative
responses to popular anti-communist uprisings; such as the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, The
Prague Spring of 1968 in Czechoslovakia, as well as the oncoming threat of the U.S. Bay of Pigs
Invasion of Cuba in 1961. In the U.S., President Dwight D. Eisenhower's initial deception over
the nature of the 1960 U-2 incident, when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down over the
airspace of the Soviet Union. The government being caught in a lie at the highest levels set the
stage for a growing distrust of authority among many who came of age during the period. These
were some of the problems that the post-modern youth had to face through our country that
brought on the development of many different types of subculture movements in our history. The
Partial Test Ban Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under
water, divided the establishment within the U.S along political and military lines. The Cuban
missile crisis of October 1962, where the world came closer than at any other point to a nuclear
war, caused many people to start questioning whether traditional ways of doing things, were
20
actually working to make the world a better place or instead a worse one. The assassination of
U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1963, and doubts as to the authority of the official
government findings regarding the death of the beloved President, led to further diminished trust
in government among young people. There are several factors distinguished the counterculture of
the 1960s from the authority-opposition movements for example of being draft into the Vietnam
War, and the Civil Rights Movement (Oberlin, Loriann). The post-war "baby boom" constituted
an unprecedented number of young, wealthy, and potentially disaffected people as potential
members in a rethinking of the direction of American society. The widespread use of
psychoactive drugs contributed to this reevaluation, and a joining together of events and issues
served as an intellectual means for change. Student activism became a dominant theme among
the baby boomers, exemptions and deferments for the middle and upper classes resulted in the
induction of a disproportionate number of poor, working-class, and minority registrants.
Countercultural books such as Mac Bird by Barbara Garson and much of the counterculture
music encouraged a spirit of non-conformism and anti-establishmentarianism (Green, Brent).
The ongoing sociological issues fueled the growth of the counterculture movement. The
influential nonviolent movement in the United States which resolved Constitutional civil rights
illegalities, regarding racial segregation, the lack of voting rights among Southern blacks, and
the existing segregation in the purchasing of property or rental housing in the North. College
students and, student activists, fought for the right to exercise their basic Constitutional rights,
freedom of speech and freedom of assembly. The American Civil Rights Movement, a key
element of the larger counterculture movement, practiced the use of nonviolence to assure that
equal rights guaranteed under the U.S. Constitution would apply to all citizens. Many states
illegally denied many of these rights, especially in reference to the African Americans. This was
21
successfully addressed in the early and mid-1960s in several major nonviolent movements. Much
of the 1960s counterculture originated on college campuses. The 1964 Free Speech Movement at
the University of California, Berkeley, which had its roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the
American South,( Beito, David T.& Royster Linda). Other rebellious youth, not just students,
also contributed to the Free Speech Movement.
Counterculture activists became aware of the ongoing troubles of the underprivileged,
and community organizers fought for the funding of anti-poverty programs within inner city
areas in the United States. There was a need to tackle minority rights of women, homosexuals,
the handicapped, and many other neglected communities. Increasing number of younger people
broke free from the constraints of 1950s orthodoxy in a desire to create a more inclusive and
tolerant society. The role of women as full-time homemakers in industrial society was challenged
in 1963. American feminist, Betty Friedan, published The Feminine Mystique, giving drive to the
women's movement and influencing other activists, such as Gloria Steinem and Angela Davis.
These women organized, influenced, educated many of a younger generation of women to
endorse and expand feminist thought, (MacLean, Nancy).
Gay liberation can also be links to the counterculture of the time, and for the Gay
liberationists' intent to transform fundamental institutions of society such as gender roles and the
institution of family. By the late 1970s, the radicalism of Gay liberation was concealed by a
return to a more formal movement that took up gay and lesbian civil rights. The Stonewall riots
were a progression of unplanned, violent demonstrations against a police raid that took place at
the Stonewall Inn on June 28, 1969, a gay bar in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New
York City. The homosexual community fought back against a government-sponsored system that
22
persecuted sexual minorities, and became the defining event that marked the start of the Gay
Rights Movement in the United States and around the world, (Percy, William A. & William
Edward Glover).
The availability of new forms of birth control generated the sexual revolution. The
concept of “recreational sex” without the threat of unwanted pregnancy completely changed the
social dynamic and allowed both women and men much greater freedom in the selection of
sexual lifestyles outside the confines of traditional marriage. After World War II, the role of
television served as a source of entertainment and information, and the massive expansion of
consumerism afforded by post-war affluence and encouraged the youthful disenchantment and
the motivation of new social behaviors.
The Vietnam War, and the long-drawn-out national divide between supporters and
opponents of the war, was arguably the most important factors contributing to the rise of the
larger counterculture movement. The widely-accepted declaration that anti-war opinion was
mainly held of thousands of younger people in every major American city effectively united the
millions of Americans against the war, and the war policy that succeeded under five congresses
and two presidential administrations. The counterculture essentially originated after the
assassination of President John F. Kennedy. It ended with the termination of U.S. combat
military involvement in the communist insurgencies of Southeast Asia, the end of military draft
in 1973, and ultimately with the resignation of dishonored President Richard M. Nixon in
August, 1974. There were many key movements born of the counterculture of the 1960s, each
movement is relevant to the larger era (Blaufarb, Douglas).
23
The Underground was a countercultural movement in the United Kingdom linked to the
underground culture in the United States and associated with the hippie phenomenon. Its primary
focus was around Ladbroke Grove and Notting Hill in London. It generated its own magazines
and newspapers, bands, clubs and alternative lifestyle, associated with cannabis and LSD use and
a strong socio-political revolutionary agenda to create an alternative society. Underground
movement were influenced by 1950s Beatnik Beat generation; who were a group of American
post-World War II writers such as William Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg. The Beatnik writers
engaged in symbiotic progression with freethinking and who paved the way for the hippies of the
1960s. They came to importance in the 1950s, as well as the cultural phenomena that they both
documented and inspired. Central elements of "Beat" culture included experimentation with
drugs, alternative forms of sexuality, and an interest in Eastern religion, rejection of materialism,
the idealizing of high-spirited, uncensored means of expression and “being" (Charters, Ann).
The members of the Beat Generation developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists,
who celebrated non-conformity and spontaneous creativity. Jack Kerouac, an American novelist
and poet introduced the phrase "Beat Generation" in 1948 to characterize a perceived
underground, anti-conformist youth movement in New York. The name arose in a conversation
with writer John Clellon Holmes best known for his 1952 novel Go was considered the first
"Beat" work of fiction. Holmes’s Go depicted events in his life with his friends Jack Kerouac,
Neal Cassady and Allen Ginsberg. The word "beat" could mean "tired" or "beaten down", Mick
Farren an English journalist, author and singer associated with counterculture and the UK
Underground, noted that long before the hippie movement, there were the bohemians and the
freaks. This was depicted in Colin MacInnes' novel Absolute Beginners in 1959, which describes
street culture at the time of the Notting Hill Riots in the 1950s. The police used to harass
24
members of the underground. They would refer to the outsides often as "freaks"; this was
considered primarily by others as an insult, and later by themselves as an act of disobedience.
Farren believed that the police harassment made the underground stronger, especially due to the
image depicted through the press. It focused attention, on what police were doing which was to
those considered dangerous to the establishment"( Phillips, Lisa).”
The underground movement was also symbolized by the use of drugs. The types of drugs
used varied and in many cases the names and effects were known. Pink Fairies were an English
rock band active in the London, Ladbroke Grove underground and psychedelic scene of the early
1970s. They promoted free music, drug use and anarchy. There was a smaller, less widely spread
manifestation from the UK Underground
termed the "Over ground", which referred to an
openly spiritual, religious intent, meditation,
vegetarianism, ethics, poetry, pacifism and
other subjects at a distance from the more wild
and
Figure2.1 Teddy Boy Group, Princedale Road, 1956
the post-modern youth fell into the Teddy Boy Subculture in the 1950s. Militant aspects of the
underground were the defining traits to be a part of The Teds as counterculture. First we have the
1950s Teddy Boys who wore clothes from the Edwardian era and idolized rock and roll
superstars. The Teds fully embraced the American Rock and Roll music that hit Britain and the
British bands that adopted the style. The Teds daily activities consist of hanging around at the
dancehalls, the bars, and drinking. They formed gangs who had a common uniform, for example;
25
a particular color of jacket or socks. Violence and vandalism would sometimes follow along,
often exaggerated by the media. Teds had fascist tendencies and were involved with gangs of
youths that attacked the West Indians that immigrated to Britain in the mid- Fifties. They were
known for committing racial violence against blacks. British subculture characterized by young
men wearing clothes inspired by the styles worn by dandies in the Edwardian period, styles
tailors then re-introduce after World War II in Britain. Affluent young men adopted the style of
the Edwardian. The original Edwardian style of dress featured tapered trousers, long jackets and
fancy waist coats. Teddy girls nickname “Judies” wore drape/tailored jackets, pencil skirts,
hobble skirts, long plaits, rolled-up jeans, flat shoes, straw boater/coolie hats, cameo brooches,
espadrilles and clutch bags. The “Judies,” later adopted the American fashions of pants, circle
skirts, and hair in ponytails. These girls were refusing post-war asceticism. They were young
women from working class backgrounds. Some of the judies came from an Irish immigrant
background, where their families decided to settle in the slums of London. They would typically
leave school between the ages of 14-15, and work in factories and even offices. Judies spent
much of their free time buying/ making their clothes. It was a fastidious style from the fashion
houses, which had launched haute-couture clothing lines recalling the Edwardian era (Scala,
2009).
The Teds subculture started in London in the 1950s, and spread across the UK, having a
strong association with American rock and roll. Teddy Boy was originally known as Cosh Boys,
the name Teddy Boy was created in 1953 when London’s Daily Express newspaper headline
shortened Edwardian to Teddy. These luxurious clothes attempted to stress the sartorial
workmanship of the tailors and displayed dominance for those who wore this style of dress.
Edwardian-style made to order dress was a sign of class, this attempt to restore a pre-war notion
26
of class hierarchy in social mobility of the working and middle classes. Teddy Boys used
backstreet tailors and even bought suits second hand. It began as a London style and by the mid1950s gangs of teenagers could be found throughout Britain's cities wearing this style of dress
(Scala, 2009).
There had also been youth groups with their own dress codes called "Scuttlers" and they
were members of neighborhood-based youth gangs formed in working-class areas of Manchester
during the late 19th century. The Teds shared similar characteristics of London street gangs of
the 1890s and they were labeled as hooligans, because of their outward behaviors and
appearances. Scuttlers were young men between the ages of 14 and 19 who fought between each
other/rival gangs and carried various weapons for protection. Scuttlers distinguished themselves
from other young men in working-class neighborhoods; they generally wore uniforms with
brass-tipped pointed clogs, sailor like bell-bottomed trousers, and silk scarves. Their hair was cut
short at the back and sides, but they grew long fringes, known as "donkey fringes", that were
longer on the left side and plastered down on the forehead over the
left eye (Davies, 2008)
Peaked caps were also worn tilted to the left to display the fringe.
The scuttlers’ girls had a distinctive style of dress, which consisted
of clogs, shawls and vertically striped skirts.
Figure 2.2-Scuttler Broughton at the beginning of the 1890s
Gangs were formed throughout the slums of central Manchester. Gangs were erupting in
Manchester during the early 1870s and went on for about thirty years (Davies, 2008). Teddy
27
Boys were the first youth group in England to separate themselves as teenagers, with this helping
to create the idea of youth culture.
Films from the United States such as "Blackboard Jungle" by Richard Brooks in1955,
was a social commentary film about teachers in an inner-city school. It is based on the novel of
the same name by Evan Hunter about Richard Dadier, played by Glenn Ford, a teacher at North
Manual High School. Gregory Miller, played by Sidney Poitier, led many of the students to
engage in anti-social behaviors. Dadier makes various attempts to engage the students' interest in
education, challenging both the school staff and the students. He was subjected to violence as
well as duplicitous plots and a complete showdown between student and professor. Similarities
are seen in the cult film "Dangerous Minds" by John N. Smith in 1995. An American film based
on the autobiography "My Posse Don't Do Homework" by LouAnne Johnson in 1993, an exmarine teacher struggling to connect with her students in an inner city school, where most of her
students were African-American and Hispanic teenagers in gangs and from broken homes. The
film Blackboard Jungle introduces music to a large teenage audience. Their high-spirited
response to the rebellious tunes of Bill Haley & His Comets' "Rock Around the Clock" started a
rock and roll revolution. The music alone in the film filled the youth with this need of wayward
behaviors of violence and vandalism at screenings. When shown in South London in 1956, the
Teddy boy began to riot, tearing up seats and dancing in the cinema's aisles. Riots took place
around the country wherever the film was shown. The song, “Rock Around the Clock", was not
heard at all at the beginning of the film, because it was considered to fuel bad behaviors among
the youth. The film has been since been marked as the starting period of teenage rebellion in the
latter half of the 20th century (Brooks, 1955 Blackboard Jungle).
28
Teddy boy’s style changed significantly between the 1950s and the 1970s. Their image
sent a powerful message of rebellious juvenile delinquents. Plough Boys Gang stabbing in 1953
at Clapham Common where John Beckley was murder. This incident, of wayward and
indignation stained the Edwardian style of clothing, the Teddy boy was
born and a media-led moral panic ensued. This
displayed example of the Teds, follow them for
the rest of the decade. Teddy Boys became the
first rebel teenage subculture and the first media
folk-devils of the 1950s (McDonald, 2010).
Figure2.3- Punk Girls from the 1970s
Figure2.4 Young Teddy boy, Tottenham 1954
The Teddy boy revival of the 1970s transformed the original style into something that
was not traditional of the Edwardian style that was adopted by the formal Teds. Colorful
elements of the Glam Rock style of the early 1970s were added to the Edwardian style. The
traditional style was replaced with brightly colored jackets trimmed with contrasting satin or
velvet, drainpipe trousers rolled up to expose garish socks in fluorescent nylon color, glitter was
no stranger, and brothel creeper shoes in many different colors, pattern materials such as leopard
skin and cheetah was added. The revival look was over the top; 1970s style of the Teds was
referred to as "The Cartoon Look" by society. Several looks between the 50s and 70s gave this
impression to the outsiders.
Though early 1960's economic opportunities, educational growth and affordable housing
among the working class people in England began a steady decline due to the increase of
immigrates migrating to England for work and a possibility for better living. The latter part of
29
the sixties saw British industry growing steadily, requiring more people being hired to keep up
on demands of goods being developed. British post-war economy was starting to become a safe
haven for immigrates that were from countries that were formally under colonies. There was a
growing population of South Asians and West Indian migrants starting to make up the urban
areas of England. The policy at the time by the British Government was that any individual born
in a colony had the option to be able to immigrate in to the country. Even though, many of the
colonies were independent, those who were born in a country that had a colonial status still were
still granted this option as well.
England had a steady flow of immigrates relocating to areas that they could seek
employment and a reasonable living. In 1962 Jamaicans and Trinidadians had started to make
their presence known. The possibility to be able to work a steady job and leave harsh
circumstances was an incentive for many South Asians and West Indians immigrants. By the
time both Jamaican and Pakistanis immigrants moved in on British nation’s territory, a
movement of change with the people who lived in urban areas was starting to develop within the
English society. This heavy movement of immigrants made it increasingly difficult for the
existing English working class to hold on to their equal share. Even though there was a push in
British industry, at the same time the economy was starting to show a decline after being
successfully reformed by the Labour party after World War II. The unemployment rate started to
rise, with this it began conflicts among the British born natives of the working class and the
foreign immigrates with started to develop into conflicts of class association and racial tensions
among the urban areas of Britain (Hall, Stuart).
30
In the early 1950s British society flourished in economic growth. The youth were able to earn a
little wage, be able to keep up with fashionable movement, and follow the music scene. Once the
sixties rolled around there became a shift between the classes and a gap was formed between
those who were able to hold on and grow with the increase of Britain industry and those who
were not as fortunate to do the same. The Mods were the popular youth of the British upper and
middle class, who were able to afford to keep this lavish style of living when the unemployment
rate started to increase. Those who were of working class status and lower end style tried to
keep up with their peers, but there was a sense of resentment between that Mods and those who
were trying to fit in. There was a wedge between the youth class of Mods, those who could not
keep up with the high trend life style start to drift into a more street style mixes of urban dress.
Those who drifted and mixed styles were called the “Hard Mod”; they were from the South parts
of London where the West Indian immigrants migrated. These
areas in which the West Indian/Jamaican immigrants stayed were
economically depressed areas filled with crime and a hard edge
for survival skills.
Figure2.5-Rude Boys from Jamaica, 1960s
“When Black Jamaicans displayed their distinctive music, clothing, gestures, etc on the street and thereby
took possession of a social space, white working-class youth were implicitly challenged to forge an
equally “dense” style of their own. The mediations of this style were complex, because it embodied a
fourfold signification: similarities and difference between white youth and blacks, similarities and
difference between youth and their parents (Delancey, 182)
31
The “Hard Mods” began to dress in the “Rude Boy” look which was a common
term to describe those who were Jamaican. The “Rude Boy” style consisted of the Pork
Pie Hats and short Levi jeans, evidence of a working class uniform for Jamaicans. The
“Hard Mods” adopted into their style of dress, simply because of what it stood for within
their society. The “Rude Boy” term was also used to describe those who were
delinquents and often involved in crimes within Jamaica. The Jamaican youth used this
as a form of rebellion, a prime example to commemorate the symbol of individuality and
hold on to their Jamaican roots. Delancey classified this being as “a vehicle of collective
self-defense for working-class teenagers,” to identify themselves as well as to give a
since of empowerment.
Figure2.6 - London Skinheads1970 F.A. Cup Final, (Chelsea F.C)
The “Hard Mods” of the working class status in
Britain in the late 1960s transformed into the first
movement of Skinheads. The name “Skinheads derived
from the way they would shave their heads to give off
this impression of being aggressive and an interpretation
of being militant. Most people associated the “Skinheads” subculture movement as an
organization that was built on racial discrimination, engaged in violent and hateful acts
against those who are not white or part of the superior master race. The true origins of
“Skinheads” were not at all racially prejudiced; in fact this subculture came about by the
required love of the Black Jamaican culture. The “Skinheads” were greatly influenced by
the West Indian culture, and especially the Jamaican “Rude Boy” and their unique style
of music that consisted of: Ska, Reggae, and Rocksteady. The most popular forms of
32
music, the Jamaican musicians created songs that spoke directly towards their lifestyle
and the problems they faced in their culture. The music was used to express their views
on current events, like so many other subcultures, “Skinheads” could identify themselves
through the forms of music, fashion and alternative life style values. As the “Jamaican
Diasporas” grew in Britain during the 1960s their style of music, style of dress and gang
mentality held a strong impression on the development of the “Skinhead” culture
(Neville, Staple).
Figure 2.7- The Specials, Circa 1980s
As time pressed on “Skinheads” developed
their own style of music mixed with the influences of
the Reggae genre with artists like The Pioneers,
Desmond Dekker and Derrick Morgan. Even though
the music began to fade out of popularity, as well as for the subculture it resurface at the
tail end of the 1970s the “Skinheads” were revived after the Punk Rock era began and
became the new age of sound for the youth. This brought on the Ska music once more
and other groups such as Madness, The Specials and The Selecter. The groups were
released by a label called the 2 Tone. The artist cover displayed the “Rude Boy” image in
black and white as well as a check pattern. This was a symbol of anti-racism; The
Specials, “Concrete Jungle” showed evidence and the push for acceptance between the
Blacks and Whites. The term “Rude Boy” has been continually to be use even in today’s
society, this is used as slang words to describe the youth who are involved into street
culture that is similar to the life style of modern gang behavior.
33
III.
Punk Revolution
The 1970s Teddy boys was also known for their
violence directed mostly at the Punks. Punk culture used
some of the basics of Teddy boy style. The brothel creepers
and the drape jackets were some elements taking into the
punk style of dress.
Figure3.1 1971, Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood
Those who were involved in the punk movement were anti-royalist and faux-anarchist.
Punk often offended those of power and the politically conservative Teddy Boys. Vivienne
Westwood has been noted for bringing punk culture into the mainstream and making it popular
fashion. Westwood does not come from a fashion background; she is what we consider to be a
self-taught designer in the fashion industry.
Westwood went to school for teaching and fell into the fashion scene in the mid-60s. Her
father was a shoemaker and mother was cotton weaver. Raised in Derbshire, later relocating
were her and boyfriend/business partner Malcolm McLaren started their first shop 430 Kings
Road, London, which was called “Let it Rock”, Most of the local 1950s Ted boys would shop for
clothing. The shop soon transformed into “Too Fast to Live, Too Young to Die”, that sold
second-hand jeans and customized leather jackets. In the 1972 the shop was renamed “Sex”, their
number one client was the band “Sex Pistols” who were part of the punk-rock generation. They
sold leather, rubber fetish goods, and bondage trousers. This style became identical with the most
culturally significant street style of the second half of the 20th century. Their shop was famous
for its sexually crude and provocative garments: “bondage” trousers and T-shirts emblazoned
with provocative phrases like “Cambridge Rapist” and exotic jesters caused controversy and
34
outrage in the mainstream of British society (Coleby, 2003).
Figure 3.2-The punks 1976 -1979
Two years later they renamed their shop “Seditionaries”, where
they sold sexual fetish clothing. They continued to be a part of youth
movement and the rebellious revolution in Britain. The new Teds became
the enemies of the Westwood and The Sex Pistol-inspired born from the
post-war, middle-class youth cultures of Britain that were solely inspired
by the music of America and Black cultures. The punk subculture main objective was to
separate itself from the dominant culture. With its irreverent style, loud mesmerizing rhythms,
punk were able to embrace anarchy as a desirable quality of life. Their negative outlook toward
what was going on all around them, gave them the belief that there was no future. Early British
punks expressed Nihilistic values with the saying No Future that was from a Sex Pistols song
"God Save the Queen" .The single was released in 1977. It was considered by the general public
at the time to be an assault on Queen Elizabeth II and the monarchy. The Sex Pistols took the
title from the national anthem of the United Kingdom, which
was a controversial move against the monarchy (Coleby, 2003).
The people saw this as a fascist regime against the
Queen, and a bold statement to say that England had "no future".
In United States, punks had a different approach to nihilism
based on their unconcern for the presents, and their separation
from both middle class and working class standards.
Figure3.3- Vivienne Westwood in Punk Attire, London 1977
35
The punk fundamental philosophy was one of Nihilism; declare that integrity does not
inherently exist in the dominant culture, and that any established moral values are in theory false.
Punks were determined to shock and challenge their authority, and nearly everything about punk
style is orchestrated to crack the foundation of our traditionalist society. Westwood launched her
own clothing line called World's End in 1980.
The clothing moved towards both a romanticism and heroism in the later years.
Westwood had presented the Pirates collection which was adopted by musicians of the new
generation. The collections were innovative, and causal, and described as unwearable by some.
The clothes were referencing history for ideas (Coleby, 2003).
Westwood’s study of 18th Century men’s clothing add tailoring techniques combined with
elegance, and sexuality had started to fuse different
cultures and lifestyles. Westwood created beautiful,
unique and well-made clothes with an irreverent
clothing market; something that was new to the
mainstream. Jean Paul Gaultier, Marc Jacobs and the
late Alexander McQueen followed this method of
designing within their own collections.
Figure3.4-Jean Paul Gaultier Fashion Retrospective: features 130 pieces from Gaultier’s collections dating from 1976
Jean Paul Gaultier pulls from both American and British street wear adding his own
interpretation of punk references. Gaultier saw this as an opportunity to take the punk aesthetic
from the streets of London and influence the Parisian runways. It was a different approach to
what the British and Americans were displaying out on the streets, by combining his traditional
36
idea of the Parisian rules of design and his unconventional approach to fashion exposing a
rebellion in its self. Gaultier plundered all aspects of punk including bondage, recycling,
androgyny and tribalism, which he still continues to use in his work. Even though Jean Paul
Gaultier pulls from streets there is an understanding and a sense of
respect in his craftsmanship when trying to develop his own take
on street culture. He is not just exposing street culture; he is trying
to push it into a different approach of intellectual expression in
contemporary styles of dress. Jean Paul Gaultier is attempting to
show us that there is a level of sophistication to street style.
Figure3.5-Marc Jacobs, Parsons School of Art & Design, 1984 "The Sketchbook”
Punk style is often
rejected. There outward appearance of tattered reused
clothing, bondage attire and outwardly sexual expression,
gave off an irrefutable impression of distinctiveness. The
behavior of punk included acts of destruction, and recreational
drug use to escape the troubles of their environment.
Figure3.6-Alexander McQueen, Central Saint Martins, 1992-1994
The punks chose to surround themselves in such
undesirable terms to ward off the influence of mass culture. By having such a rebellious outlook
and expression of style, this placed the punks distant from the outside; the dominant culture.
Unlike most subculture styles, the punks did not use a stable organization to govern control of
their members. Punks are more concerned with breaking the rules, taking objects and misusing
them for the purpose of shock. They are interested in instilling objects with new meaning that
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are popular to the masses. They choose to reform instead of following what others do. It displays
a sign of rebellion and symbolizes that they are their own individual. The identity of "punk style"
is constantly changing, always pushing itself into new areas of transgression.
Character Stevo stated:
“The Fight: What does it mean and where does it come from? An Essay: Homosapien. A
man. He is alone in the universe. A punker. Still a man. He is alone in the universe, but he
connects. How? They hit each other. No clearer way to evaluate whether or not you're alive.
Now. Complications. A reason to fight. Somebody different. Difference creates dispute. Dispute
is a reason to fight. Now, to fight is a reason to feel pain. Life is pain. So to fight with reason is
to be alive with reason. Final analysis: To fight, a reason to live. Problems and Contradictions: I
am an anarchist. I believe that there should be no rules, only chaos. Fighting appears to be
chaos. And when we slam in the pit a show it is. But when we fight for a reason, like rednecks,
there's a system, we fight for what we stand for, chaos. Fighting is a structure, fighting is to
establish power, power is government and government is not anarchy. Government is war and
war is fighting. The circle goes like this: our redneck skirmishes are cheap perversions of
conventional warfare. War implies extreme government because wars are fought to enforce rules
or ideals, even freedom. But other people ideals forced on someone else, even if it is something
like freedom, is still a rule; not anarchy. This contradiction was becoming clear to me in the fall
of '85. Even as early as my first party, "Why did I love to fight?" I framed it, but still, I don't
understand it. It goes against my beliefs as a true anarchist. But there it was. Competition,
fighting, capitalism, government, THE SYSTEM. That's what we did. It's what we always did.
Rednecks kicked the shit out of punks, punks kicked the shit out of mods, mods kicked the shit out
of skinheads, skinheads took out the heavy metal guys, and the heavy metal guys beat the living
shit out of new wavers and the new wavers did nothing. What was the point? Final summation?
None. “
James Merendino’s 1998, SLC PUNK, Serves as an example of punk’s philosophy.
The punk subcultures are usually described as punks, punk rockers, and punkers. The
punk subculture can be identified and defined in many ways. Punk identifying with the mainline
subculture can vary. It depends on the punk’s characteristic and on how they would describe
themselves to others. There are numerous terms to distinguish themselves, but usually involve
the use of punk as a suffix within identifying the subculture. Punks would usually join the
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subculture during their years of high school. Diehard punks would continue playing a role in the
subculture for several years after their adolescent years. They believe in their values enough to
make a lifelong commitment to the subculture. Although adolescents are the main age group in
punk, there are also many adults who hold to the punk frame of mind, but do not dress the part.
There are some punks who eventually leave the subculture in favor of being part of the dominant
culture for their own personal gain. This is viewed as selling out by those who are still practicing
the subculture (Hebdige, 1979).
Character Stevo later states:
“And so there I was. I was gonna go to Harvard. It was obvious. I was gonna be a lawyer
and play in the God-damned system, and that was that. I was my old man. He knew, so what else
could I do? I mean, there's no future in anarchy; I mean let's face it. But when I was into it, there
was never a thought of the future. I mean we were certain the world was gonna end, but when it
didn't, I had to do something, so fuck it. I could always be a litigator in New York and piss the
shit out of the judges. I mean that was me: a trouble maker of the future. The guy that was one of
those guys that my parents so arrogantly saved the world for, so we could fuck it up. We can do a
hell of a lot more damage in the system than outside of it. That was the final irony, I think. That,
and well, this. And "fuck you" for all of you who were thinking it: I guess when all was said and
done, I was nothing more than a God-damned, trendy-ass poser”.
James Merendino’s 1998, SLC PUNK, Serves as an example of punk leaving its
subculture.
Punks are typically white, adolescent males from a working class or middle class
background; however Female punks have always played important roles in the punk subculture.
Compared to some alternative cultures, punks are considered to be more gender equal than other
subcultures, and dominant ideological views of society. Punks are usually unconcerned with
traditional marriage, and premarital sex is common in the subcultures. In contrast to mainstream
cultures, there are a larger percentage of the punks who consider themselves as homosexual and
39
even bisexual, they are part of the “Queercore” subculture. The punk subculture is anti-racist
culture that stems from Europe and North America; but there are punks who express white
supremacy style of dress and values known as Skinheads. These groups are usually treated with
hostility by the rest of the subculture. Ethnic minorities have taken part in and contributed to the
development of the subculture, such as Blacks, Latinos, and Asians. African Americans in the
punk subculture were called Afro-Punk. Afro-punks were predominantly blacks in the North
American punk scene (Polhemus, 2010).
Punks hold minimum wage jobs and some were often unemployed, homeless and drifting
around from city to city trying to survive, similar to the Hippie culture. They rely on dumpster
diving, shoplifting, playing gigs and even street charity. Many deaths occurred in the punk
community due to the use of drugs and overdosing and committing suicide. The original punk
movement was heavily influenced by heroin, methamphetamine, and alcohol use. However,
Heroin usage has declined since the early 1980s. Punks also used hallucinogens; marijuana was
used, but is less associated with punks than with other youth cultures.
The lifestyle of a punk fit those with limited cash flow due to unemployment, poverty
stricken, and educational dropouts. Punks would cut up their old clothes even shop at thrift stores
and destroy the article of clothing to formulate something that is fashionable among their peers.
Outfits were construed in a manner that gives off an unfinished construction garment. These
outfits were to attract attention of the dominant culture. This technique of ripping apart garment
and giving off a deconstructed look was something that the general public took a while to adjust
to. Torn fabrics, frayed edges and defaced prints are now considered normal today’s fashion
trends. In the 1970s having clothing that were frayed and torn was considered shocking to most
40
people due to the fact it had never been seen before. Trousers were
shortened to reveal laddered tights and dirty legs. Dr. Marten boots gave
off a utilitarian and military flare; these boots were previously part of the
working class uniform now adopted by a youth culture.
Figure3.7- 'In The Gutter' - by Val Hennessy- (Photograph from interior)
Punks used safety pins and chains to hold their garments together and as
adornment. Instead of the traditional adornment of golden lockets and pearls; they preferred to
use padlocks, chains and even razor blades as pendants around their necks. Black leather, studs,
chains, black T- shirts, bondage, animal print, bum flaps and leg straps were some elements
added in the punk style of dress (Issitt, 2011).
IV.
The Influence on the Post-Modern Youth
During the 50s and 60s we experienced the most important time
period for youth. For the first time they were able to breakaway and feel
what it was like to have social freedom and the ability to stand on their
own. Most adults would blame this on American culture; with films like
Nicholas Ray, “Rebel with a Cause,” 1955 starring James Dean,
expressed the emotional confusion of the suburban, middle class youth.
Figure 4.1-James Dean: 1955 Rebel Without a Cause: Photo Warner Brothers
This film was a hit among the young adolescents who wanted to break out of what was
considered the social norms at the time. James depicted a teen who was from the slums and
displayed a rebellious undertone to his parents and peers. His character was popular among the
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young females, and was always ready for a fight to defend his livelihood. James Dean was the
answer to American teens. His style alone was iconic and is still an expression of a rebellious
state of dress. Dean wore denim blue jeans that were cuffed at the ankles; at the time blue jeans
were the uniform that symbolized the working class factory
man. His bright white T-shirt, red leather biker jacket, slicked
back hair style, backed with his smooth talking ways and
swaggering attitude, was idolized, copied, and transformed the
youth ideals.
Figure 4.2- Marlon Brando 1953: The Wild One Photo Stanley Kramer Productions
Dean was the American anthem that defined the rebellious state of dressing. Soon after,
teens around the world were trying to copy and interpret a variety of ways, his style of dress, to
get across their state of rebellion. In 1953 Marlon Brando starred in László Benedek, “The Wild
One” and Paul Newman in the1967 film directed by Stuart
Rosenberg, “Cool Hand Luke” are examples of actors who were
idolized because of their movie rolls; they left an everlasting
impression and film history of depicting the state of rebellion.
Figure4.3- Paul Newman Cool Hand Luke. 1967. Photo Warner Brothers
With the support of the film and music industry expressing teen rebellion; these styles and ways
of expressions of the youth were broadcast around the world and viewed by many adolescents
making it easily acceptable to the mass market to take and use as a way to make profit and make
it available for others to copy and follow trends.
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Most of the films that were geared towards young adolescents revolved around the
coming-of-age. There was this countless struggle in trying to find out where they fit when
looking at the tradition society norms. The social norm was that children were not to be seen nor
heard. They had no identity; they were following in the shadows of their parents and ancestors
before them. The films of the 1950s showcased an era of rebellious streak of teens. The youth
that were portrayed in the films were suppressed by adult figures and were not able to have the
freedoms to act openly on their emotions. It is deemed that “Rebel without a Cause” inspired the
youth to idolize the rebellious stars that appeared before them on the widescreen. Through the
use of their clothing and mannerism it was widely embraced by the suppressed teens of the 50s.
Films from the 1970s displayed many different perspectives of the aspects of adolescent
lives. Movies like the 1978 "Grease", directed by Randal Kleiser, starring John Travolta, Olivia
Newton-John, and Stockard Channing, dealt with issue of the heart and expressing sexuality
between young adolescents. "Saturday Night Fever" also starring John Travolta, directed by
John Badham in 1977, a story of one mans need to break free from his controlling father, deadend job and the inner city life. Travolta’s character's longing to find something that he was
passionate about; sex and drug experiments were being heavily used to cope with loneliness.
The 1980s film "Fame", directed by Alan Parker was about inner city kids trying to pursue
careers in performing arts, it shows the struggle and the need to have independence and having
one’s own goal in life. These films promoted the need for self-expression, having to make life
decisions on the fate of your own destiny. It was the need to find your true self and create your
own path in life, not following the one that someone has set forth.
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Figure 4.4-1983 The Outsiders Photo: Zoetrope Studios
Movies produced in the 80s dealt with issues of homosexuality
and suicide. The 1983 film “The Outsiders,” directed by Francis Ford
Coppola, was about gang members referred to as; 'Greasers'. The
members were considered to be part of the low-income and lower class
groups in society. The movie was based on the clash between the
underprivileged Greasers and the wealthy socialites. Throughout the
film teens struggled with the social lines and their own individual lack of maturity. There were
large gaps between the rich and the poor. Greaser’s portrayed a role of being unaware of
authority and often made up their own rules. The boys often captured the attention of the
females, even the interest of the socialite girls. This caused a great deal of tension between the
two groups; this really attracted the attention of the youth of the 80s and drew them to the movie
in huge amounts. They were excited by the feud between the two groups and usually the viewers
cheered on the Greasers more often.
V.
Mainstream Expose Punk Culture and Gains Profit
The film and music industry has always impacted the fashion industry and introduced
many different subcultures into the mainstream market. Ever since the 1920s both the music
industry and film industry influenced change in several different decades. Music was a way for
people to let off steam, break away from their troubles and express their point-of-views to their
peers and create more followers. Music seemed to be used as a rebellious tool for the subcultures
to promote and gather other followers. Music was an extremely effective tool, since most people
could relate to the music, if not the words to the song, then the beat of the music. Music has also
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influenced the way we dress and creating one’s clothing style. During the roaring 20s the popular
music choice was Jazz. The dance halls were filled with the local youngsters, dancing around
and fraternizing with each other. Most of the performers wore loose fitting clothing due to the
type of dancing they engaged in during this time period. The women’s forms of dress were loose
shirt and blouses with pants and flared skirts so they can kick up their heels and dance the
popular dance moves. This form of dress in the 20s for the younger women was a very popular
and rebellious revolution to the traditional dress of the time. It was one way allowing the
younger women to rebel against their mothers and how society wanted them to present
themselves at that time.
The rebel music influence has gone from Jazz, to Hip Hop, Punk Rock, Hard Rock, and
then to Heavy Metal. By having bands like the Velvet Underground, Blondie, and of course The
Sex Pistols, from the late 60s and early 70s, who all had their own style of dress which reached
out to the of young followers of the time period. When considering their rebellious style of dress
one has to wonder whether or not these types of performers were really expressing their points of
view, their unique style or were they just rejecting the mainstream. The question on many minds,
would any of these subcultures ever have merged into to the mainstreams if not for the bands like
The Sex Pistols, Velvet Underground and Blondie? It is hard to say whether or not it would have
happened without these popular bands support of the punk culture. These bands had great
influence with many in general society, not just the subcultures. This was surprising, since all
these types of music were considered “the devils music.” The Rolling Stones, The Doors, The
Ramones, Jimi Hendrix, etc., were popular at this time and held a strong impression in the mid60s and early 70s.
45
Their style of music promoted self-expression and sexuality which was long awaited in
the suppressed society. There was a need to break free, the post-war generation was sick of what
was going on and they demanded to see improvements. Adolescent turned to music and films as
a form of escape from society. The music from the 60s and the 70s impacted the fashion
industry, social life, and attitudes of the youth. According to the traditionalist, rock bands fueled
the minds of the people with hatred and rebellious ideals. Traditionalist felt this was brought out
by their mephitic lyrics. The rebellious rock phenomenon had a huge impact on the social
masses. The general entity of music had such power that it stirred up the foundation of our
society, attitudes, and daily lives of people around the world.
The punks have given birth to a new way of thinking and self-independence that made a
lasting impression in the minds of youth in history. This could have either been a negative or
positive gain in American history, either way; this new way of thinking was here to stay and
pushed to be heard. The traditionalists tried to ban and block this from the youth, but the more
they try to drown out the punk movement of rebellion, the more this particular subculture
became popular to the youth. There was a wide gap between the youth and authority figures.
The punk’s lyrics were embedded in the minds of the youth. The Punk development and rules in
their community were spoken loud, clear, and understood by those who believed in this
movement and were fed up with what was going on around them. It was all about being selfsufficient and not falling into the mass media way of thinking or to be brainwashed. It was time
to become an individual and stand on your own, instead of following someone else destiny; it
was time to make decision on their own. No more following in the footsteps of their parents or
being forced to become a social robot.
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The Punk Movement pushed and tested the traditionalist ways of living. Having both the
movie stars and musicians staging these life scenarios on the movie screen and broadcasting
them on the radio, it was not difficult for the movement to become popular among the youth.
The “cool” thing to do was to take a stand against “the man”, misbehaving, and emphasizing
self-expression. These types of demonstrations were idolized. The music and films were the
ground work that formulated the development of many types of communities among our society.
For the first time we were seeing a different side instead of just being exposed to what they were
taught by their parents. They were not allowing others to tell them what was acceptable; they
were establishing what was acceptable for themselves. The whole philosophy of not being seen
nor heard was out the window, the youth wanted to be heard and especially be seen.
From generation to generation the youth has been faced with similar circumstances, yet
the only difference between the post-modern youth and the youth of today is that the postmoderns youth refused to just sit there and take what was coming at them. Instead they chose to
fight and attempt to improve their circumstances by using their voices collectively, “We are not
going to take it anymore,” rang heavily through the minds of the youth in the post-modern era.
Why is it that the youth today are not taking a stand and using their social liberties to make
change as those before has done? It feels as though that rebellious attitude has been numbed
down and the youth of today can care less about their power of persuasion and making a positive
change. Instead it seems as though the youth of today rather sit there and just take what is
happening and not take a stand. One would believe that they do not care about the society they
exist in. We are exposed to television shows that depicted youth culture, which is so far from
what post-generations had as examples. We are being portrayed as the materialistic youth, all we
care about is what others think of us, rather than standing out from the crowd. Maybe they have
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too many stressors currently to survive in the world; therefore they do not have the fight left. It
seems as though they are fading away from the spotlight. We are being described as the lost
generation; we worry about having the next high tech device and being part of the in-crowd,
instead of just being our own individual. We would rather be alike and copy one another. The
youth of today are highly obsessive with materialistic and are borderline selfish, so this may be
why they do not fight harder to be heard. They are more focused on “objects” than they are their
freedom.
If we take a step back most teens that were born after 1945 were never faced with the
social strains that our ancestors endured before us. For instance; war, the great depression and
the oil crisis gave way to discontentment. The question becomes or are we being faced with the
same social restraints? The war on terrorism, government issues in the housing sectors, huge
gaps between social classes, and job loss are the youth of today’s troubles. We are entering a
new world of personal identity and self-awareness. It seems as though we feel hopeful, despite
the state of the global economy, the environment, or even the war. We push for the need of
change in technology, we redefine consumer control, and we create our own communication
platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Blogging. It seems as though we are in control of our
own destiny, is this true, or a false sense of control? Are we being encouraged to shift our focus
in a different direction than the youth before us? These are questions that need to be answered by
each individual. This is a topic that can be debated on; rather are the youth of today doing
enough to express their social freedoms to create change like those before them have done.
The music and clothing styles were the two most visible influences on the mainstream
culture. When the punk clothing style was considered fashionable, there was an internal shift
among the punk subculture. “Whatever official fashion picked up from punk design, it is
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immediately abandoned by the punks by way of a counter movement, and reformulating it as
anti-fashion,” (Soeffner, 54-55). Punks felt violated by the actions of the mass media, after all
they were copying their styles and taking to gain a profit off a lifestyle in which they have
neither a clue nor practice their ideals. The punks felt that the mass market had no right to violate
them and try to pose as one of their own. “There is a general attitude among punks about the
need to create and maintain their own distinctive style,” (Fox, 379).
The punk subculture has been around for 30 years or more and has extended through five
different youth generations passing down the ideals and values among their subculture. This
being said, the mass media has taken this subculture and made it into a cash cow. It started with
the music industry, then fashion, even taking the subculture active members to sell this cultures
identity to the masses. The youth held on to the punk subculture ideals for many years, passing it
on to the next generation. Ever since the late 70s mass media has become all the culture we have.
It becomes increasing difficult for subcultures to keep their identities while they are becoming
encompassed in popular culture.
Figure5.1-Hot Topic clothing Advertisement
Corporations saw this rebellious youth movement as
a chance to tap into a new market increasing their profits.
Places like Hot Topic which is an American retail chain that
specializes in selling music and pop culture ideals, such as
clothing and accessories to the youth market have
capitalized off of the punk and other subcultures turning a
major profit for them. By having retail chains like Hot Topic
making items acceptable in the market for people who are captivated by a certain subculture way
of life and trying to mirror them, is a direct insult to all subcultures, after all Hot Topic is not
49
punk rock! It damages the subcultures identity; the whole “Do it yourself,” mentality of the punk
movement was being challenged by the mass market greed. Those who are heavily involved in
the punk culture and live by the ideals view stores like Hot Topic, H&M, Forever 21, and Urban
Outfitters as stores for “Posers,” and these stores clearly do not understand what the punks
culture stands for.
They do not go and buy clothing that appeared to be ripped, worn out, and adorn with
spikes, studs, safety pins, etc. they simple made their clothing and applied their own
embellishments. If they were going to buy clothing, they did not go to a store to buy new
clothing, they went to thrift store and bought hand-me-downs, after all the youth could not afford
high price clothing like the privileged people could.
These stores were simply viewed as a mockery to punks and the urban culture youth.
There is much resentment within the punk and alternative communities that a lifestyle that is so
important to them would be so heavily popularized by the consumer mainstream. Those who are
consider die hard punks and believed in their values would strongly agree that their culture is not
merely about being a fashion statement but a way of life period.
Figure5.2-Hip Hop, Street Style 90s
The 80s street culture teens lived in urban setting, made
up of mostly the African Americans and Latinos who grew up
with the wide spread rap lyrics, graffiti art, and breakdancing.
This subculture would be known as the Hip Hop, which
dominated the early 80 and mid-90s youth. The word “street
wear” referred to the urban youth movement dress code. The
clothing style of the urban youth mixed in skateboard elements, Rastafarian clothing, and of
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course a hint of punk mix style. The clothing was practical and displayed sporty representation.
Those who were a part of the Hip Hop subculture felt that their style was subjective to the
masses, later to be proven wrong. “It appealed to those who felt their lifestyles were far removed
from catwalk shows,” (Worsley, 183).This group had it rebellious standing and express
themselves heavily among their peers. They too were exposed to the wide spread media and
several companies profited from the street urban culture. Fashion labels like Chanel, Calvin
Klein used the urban youth ways of expression. It seemed to be a popular trend in the market to
take advantage of different street culture to
maximizing profit sales. Hip Hop entering the
mainstream, it was all about selling a life style
of people who in fact big companies had no clue
in understanding these individuals yet alone
know their pain and why they choose to express
themselves in such a manner, (Worsley, 173).
Figure5.3-Chanel Runway hip hop inspired 90s
Figure5.4 - Calvin Klein 1992 Ads Street inspired
The street cultures life style inspired several fashion designers to interpret their own take
on many subcultures. They would take their ideas and shine a light to several different concepts
without trying to make a mockery of the subcultures way expression. Designers like Vivienne
Westwood and Marc Jacobs were drawn to the street culture and their youth. These designers
were inspired by their ideals and rebellious nature to society. Westwood is a strong supporter of
the punk culture and stayed in tune to their values within the movement. After all Westwood
followed punks from the late 60s and early 70s. Some have referred to her as being part of the
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punk movement and having a clear understanding of the youth and what they wanted.
Westwood’s relationship with the punk subculture was of critical importance to understanding
her style in the fashion industry. “Be reasonable, demand the impossible,” being printed on her
T-shirts, by far Westwood has captured the essence of confrontation anti-fashion long before
other designers recognized the revolutionary power of the punk style.
The most important thing to take way from the punk movement is the
fact that it challenged stereotypes of gender and beauty and pushed
fourth a new way of thinking and trying to accept people and their
differences. (Worsley, 166-167)
Figure5.5- Photos via Maison Martin Margiela
Designers like Martin Margiela, a Belgian contemporary fashion designer who is
considered part of the Antwerp 6. The Antwerp Six refers to a group of fashion design students
who attended Antwerp’s Royal Academy of Fine Arts in the 80s that were heavily involved in
influential Avant Garde fashion. They are considered being the rebellious bunch in the fashion
industry. Designers of the Antwerp six included Walter Van Beirendonick, Ann
Demeulrmeester, Dirk Bikkenbergs, Dries Van Noten, Dirk Van Saene, and Marina Yee.
Together they showed that making and unmaking forms of garments, using deconstruction as a
code and communication tool to the fashion industry.
Marc Jacobs brought grunge fashion into the mainstream in the 90s. Just like the punk
subculture, grunge made its own important rebellious revolutionary mark on the youth and
shadowed behind the punk subculture. Both the music scene and the environment in which the
youth were exposed to played an important contribution to the grunge movement. The movement
started in Seattle with American bands like Nirvana and Pearl Jam. This moved grunge into the
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spotlight and demanded the attention of impressionable youth. The word “grunge” actually came
from the 60s era, which meant to stand for being dirty. The music played a significant part to the
grunge culture. It represented anti-fashion, oversized clothing, paired together with other
clothing that did not go together, and that overall appearance of not bathing in weeks. This was a
huge slam to the mainstream. Kurt Cobain is seen as the God Father to
grunge by those who were part of the culture, just like Sid Vicious and
Johnny Rotten were to the punks. The grunge movement like so many
other subcultures stared on the streets, and was soon adapted into the
mainstreams. Marc Jacobs presented his collection that he designed under
the label Perry Ellis in 1992, Chanel and Christian Lacroxi follow behind
this.
Figure 5.6-Kurt Cobain spotted outside in Seattle 1992
Marc Jacobs’s grunge collection was rejected by the high fashion police. According to
the New York Times, they described his collection as being “a mess”, if they would have
conducted their research they would have understood the elements of his collection after all it
was telling a story about the youth of the 90s, the modern street youth of his time in which he felt
drawn to. Lucky the grunge movement was so unpopular among the mass market and quickly
faded out (Worsley, 197). The grunge youth were unable to keep their lifestyle and culture semiin while under attack by the mainstream. Some expressed the thought that the death of Kurt
Cobain in 1994 of a suicide being the actual reason for grunge having such a short lifespan in the
mainstream.
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British street culture has been broken down into many different subcultures. The Mods,
Hippies, Skinheads, Punks, Goths, as well as in the modern day “Chav” who are stereotyped by
the media, their styles are informal and derogatory to the conservative ideals of traditional
British dress. Made up from the Southern English youth that are classified as being from the
working class, they have an expensive taste with a fondness for labels such as Burberry, Ralph
Lauren and Paul Smith. They are viewed by most, as being impetuous and ill-mannered with
connotations of the lower-class status. The “Chav” prefer nothing more than the desire to dress
how they please, and use vulgar language to express their freedom to be heard loud and clear by
those of authority. The “Chav” style of dress consists of wearing
branded designer sportswear gear that is usually accompanied by
gold jewelry around their necks (Lyle Samantha, and Parker,
Andrew). This style of dress is the new form of street culture
rebellion to the conservative masses; it is the need to be casted as
misfit by authority figures, particularly if that youth was closed off
from society’s reality around the world.
Figure5.7-“Chav” Youth on the street of London 2011
The British youth street culture have always been motivated to fight to be heard, selfexpression and to define their identities, especially, when it comes to past economic crisis such
as Green Revolution, Marshall Plan, and Oil Crisis in the 70s ( Sandbrook, Dominic). The effects
of which the Green Revolution had on England and other surrounding companies that were part
of the movement were faced with a harsh realization in trying to produce better ways in solving
famine in third world countries. England tried to increase the ability to grow and monitor
agriculture in order to make up for the food shortages after the war in the 1940s. Unfortunately,
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it took a long toll on England’s economy as well as for the United States. They pushed farmers in
the direction of technological advancements ( Jain, H.K). This led to a high level of toxic fumes
in the air due to the machinery and chemicals mixing on the land. Some areas were unable to be
reused for farmers to develop more crops. It was a global effort in trying to stop the shortage and
regulate the agriculture; many countries today are still in need, many farm lands were left
abandoned, and farmers and their hired help without work.
The Marshall Plan was a U.S. postwar aid program to loan out financial assistance
between 1947 and 1952 to help with the efforts to rebuild western European nations after World
War II. Unfortunately, Britain was right in the mix with other countries that needed assistance in
improvements of their nation. Britain was on the verge of bankruptcy and faced the outlook of an
unbridgeable balance of debt for years to come. They received more than a third more of the
Marshall Plans than Germany itself. The country alone received 2.7 billion dollars or more in aid
after World War II. The economy continues to go into a downward spiral, because the
Government chose not to invest in industrial Modernization (Barnett, Correlli).
During the 1970s energy crisis major industrial countries faced a shortage of petroleum.
This problem started to show towards the end of the 1960s. There was tension between Western
Countries and the Middle East that lead to stagnant economic growth as the price of oil
continued to increase. This pushed Britain into a recession that lasted for more than two years
(Hammes, David; Wills, Douglas). The GDP’s steady decline took a long time for the country to
regain recovery at the start of the recession. Still today many countries are suffering due to the
price of petroleum. Both the people of United States and Great Britain are facing higher prices at
the pump that drive up the cost of production for companies and the cost of living for the
consumer. There is a need to break away from the traditional society way of living and self55
discover their own voice in the world they live in. Youth culture, as we know it, has always been
dominated by presence of commitment, by the use of their music, clothes, a choice of lifestyle
they feel expresses their beliefs and values instead of being forced by their parents and the
society around them to determine otherwise.
VI. Thesis Collection Reflection on Subcultures
After conducting research of the punk subculture and following the scene history closely
the collection fall 1.3.6.1.9 was developed. The collection follows the punk subculture ideals and
has a hint of grunge within the collection. This collection is about
depicting the modern youth culture of the future. It is not about being
accepted into the mass media or into the closed minded fashion
industry that tend to only like things that are already in production and
follow predetermined predictions of trend forecaster. Nor is it about
trying to copy designers that have set their own impression before on
the fashion industry with their ingenious interpretation and concepts.
Most importantly this collection is not made to be favored at all by
its peers. Other designer are not the intended consumer, this is made
with a progressive youth as its intended consumer. It is about
trying to create the next subculture or interpreting various street
styles to try to tell a story through the use of clothing.
1.3.6.1.9 Collection Photos By: Nuno Serrano
56
This is an attempt to make a statement to the industry that it’s time to
be an individual instead of collectively being part of something that
society has accepted as the norm, safe.
This collection is trying to capture
different interpretations and expressions of
rebelliousness. Solely it is about being true
to where we come from, and not be afraid to be different or fear
straying away from the majority. Simply stated, fashion is about
being innovative and pushing the boundaries no matter what. It
seems as though the industry and big business has pushed capitalist
ideals and have severely damaged the fashion industry. It is now all about making a profit, who
cares about the artist vision or the quality of the product? The focus now is, let us make fast
fashion and the hell with the rest of it.
1.3.6.1.9 is about making a rebellious statement, this collection is not just only about
being considered punk wear; it is made for that individual who actually knows herself. She is
fully aware of her presence in society and is not afraid to take a
stand and be proud of where she comes from. She is a young
women who is part of the working class; who is highly educated
about worldly issues and quick to voice her opinions if need be. If
she is in need of something, she will either go out and work hard
for it or make it for herself. 1.3.6.1.9 has elements of sexuality,
family values, and tries to define its own subculture instead of
57
trying to be part of an existing one. This collection is a modern interruption of the new wave
youth culture of today. Yes, it has elements of subcultures before for example the punks and
grunge youth; but it also tells a story of a youth that has a sophisticated edge about them. Down
to the fabric choice and use of color have their own symbolic meaning in the collection. It is
about taking a rebellious stands against the stagnant fashion industry in America.
The use of tradition Irish family tartans, the Fermanagh, Donegal, Sligo, and Wicklow
are the family tartans being represented in 1.3.6.1.9 symbolizing traditional family values. The
present of British flora garden print was
used as linings and hidden through the
collection. This symbolized the British
culture, the presence of flora in the
household, no matter how hard we try to
escape our family roots; they have a way of
making it back into our lives. The Grommet
display in the garment shows holes in varies place to symbolize the
fractions of society and the never ending struggles in our environment. Instead of the usually
spikes being adorned, the Grommets are used to make visuals for
viewers to decode along the collection and to interpret however they
choose to.
The use of olive green represented our presence overseas
fighting the war and economic restrains that many generations before
had to face. The heavy use of Breton stripes is a representation of
58
imprisonment, be it mentally or physical in society.
The stripes are to show strain and the need to break
away from societal norms. No matter how far we
have come through our nation history, there is still a
continuous struggle between the social classes.
1.3.6.1.9 Collection Photos By: Nuno Serrano
The elements of deconstruction and stains are to show the
rough side of the youth culture. We are a youth who make a stand
and will not accept situations as they are. We have a voice and it
should be used to create positive change. This collection is all about
making a statement it does not matter whether or not those who
view it differently hate it or not. This is the new wave of
expression, my interpretation of a rebellious culture. This collection sought to stay true to the
original values of the subcultures, while simultaneously deconstructing both garments and ideals
in order to present a clearer interpretation of the subculture itself.
VII. Thesis Presentation
It was stated by Dick Hebdige in 1979:
“Style in subculture is, then, pregnant with significance. Its transformations go ‘against
nature’’, interrupting the process of ‘normalization’. As such, they are gestures, movements
towards a speech which offends the ‘silent majority’, which challenges the principle of unity and
cohesion, which contradicts the myth of consensus. Our task becomes […] to discern the hidden
message inscribed in code on the glossy surfaces of style, to trace them out as ‘maps of meaning’
which obscurely re-present the very contradictions they are designed to resolve or conceal.”
59
The first half of presenting “13619” was to capture the true origins
of the street youth, by using the collection as its tool. This was done by
creating an environment that would partially be where street youth gather.
Savannah, Georgia, dark alleyway, cobblestone streets, and rundown
buildings were chosen as the backdrop for the production site of 13619.
These backdrops of Savannah gave off that illusion of being in the streets of
London. The production of 13619 was shot by video photographer Kurtice
Neal and his assistant Allie Ann. Liz Fuller, was casted for the part of
13619 street youth. She was casted for the part because of her striking
European resemblance, and the ability to show that hard street persona.
Katherine Taylor applied the hair and makeup for both the film and live
performance of 13619.
Still images from 13619 by: Kurtice Rice and Allie Ann
The film debuted on the night of April 13, 2012; “Formed and
Forged,” was the title of the Savannah College Art and Design
Graduate Thesis show. It was presented inside a traditional 1900s
Victorian style home, in the historical section of downtown Savannah,
Georgia right across from Forsyth Park. The show consisted of
designer Chiarra C. Joseph along with a
variety of other designers/artists. Live
classical music filled the house, while
models presented looks from each collection. Once 13619 walked down
the wooden carved staircase, the mood was set. It was a total clash between the traditionalist and
60
modern interpretation of street culture. The whole point of presentation was too seek out the true
origins of being cast as an outsider from those who consider themselves as the norm. By
exposing 13619 to an environment that has always discriminated against the outsiders because of
their appearance, the overall theme and concept to the collection itself unfolded. Those who
choose to go against the grain are often rejected by those who continue to follow instead of lead.
Photography documentary of “Formed and Forged “By: Allie Ann
Each live model wore heavy exaggerated glam rock style makeup that was
either accompanied with crimped and teased out hair or the classic symbol
of rebellion, the Mohawk. It was important to have them to stand out
among their peers. Those who viewed it could either accept it or reject it.
13619 was created to demonstrate the ongoing barrier between the social
classes and the tension that is surrounded by those who cannot accept or understand the meaning
of style and subculture. After all this is how subcultures are brought
about in our society. There is a continuing struggle still among the
youth around the world, each of them battle it in their own unique
way to gain acceptance. There is a need to be a part of something,
but at the same time to declare individuality too.
Photography Shot by: Cedric Smith
61
VIII. Conclusion
The fashion industry adopts subcultures and heavily uses their values and beliefs as a
form to maximize profitability. By taking a subculture such as Punk and not having a full
understanding on the life style or why it was developed in the first place by the people, it is
detrimental to the subculture existence. When those from the outside use or exploit a livelihood
and misinterpret the style, the values are changed. After all punk philosophy is all about "DIY"
and rejecting the masses. This has been a continuous an occurrence within the fashion industry,
punk which was originally a counter culture to the corporate trend, is now being sold as a theme,
the true punk identity is being erased. Punk culture in itself has been heavily used and will be
continually be use, the question is which other subculture will fall victim to the masses? The
fashion industry is its own subculture, which follow rules and direct people in a direction of selfexpression. These expressions can be inspired by the streets, religion, science, and many other
things. It is how we approach and use these inspirations; there is a need for respect and
interpreting them in an intellectual state of being.
62
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