Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Nutrition Research 29 (2009) 736 – 742
www.nrjournal.com
Athletes' dietary intake was closer to French RDA's than those of young
sedentary counterparts☆
Murielle Garcin a,b,⁎, Laetitia Doussot a,b , Laurence Mille-Hamard c , Veronique Billat c
a
Univ Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
b
UDSL, EA3608, F-59790, Ronchin, France
c
Université d'Evry Val d'Essonne, F-91025, Evry Cedex, France
Received 11 September 2009; revised 6 October 2009; accepted 7 October 2009
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that athletes' dietary intake was relatively well-balanced according to
the recommended dietary allowances (RDAs). In contrast, other studies have shown that athletes
may have low energy intake or imbalance of protein and fat and insufficient minerals and vitamins.
Nonetheless, we hypothesized that practicing a sport may allow young adults to have a nutritional
status closer to recommended values. The purpose of this experiment was to study the nutritional
status of young French adults, particularly to compare the nutritional status of trained young male
and female athletes to those of young sedentary control subjects, and to national RDAs. A total of 85
young adults were recruited and filled a 4-day food and physical activity record. Dietary intake,
energy expenditure, energy balance, carbohydrate, protein, fat, water, vitamins, and minerals were
recorded. Data were analyzed with a software Nutrilog and statistics with Sigma Stat. Energy intake
values were 9874 ± 3050 kJ for the athletes and 7506 ± 1845 kJ for control subjects. Athletes'
nutritional status was closer to French RDAs than those of sedentary subjects who present a lower
energy intake, a greater percentage of the energy intake from fat and lower values for minerals and
vitamins. In conclusion, practicing a sport may allow athletes to balance their energy intake and
expenditure and could be a good way to have a nutritional status closer to RDAs. Educational
programs for students on proper food selection, eating habits and physical activity are needed to
improve the nutritional status of these young French adults, particularly in sedentary students.
© 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Abbreviations:
Energy intake; Energy expenditure; Micronutrients; Nutritional status; RDA
ANOVA, analysis of variance; BMI, body mass index; CHO, carbohydrate; EI, energy intake; EE, energy
expenditure; M, mean; RDA, recommended dietary allowances; TTE, total energy expenditure.
1. Introduction
☆
This study was supported by grants from a Projet Hospitalier de
Recherche Clinique (no. 98/1959).
⁎ Corresponding author. Laboratoire d'Etudes de la Motricité Humaine,
EA3608, Faculté des Sciences du Sport et de l'Education Physique,
Université de Lille 2, 9 rue de l'Université, 59790 Ronchin, France.
Tel.: +33 320 88 73 91.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Garcin).
0271-5317/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2009.10.004
For good health, conditioning and performance in
athletes, appropriate nutrition has been recognized to be
taken into account [1,2]. Inadequate energy intake relative to
energy expenditure compromises performance and the
benefits associated with training [2]. In previous studies, it
has been demonstrated that athletes' dietary intake was
relatively well-balanced according to the recommended
dietary allowances [3,4]. In contrast, low energy intake or
M. Garcin et al. / Nutrition Research 29 (2009) 736–742
imbalance of protein and fat and insufficient minerals and
vitamins were described in athletes [5-8]. With insufficient
energy intake, fat and lean tissue mass will be used in the
body for fuel [2]. Loss of lean tissue mass results in the loss
of strength and endurance [2]. In addition, a long-term low
energy intake often results in poor nutrient intake, particularly in the micronutrients [2]. Consequently, nutritional
problems related to micronutrients such as iron-deficiency
anemia may occur [9,10]. Although a considerable amount
of work has been done on nutrition in several countries, there
is lack of sufficient information on the nutritional status of
young French athletes [11-14]. These last studies on French
athletes were only performed in young French soccer players
[11], or dealt only about selenium requirements [12] and
antioxidant micronutrient requirements [14] in athletes. Only
Machefer et al [13] studied both plasmatic antioxidant
vitamins and the nutritional status of French ultra endurance
athletes. Total energy intake was equal to 9569 ± 586 kJ/
day−1 and the contribution of carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids (expressed as a relative value of energy intake) were
equal to 53.7%, 18.5% and 27.9%, respectively [13].
Moreover, most studies have dealt with qualitative
nutritional status (ie, the proportion of energy intake derived
from carbohydrates, protein or fat, and micronutrient intake)
but, for the quantitative nutritional status, they are still
limited to the energy intake (in kilojoules per day)
[1,5,15,16]. However, knowledge of both energy intake
and energy expenditure is particularly important for athletes
who train every day and have to balance their energy intake
and expenditure [17]. Indeed, any restriction in energy intake
associated with a high level of physical activity might be
expected to decrease performance. A few studies have
covered energy expenditure. Fogelholm et al [3] calculated
the energy expenditure from a 15-item physical activity
questionnaire. The measure of energy expenditure based on
the type of activity and on exercise intensity and time
duration should be more accurate.
Therefore, the purpose of the present study was (1) to
assess the qualitative and quantitative nutritional status in
young French athletes, (2) to compare the values to that of
their sedentary counterparts, and (3) to compare them to the
recommended values for their age group. It was hypothesized that the nutritional status of these young athletes would
737
be balanced as compared with that of young sedentary
subjects. Based on the results, several recommendations
are proposed.
2. Methods and materials
2.1. Subjects
Eighty-five subjects volunteered to participate in this
study. Twenty-six were endurance-trained runners, 12 were
sprinters, 25 were handball players, and 22 were sedentary
control subjects. These athletes, who were at a high fitness
level, were chosen in order to represent: endurance, runners;
speed, sprinters; and combined activity, handball players.
These athletes and sedentary subjects were recruited from
students from the same part of the country (the North of
France) who have been previously invited to participate in
this study on the basis of the voluntary service. All the
athletes had trained between 3 and 5 times per week for at
least 8 years. Subjects in the control group were selected
from among college or university students and identified as
individuals who did not engage in any regular exercise
during their daily routine. They had only previously attended
physical education classes (less than 4 h/wk−1). All subjects
reported that they were non smokers, had no previous
pregnancies or eating disorders, and were not taking
supplements or drugs. Anthropometric data are presented
in Table 1. The subjects were all previously informed of the
aim of the study and gave written informed consent.
Approval for the tests was obtained from the Comité
Consultatif de Protection des Personnes pour la Recherche
Biomédicale de Lille (CP 00/10).
2.2. Experimental design
Values for nutrient intakes were obtained using a 4-day
food record (Monday to Thursday) kept during the training
period for the athletes. Taking the aim of this study into
account, these 4 days were chosen in order to compare the
basic nutrient intake between athletes and control subjects,
without taking into account the weekend in which the
nutrient intake might be substantially modified, due to eating
out, family meals, or skipped meals. Moreover, this record
period was chosen in the middle of the athletic season in
Table 1
Anthropometric parameters measured in the athletes and control subjects
Whole group
(n = 85)
Age (y)
Mass (kg)
Height (cm)
19.2 ± 1.9
64.6 ± 9.5
174.9 ± 8.4
Subgroups with respect to sex
Subgroups with respect to sport practice
Women
(n = 35)
Men
(n = 50)
P
Sprinters
(n = 12)
Endurance-runners
(n = 26)
Handball players
(n = 25)
Control subjects
(n = 22)
P
19.1 ± 1.4
59.9 ± 7.9
167.9 ± 5.7
19.3 ± 2.2
67.8 ± 9.2
179.9 ± 6.1
NS
b.0001
b.0001
19.5 ± 1.4
60.6 ± 8.2
172.9 ± 7.4
19.6 ± 2.5
61.6 ± 7.9
174.5 ± 7.9
19.6 ± 2.1
67.2 ± 10.2
176.7 ± 9.3
18.3 ± 0.6
67.3 ± 9.8
174.7 ± 8.4
NS
b.03 a
NS
Values are means ± SD. A 2-way ANOVA (sex × sport practice) was used for between-group comparisons and completed by the Student-Newman-Keuls test.
P b .05 was considered significant. NS indicates non significant. There was no significant interaction for age, mass and height.
a
Control subjects and handball players are significantly heavier than endurance-runner and sprinters, respectively.
738
M. Garcin et al. / Nutrition Research 29 (2009) 736–742
which there was no competition during the weekend. All
participants received a detailed verbal explanation and
written instructions about the food record. Subjects were
asked to eat normally and to remain as close as possible to
their usual dietary habits and to be as accurate as possible in
recording the amount and the type of food and fluid
consumed, as well as the method of preparation. A list of
common household measures, such as cups, tablespoons,
and specific information about the quantity of each
measurement (grams, etc) was given to each participant.
Any questions, ambiguities, or omissions regarding the type
and amount of food and beverages were resolved with
individual athletes or controls via direct interviews. Moreover, subjects had to note every physical activity during this
period on the 4-day food record.
2.4. Statistical analyses
Results are presented as means (M) ± SD values.
Statistical significance for anthropometrical and nutritional
values was studied by means of a two-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA; sex × practice of sport) and completed
by the Student-Newman-Keuls test. The independent variables were the sex (men, women) and sport practiced
(sprinters, endurance runners, handball players, and control
subjects). A Mann-Whitney U test was performed to
compare the average daily intakes of nutrients with French
RDAs. A Kruskal-Wallis 1-way ANOVA on ranks was used
to compare the energy balance to equilibrium (ie, to an
energy balance equal to zero). Data were analyzed with
Sigma Stat (Jandel, Germany). For all analyses, the level of
significance was set at P b .05.
2.3. Data analyses
These records were processed using the professional
software Nutrilog (Marans, France), which displays the
nutrient analysis of any food or combination of selected
foods, to obtain the average nutrient intake and energy
expenditure. Calculations for the average nutrient intake
were made using the table of composition of French foods
[18]. According to Black [19], in small studies, it may be
preferable to calculate individual energy expenditure and to
compare it directly with energy intake. Consequently, total
energy expenditure (TTE) was calculated based on the
equation of Black et al [20] (TTE = basal metabolic rest ×
physical activity level, with physical activity level equal to
1.65, which corresponds to seated work and no strenuous
daily leisure time activity for control subjects). For the
athletes, the energy expenditure corresponding to their sport
was added to the TTE value calculated for control subjects.
Calculations for the energy expenditure for each sport were
made using equations based on the type of sport, exercise
duration, exercise intensity, expressed in percentage of
maximal oxygen uptake and on the percentage of inactivity
during the session [21,22]. The adequacy of nutrient intake
was assessed by comparing it with the recommended dietary
allowances (RDAs) for the French population [23,24]. These
French RDAs were established according to age and sex.
Energy balance was calculated as the difference between
average energy intake and average energy expenditure. The
validity of the reported energy intake has been evaluated by
means of under-reporting score which may be calculated in
adults when free questionnaires are used [25]. The degree of
underreporting has been estimated using the ratio of the
reported energy intake to the calculated energy expenditure
of the population [26,27]. The 95% confidence limits of the
ratio define the range within which the energy intake (EI)
and energy expenditure (EE) differences could have arisen
by chance in a valid dataset. The ratio is equal to 0.819.
Subjects with EI:EE b 0.82 would be deemed underreporters.
A value falling below the 95% confidence limits of the ratio
indicates underreporting [26].
3. Results
The results of the 2-way analysis ANOVA of variance
showed that both sex and type of sport had significant effects
on mass whereas only sex had significant effects on height
(Table 1). There was no significant interaction between sex
and type of sport factors (P ≥ .05).
The mean ± SD values for dietary intake of nutrients,
energy expenditure and energy balance for the athletic and
control groups are shown in Table 2. The imbalance between
energy intake (EI) and energy expenditure (EE) was equal to
−452 ± 456 kcal. The results of the 2-way ANOVA showed
that both sex and type of sport had significant effects on
energy intake, energy expenditure, minerals, vitamins B1,
B2, B6, and B12, whereas only sex had significant effects on
vitamins B3, B5, and only type of sport had significant effects
on energy balance, water, carbohydrates (expressed as % of
total calorie intake) and fat (expressed as % of total energy
intake) (Table 2). There was no significant interaction
between sex and type of sport factors (P ≥ .05, Table 2). All
groups had a negative energy balance; however, there was
neither significant difference between groups nor compared
to equilibrium (ie, from the zero value) (P ≥ .05, Table 2).
The energy intake of the control subjects was statistically
significantly lower than the recommended one for their age
group (Table 3). Carbohydrate (expressed as % of total
calorie intake) was below recommended values whereas fat
(expressed as % of total calorie intake) was above the French
RDAs for control subjects. Moreover, in these control
subjects, proteins (expressed as % of total calorie intake)
were below recommended values for men, whereas it was
above the French RDAs for women. Moreover, these
subjects showed an insufficient consumption of minerals
and most vitamins (Table 3).
Vitamin C for the athletes and control subjects was above
the recommended levels whereas magnesium, vitamin D and
E were below the French RDAs (Table 3). All the groups of
males showed an excess of vitamin B12, whereas all the
female groups showed an insufficient consumption of iron
M. Garcin et al. / Nutrition Research 29 (2009) 736–742
739
Table 2
Intakes of nutrients, energy expenditure, and energy balance of the athletes and control subjects
Whole group
(n = 85)
Energy intake (kcal)
Energy expenditure
(kcal)
Energy balance (kcal)
Water (mL)
Carbohydrate (%EI)
Protein (%EI)
Fat (%EI)
Potassium (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Vitamin A (RE)
Vitamin D (μg)
Vitamin E (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Vitamin B1 (mg)
Vitamin B2 (mg)
Vitamin B3 (NE)
Vitamin B5 (mg)
Vitamin B6 (mg)
Vitamin B9 (μg)
Vitamin B12 (μg)
Subgroups with respect to sex
Women
(n = 35)
Men
(n = 50)
P
Subgroups with respect to sport practice
Sprinters
(n = 12)
Endurance runners Handball players Control subjects P
(n = 26)
(n = 25)
(n = 22)
2213 ± 709
2665 ± 489
1778 ± 400 2518 ± 721 P b .001 2054 ± 630 2419 ± 720
2265 ± 299 2937 ± 402 P b .001 2569 ± 405 2897 ± 376
2441 ± 769
2912 ± 419
1795 ± 441
2164 ± 306
P b .006 c
P b .001 c
-452 ± 456
2914 ± 957
51.34 ± 5.4
14.3 ± 0.8
34.4 ± 5.7
3634 ± 683
316 ± 59
1203 ± 392
13.9 ± 1.7
605 ± 234
8.4 ± 0.5
5.4 ± 1.3
162 ± 69
1.1 ± 0.3
1.4 ± 0.4
12.0 ± 3.7
3.8 ± 0.9
1.4 ± 0.4
226 ± 82
3.4 ± 1.3
-487 ± 377
2050 ± 763
51.6 ± 6.9
14.1 ± 1.8
34.2 ± 6.8
2403 ± 595
222 ± 49
804 ± 282
9.3 ± 2.2
546 ± 247
9.1 ± 3.3
5.6 ± 2.3
117 ± 72
1.4 ± 0.8
1.9 ± 0.8
17.6 ± 8.9
6.3 ± 6.8
2.4 ± 1.3
285 ± 201
6.2 ± 2.4
-452 ± 556
2162 ± 568
54.2 ± 7.9
14.4 ± 2.6
31.3 ± 7.2
3070 ± 898
284 ± 70
917 ± 347
12.4 ± 3.1
653 ± 319
10.4 ± 6.1
7.0 ± 2.6
120 ± 85
1.3 ± 0.4
1.7 ± 0.4
16.3 ± 4.8
4.9 ± 1.3
1.9 ± 0.7
277 ± 96
4.7 ± 1.9
-368 ± 399
1641 ± 417
45.8 ± 5.8
14.0 ± 1.9
40.2 ± 6.0
2286 ± 493
196 ± 38
695 ± 199
8.6 ± 2.0
491 ± 232
8.8 ± 2.5
6.6 ± 2.4
93 ± 57
0.9 ± 0.2
1.3 ± 0.3
11.9 ± 3.4
3.7 ± 0.8
1.3 ± 0.4
202 ± 62
3.5 ± 1.2
NS
P b .001 c
P b .001 c
NS
P b .001 a
P = .002 b
P b .001 b
P = .01 d
P = .002 b
NS
NS
NS
NS
P = .002 b
P = .014 c
NS
NS
P = .02 b
NS
P = .034 d
-418 ± 653
2234 ± 783
51.0 ± 7.9
14.4 ± 2.7
34.6 ± 7.3
3160 ± 879
285 ± 85
950 ± 401
12.8 ± 4.3
651 ± 301
9.5 ± 4.3
6.9 ± 2.5
119 ± 79
1.3 ± 0.6
1.8 ± 0.7
16.9 ± 6.7
4.9 ± 1.5
2.0 ± 0.8
286 ± 137
5.2 ± 2.0
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
P b .001
P b .001
NS
P b .001
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
P b .001
P b .001
P b .05
P b .001
NS
P b .001
-515 ± 447
2529 ± 848
53.5 ± 4.7
13.4 ± 1.4
33.1 ± 4.5
2998 ± 875
260 ± 76
919 ± 398
11.3 ± 3.2
544 ± 200
8.3 ± 0.6
5.6 ± 2.3
158 ± 62
1.4 ± 0.4
1.7 ± 0.7
15.6 ± 6.1
4.7 ± 2.1
1.8 ± 0.5
286 ± 97
3.6 ± 1.1
-477 ± 673
2422 ± 935
52.0 ± 7.2
14.8 ± 2.8
33.1 ± 6.1
3043 ± 882
287 ± 86
1015 ± 414
12.8 ± 5.1
693 ± 293
9.4 ± 2.9
5.9 ± 2.6
119 ± 80
1.4 ± 0.7
1.8 ± 0.8
15.8 ± 8.1
4.5 ± 1.3
2.0 ± 0.9
285 ± 168
5.4 ± 2.4
%EI: percentage of the energy intake. Energy balance was calculated as the difference between average intake of nutrients and the average energy expenditure.
Values are means ± SD. A 2-way ANOVA (sex × practice of sport) was used for between-group comparisons and completed by the Student-Newman-Keuls test.
P b .05 was considered significant. There was no significant interaction for all criteria. A Kruskal-Wallis 1-way ANOVA on Ranks was used to compare the
energy balance to equilibrium (ie, to an energy balance equal to zero). RE = Retinol Equivalent; NE = Niacin Equivalent.
a
Values for control subjects are significantly greater than athletes.
b
Values for athletes are significantly greater than control subjects.
c
Values for handball players and endurance-runners are significantly greater than control subjects.
d
Values for endurance-runners are significantly greater than control subjects.
and magnesium (Table 3). Iron intake was statistically
significantly correlated with energy intake (P b .01, r = 0.87,
n = 85). The water intake of the control subjects and handball
players was lower than the recommended one for their age
group (Table 3).
4. Discussion
The main findings of this study were that the athletes'
nutritional qualitative and quantitative status were closer to
French RDA's than those of control subjects.
The energy intake values of our athletes were in
accordance with the reported energy intake of athletes,
ranging from 2365 to 5353 kcal for males [1,3-5,8] and 1536
to 2667 for females [1,5,8,15,16,28-30], depending on the
type of exercise. More than 50% of energy derived from
carbohydrates (51%-55%) and a low proportion from fat
(31%-34%) showed that the macronutrient content of our
athletes' diet was relatively well-balanced according to the
French RDAs suggesting intakes of 50-55% carbohydrates
(CHO), 30% to 35% fat and 11% to 15% protein as daily
recommendations [24]. This proportion of CHO in the diet
should be increased for better performance based on the
current theory of the connection between athletic performance and CHO intake [1].
Compared with athletes in other studies, our athletes
appeared to derive less energy from fat or/and protein but
more from carbohydrates for females [1,5,15,28] and for
males [1,5,7,8]. However, compared with athletes in the
studies by Ziegler et al [8], Kim et al [16], and Mullins et al
[30], the females appeared to derive less energy from
carbohydrates and more from fat. Finally, carbohydrates,
proteins, and fat (expressed as % of total calorie) were
similar to the values found by Fogelholm et al [3] and
Johnson et al [4] for men. The contribution of carbohydrates
to energy was also similar to French male long-distance
runners whereas the contribution of protein was slightly
lower and the contribution of lipids was slightly higher
compared to the athletes in the study by Machefer et al [13].
These various results may be dependent on country, age,
type of sport practiced and/or fitness level of the subjects.
We observed a lower energy intake and a greater
percentage of total calorie intake from fat in control
subjects when compared to athletes. Warren et al [31]
found similar results in US adolescent female athletes who
740
M. Garcin et al. / Nutrition Research 29 (2009) 736–742
Table 3
Comparison between groups and French recommended dietary allowances (French RDAs) for the average nutrient intake
Men
Energy intake
(kcal)
Water (mL)
Carbohydrate
(%EI)
Protein (%EI)
Fat (%EI)
Potassium (mg)
Magnesium
(mg)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Vitamin A (ER)
Vitamin D (μg)
Vitamin E (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Vitamin B1 (mg)
Vitamin B2 (mg)
Vitamin B3 (EN)
Vitamin B5 (mg)
Vitamin B6 (mg)
Vitamin B9 (μg)
Vitamin B12
(μg)
Women
Sprinters
(n = 5)
Endurance:
runners
(n = 18)
Handball
players
(n = 15)
Control subjects French Sprinters
(n = 12)
RDAs (n = 7)
Endurance:
runners
(n = 8)
Handball
players
(n = 10)
Control subjects French
(n = 10)
RDAs
P = .0151 a
NS
NS
P b .001 a
2700
NS
P = .0053 a
NS
P b .0001 a
2200
NS
NS
P = .00563 a P b .01 a
NS
NS
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
3500
50-55
NS
NS
NS
P = .0104 a
P b .01 a
NS
P b .001 a
P = .00275 a
3500
50-55
NS
NS
NS
P = .00794 a
NS
NS
P = .001 a
P b .001 a
NS
NS
NS
P b .001 a
P = .0399 a
P b .001 b
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
11-15
30-35
750
420
P = .0262 a
NS
NS
P = .000583 a
NS
P = .0104 b
P = .0379 a
P = .000155 a
NS
P = .0253 a
P = .00275 a
P b .001 a
P = .00275 b
P = .00275 b
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
11-15
30-35
750
360
NS
NS
NS
P = .00794 a
P = .00794 a
P = .00794 b
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
P = .00794 b
NS
NS
NS
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
P b .001 b
NS
P b .001 b
p = .0235 b
NS
NS
P = .0235 a
P b .001 b
NS
P = .0225 b
NS
P b .001 a
P = .00536 a
P b .001 b
NS
NS
P = .00536 b
NS
NS
NS
P b .001 b
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
P = .00597 a
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
P b .001 b
P b .001 a
P = .00597 a
NS
P b .001 a
P = .00597 a
P b .001 a
P b .001 b
900
9
800
5
12
110
1.3
1.6
14
5
1.8
330
2.4
P = .0385 a
P = .000583 a
NS
P = .000583 a
P = .000583 a
P = .000583 b
P = .0262 b
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
P = .000155 a
NS
P = .000155 a
P = .000155 a
P = .000155 b
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
P b .001 a
NS
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
P b .001 b
NS
NS
P = .00275 b
P = .00275 a
NS
P = .0253 a
P = .00275 b
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
NS
P b .001 a
P = .00275 a
P b .001 b
P = .00275 a
P = .00275 a
NS
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
P b .001 a
P = .0253 b
900
16
600
5
12
110
1.1
1.5
11
5
5
300
2.4
A Mann and Whitney test was performed to compare the average daily intakes of nutrients with French RDAs. P b .05 was considered significant. NS indicates
nonsignificant.
a
Values are statistically significantly lower than French RDAs.
b
Values are statistically significantly greater than French RDAs.
consumed less fat than the non athletes. This result also
appears through the body mass index (BMI) values. Indeed,
although our control subjects had relatively low BMI (b24),
33% of male and 60% of female control subjects were
classified as overweight (BMI N25) or obese (BMI N30),
whereas there were only 6% for males and 3% for females
in the athletes. Moreover, the energy and water intake,
carbohydrates (expressed as % of total calorie intake), and
most minerals and vitamins were below recommended
values, whereas fat (expressed as % of total calorie intake)
was above the French RDAs for control subjects. The
biological, social, psychological, and cognitive changes that
occur during adolescence may significantly impact nutritional health. Indeed, in a period of time marked by
dramatic increased demands for nutrients, many adolescents
use restrictive eating behaviors and are concerned with
weight control [8]. Control subjects were not concerned
about their food intake and often missed a meal a day,
which led to a lower energy intake and a greater percentage
of total calorie intake from fat than in the athletes. As in
previous studies [15,16,32], we observed that control
subjects who restricted their energy and water intake or
made poor dietary choices were at greatest risk for poor
mineral and vitamin status [32]. As Miller [33] showed,
dietary fat and dietary sugar may promote obesity without
excessive energy intake, which might be particularly
relevant points in the prevention of obesity in the young.
Physical activity, as recommended by the ACSM [2], could
be one tool allowing an improvement in the nutritional
status of these sedentary counterparts. The ACSM makes
the following recommendations for the quantity and quality
of training for developing and maintaining (1) cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition (20-60 min of aerobic
activity perceived as moderate to hard, 3-5 d·wk−1);
(2) muscular strength and endurance, body composition
(8-10 exercises with 8-12 repetitions of each exercise,
2-3 d·wk−1); and (3) flexibility (static and/or dynamic
techniques, 2-3 d·wk−1) in the healthy adult.
The results showed that sex has some effect on energy
intake, minerals, and vitamins of the B group (B1, B2, B3,
B5, B6 and B12). These results concerning young French
people confirm those of previous studies carried out in
China and in the United States [1,5,8] on male and female
athletes. In particular, iron and magnesium intake were
lower in women. These significant differences regarding
minerals and vitamins are probably due to the lower energy
intake in females compared to males [26] or because
females practice activities that require restriction of body
weight [34]. However, as in the study by Grandjean [1],
Chen et al [5], and Ziegler et al [8], the percentages of total
M. Garcin et al. / Nutrition Research 29 (2009) 736–742
calorie intake from carbohydrates, protein, and fat were
relatively close between males and females.
Micronutrient intakes in our athletes were comparable to
those of male and female athletes in other European, North
American and Asian studies [3,7,8,15,16,30,35] with only
slight differences in mean intakes for several micronutrients.
These differences in micronutrient intake may be affected by
cultural differences in dietary practices and food availability
[3]. Our results confirm the fact that, in general, the
widespread use of vitamin and mineral supplements seems
unnecessary for athletes [9].
For all the groups of athletes and for control subjects, the
intake of magnesium, vitamin D, and E were below the
French RDAs, whereas vitamin C was above the recommended levels. Similar results were found in athletes for
magnesium [7,8,15,30], vitamin D [4,7,8], vitamin E
[7,8,30], and for vitamin C [3,8,15,30]. As the indiscriminate
use of mineral supplements may adversely affect physiological functions and impair health [4,34], individuals should
consume food with high nutrient density rather than rely on
nutritional supplements [2,34].
Although the iron nutritional status was higher in our
athletes than in control subjects, no group of females reached
the recommended intake for iron. Similar results were found
in sportswomen independent of the sport practiced (long
distance running, explosive-performance sports, team sports,
gymnastics, swimming, judo) [5,16,29] and in control
subjects [15,16,29]. As in the study by Nuviala et al [29],
the iron intake was related to the energy intake. However, in
the sportswomen, the body iron stores do not seem to depend
exclusively on iron intake and its bioavailability, but also on
the intimate mechanisms of intestinal iron absorption and on
the different causes of additional iron loss [29].
The present study does have limitations. First, values for
nutrient intakes were obtained using a 4-day food record
without taking into account the week-end in which the
nutrient intake might be substantially modified. Although
this record period was chosen in the middle of the athletic
season in which there were no competitions during the weekend, the exclusion of weekend days may be subject to
discussion. Even if 4-day food records [36,37] and 5-day
food records [11,38] are widely used in research, a 7-day
food record may be more representative of the diet
[12,39,40]. Consequently, the comparison between the
collected information and past published studies that
employed different data collection and analysis methods
may be questionable. Second, the imbalance between energy
intake and energy expenditure is probably linked to an
under-reporting state. As expected in shorter records, 38% of
our subjects were under reporters. Because of this, it is
evident that bias in reporting energy intake is associated with
variable bias in estimated macro and micro nutrient intakes.
Machefer et al [13] also reported a weak total energy intake
in French ultra endurance athletes which was even lower
than our male athletes. Even if the 4-day food record may
underestimate the real total energy intake by voluntary or
741
involuntary omission of some nutrients by the athletes or by
underestimation of the quantity of food ingested, the low
values observed in the present study could not be explained
only by this parameter. Indeed, the athletes were very
compliant and particularly motivated by this investigation. In
fact, similar results have already been found in skating where
athletes feared any body weight increase as a risk of
compromising their performances [8]. Therefore, the discussion about our findings which concern quantitative and
qualitative nutritional status remains opened. Consequently,
other studies should be conducted with records over a longer
period and on larger populations of athletes and control
subjects in order to validate these preliminary results.
This preliminary study suggests that there is a need to
develop dietary intervention and educational programs
targeted at promoting optimal nutrient and fluid intakes in
athletes, especially females and particular for sedentary
subjects, to maintain and improve long-term health status
[8]. As presented by the ACSM [2], physical activity, athletic
performance, and recovery from exercise are enhanced by
optimal nutrition. Consequently, the nutritional imbalance
trend noticed in this study could probably be a limiting factor
in athletic performance. Therefore, dietary counseling and
regular follow-up of the nutritional status of the athletes
should be an integral part of their training program [7]. This
study also demonstrates that there was a high degree of
individual variability for most of the studied variables when
working with individual athletes [30].
Based on the current dietary recommendations, the results
of the present study demonstrated that the majority of
athletes have a good nutritional status except for the intake of
a few minerals and vitamins (magnesium, vitamin D and E,
and iron [only for women]). Conversely, it appeared that
control subjects consumed less carbohydrates, water and
mineral but consumed more fat than recommended values
for their age group. Practicing a sport may allow athletes to
balance their energy intake and expenditure and could be a
good way to have a quantitative and qualitative nutritional
status closer to recommended values. It is therefore
suggested that measures including educational programs
for students on proper food selection, eating habits, and
physical activity is needed to improve the nutritional status
of the young. This nutritional education should be given at
an early age and reinforced throughout adult life to promote
healthier dietary practices in the long term.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank John Hall (Lille 2 University), for his
expert advice in the revision of the manuscript.
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