Continuing Education
Course
Why and How to
Prepare for a Search
in the Wilderness
BY IRVIN LICHTENSTEIN
TRAINING THE FIRE SERVICE FOR 136 YEARS
To earn continuing education credits, you must successfully complete the course examination.
The cost for this CE exam is $25.00. For group rates, call (973) 251-5055.
Why and How to Prepare for
a Search in the Wilderness
Educational Objectives
On completion of this course, students will
1.Discover why wilderness search is a low-probability/high-risk
response for emergency responders
2.Define Wilderness Search
3.Learn the search resources available across the country
4.Understand the cost and funding issues associated
­wilderness search
BY IRVIN LICHTENSTEIN
W
ILDERNESS SEARCH HAS BEEN A LOW-PROBAbility/high-risk response for emergency responders for decades. Responses using fire department personnel, especially volunteer departments, are often
prolonged, intensive, and inefficient. Responders not properly
trained or equipped for the mission expended many personnel hours and sustained injury and, rarely, death while trying
to carry out this mission. Search appears to be a simple task.
You go out and look for somebody who, hopefully, wants
to be found. Personnel involved in direct field efforts or incident management must have minimal skills to lower the risks
to the responders and increase the probability of success.
Many improvements in technique and operational models
were developed in the 1980s and 1990s, only to be forgotten
as response rates dropped and the personnel who developed
these improvements retired, taking corporate memory with
them. The purpose of this article is to refresh responders’
memories and to relate new developments in this area.
From 1979 through 1995, I was a primary volunteer search
manager (operations and planning) in the Southeast Pennsylvania region. During this period, I responded to an average
of 12 multiperiod searches per year in the region. From 1995
to 2005, the search subject tended to be a walk-away from
an institution and was located in hours, often in the same
location. These searches have declined as facilities improved
patient tracking. In 2012, there were four requests for standbys. All four subjects were believed to be victims of foul play,
and prosecutions are in progress. In contrast, many persons
merely disappear, raising no attention beyond a family effort
to post flyers.
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
Agencies that have high-risk terrain that requires specialist
responses may consider these runs to be search and rescue
(SAR); in reality, they are primarily rescue. These situations
include water rescue, cave and nonworking mine rescue, and
alpine or mountain rescue. These terrains require specialistlevel training, there tend to be incidents in the same areas,
and frequently the position of the victim is localized during
the dispatch process.
DEFINITION OF WILDERNESS SEARCH
Wilderness search is undertaken on an emergency basis
to locate, extricate, and remove from danger one or more
persons who have been declared lost or missing by an appropriate jurisdiction. The lost person may be overdue from
a trip, reported missing in a roadless area, or a survivor of
an accident. Unlike urban search, which concentrates on
collapsed buildings, wilderness search concentrates on the
search subject. The terrain to be covered may be park land,
forest, recreational areas, undeveloped land, or even an urban
environment not involving collapsed buildings.
As is true of any incident, what began as an innocent emergency service response may end up as a criminal investigation. Just as an arson fire starts as a routine fire and then
requires preservation of notes, logs, and the scene, a search
starts as an emergency response but may end with locating a
subject who had been assaulted or even killed and an extensive police follow-up to resolve legal issues and to prosecute
suspects. If the subject is recovered dead or seriously injured,
the coroner or other authorities may require an inquiry into
the incident.
● wilderness search
The Wilderness Search Incident cycle is similar to all incident cycles. Prior to the incident, the response organization
analyzes the risks, possible locations, training, and equipment needed to carry out the mission. What may not be as
obvious to responders who have not dealt with multiagency,
personnel-intensive, longer-duration missions is that the
search part of the mission necessitates a high level of incident
organization and takes place in areas not considered part of
the wilderness. The incident ramps up and then, based on
agency criteria, may be suspended without positive results.
During demobilization of resources, the fatigue factor can be
significant. Despite the urge to go home immediately, personnel should be rested before they are released. The final stage
is the after-action report and debriefing. The input from this
stage is applied to a new risk assessment, and changes are
made to the response plan as needed.
the National Park Service (NPS) or National Forest Service
(NFS), the Bureau of Land Management in the western states,
various military authorities, the Corps of Engineers, the Coast
Guard, the railroad police, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, fish and game agencies, and government officials.
A recovery we made in a national park involved all of the
above, including two counties worth of prosecutors, coroners,
and associated fire and EMS providers because of concurrent
jurisdiction.
INCIDENT SITES
Most of us associate wilderness search with the hundreds
of thousands of acres of desert, forest, or wilderness areas in
the Western United States. However, there are large expanses
of undeveloped land in some of the most urbanized areas
in the United States. Inside Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, are
9,400 acres of forest bought to protect surface water sources
through 1900 or so. The area has not seen an ax since then.
Various parts of Fairmount Park date back to the early 1800s;
the last major acquisition was in the Pennypack watershed
dating from 1905. The Philadelphia Art Museum was built on
top of what was the city’s first major waterworks, which still
exist below it in Fairmount Dam. Some of the park was used
for the Centennial Exposition of 1876 where the electric light
and telephone were introduced to the public.
There are state parks with thousands of acres. One Pennsylvania state park, French Creek, just had the largest forest
fire in the state’s history in a fraction of its 7,500 acres surrounded by state forest and gamelands. One county park in
Pennsylvania consists of 3,400 acres, 30 miles of trails, and
connections to hundreds of miles of county trail system. Valley Forge National Historical Park, in the same county, covers
3,600 acres. The county trail system goes through it, across
the Interstate from one of the largest shopping malls in the
United States, a convention center, and a casino.
You must examine your response area to determine what
kinds of undeveloped land it contains and determine if specialized rescue units may be needed to access this territory.
Include private lands such as quarries, mill ponds, dams, and
even railroad right-of-ways. Silt-settling basins, abandoned
dams, and structures are other more unusual risks.
Will you need water recue units, cave rescue units, or
perhaps technical or rope rescue resources to access this
area, extricate a live patient, or retrieve a dead body? Other
complications arise when dealing with railroads, environmental restrictions, or access controls. Areas in watershed-protection sites, reservoirs, and navigable rivers or waterways may
require coordination with multiple agencies to gain access.
Who has jurisdiction may be uncertain. You may have to
deal with local police, county police, state police, park police,
Personnel are the most widely available resources. Various
levels of training, from none to highly skilled investigators,
are useful at some point. People put in the field should have
minimal training in several areas:
• Situational awareness, the ability to recognize a trend in
the field and other hazards that may be present.
• Clue awareness, the ability to recognize what clue relative to the search subject or evidence may indicate that
the incident is not a search but a crime.
• Navigation and map reading.
• Communicating using the equipment or system used by
the response jurisdiction.
• First aid and survival, including local hazards such as
flora and fauna that are hazardous or venomous.
• Teamwork.
• Incident Command System (ICS)/National Incident Management System (NIMS) to the level required to understand assignments and the chain of command.
• Basic awareness or common sense to recognize when
their skill level is not up to the task assigned individually
or as a task group or task team.
The usual practice is to assign three to five persons to a
task and to ensure that the team has a sufficient level of the
skills needed. If possible, a person with knowledge of the local terrain (even if he has no other skills) should be assigned
as well. These assignments are formalized using the unit task
assignment form, ICS 204, if available. Currently under discussion in American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
F32 is the qualification of a task force or strike team leader
and the assigning of a team of five resources to a single task.
A search task is assigned to the small group, which operates
similarly in organization to an engine or ladder company
with a direct supervisor. Span of command creates a need for
another level of supervision when five or more tasks are in
the field.
Although this concept was originally applied to fire apparatus crews, each member of a task assignment may be an
individual resource; thus, each task team assigned is either
a strike force or a task force under a strict definition that
indicated five resources have been combined. In practicality,
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
SEARCH RESOURCES
Various search resources are available across the country. Determine what is available locally and at which trigger
points in the incident action plan (IAP) additional resources
will be requested.
People
● wilderness search
wilderness search tasks will always be conducted by groups
of disparate resources, and the need for specialized supervision develops at the group level, similar to a battalion chief
or sector command on a fire.
Trackers are people who can read the marks left behind
by a traveling person and determine direction and speed of
travel. Often confused with the mythical Native American
scout, these skilled personnel can be invaluable in detecting
clues and tracking persons. The tracker is never deployed
alone; the persons working with the tracker complete the
skills requirements and operate as flankers to detect abrupt
changes in direction. The U.S. Border Patrol is credited with
having the most skilled trackers. The skill is a combination of
being aware of visual clues (the track itself) and knowledge
of human locomotion. It is a practical skill that requires much
practice in the field.
A search manager must be able to separate reality from a
tracker’s hunches or beliefs. The tracker’s reports must be
clear and devoid of any myths or cult-like references in which
some tracking schools may cloak their information.
Animals
Dogs, horses, or even pigs may be used to track people and
detect clues related to the area, such as whether people live
there. Handlers manage these animals. The handler and his
animal form only one component of a task team and require
support for the skills listed above.
• Dogs. They come in several varieties. There are always
disputes as to which breed works best, but there is little
dispute that a well-trained dog, with a skilled handler,
can cover a lot of ground.
√√ Tracking/trailing dogs follow the subject’s trail (shed
dead skin or body fluids). They usually require a starting point or scent sample. To be effective, isolate and
secure the point at which the subject was last seen
or known to be, such as a car or a campsite, as you
would a crime scene to keep other scents from contaminating the area. If a sample is used, have a crime
scene technician or an arson investigator secure it in
a manner that will reduce contamination. Bed sheets,
night clothes, and underwear are all useful as samples.
Many tracking/trailing dogs work on leash.
√√ Air scent dogs detect any person as opposed to a
particular person. They are usually worked off lead
(loose, not under the physical control of the handler)
and upwind. Because these dogs cannot distinguish
between one person and another, the area must be
cleared of all personnel. In a public park, this is often
impossible.
√√ Discriminating air scent dogs have been trained to
discriminate among the scents detected. Used in threeperson-plus-dog task teams, the dog may alert on a
person. Once instructed to disregard the scent, it will
not alert on that specific individual again. Thus, in an
area with many people present, the handler can eliminate false positives as the search progresses.
√√ Large sporting dogs usually make the best search dogs
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
because they have been bred for hunting. However,
consider the effect of a large dog charging up to a
small subject and both parties’ reactions. This may be
even more important if Doberman pinschers, German
shepherds, or bull terriers are on the assignment. Water dogs may be a better choice. Dogs need protection
for their paws and coats, depending on the terrain.
√√ Tracking/trailing dogs have been used as long as
bloodhounds and similar breeds have been available.
Air scent dogs were introduced into the United States
after World War II and became well accepted for police
and search work by 1980. There are guidelines for
evaluating an air scent dog, but there is no “ProBoard”
for dogs beyond the Federal Emergency Management Agency collapsed building tests. Many volunteer
search dog handlers may have no credentials and
may not belong to an organized group or unit. This
means that each requesting agency must evaluate the
resource.
• Horses have been used to support searches for centuries.
However, in the late 1980s, reports of horses scenting air
and making finds began to circulate. By 1986, these reports were being studied by academic researchers. It was
found that horses have a great ability to detect search
subjects using a multitude of senses and then fusing the
input. As a prey animal, the horse is always alert for
threats. Until the threat is identified as a nonthreat, the
horse tracks the threat and signals his rider as he would
alert other horses in his herd to the danger.
The horse has several advantages over a dog: it uses all its
senses, not just the nose; it can detect downwind as well as
upwind scents; and it does discriminate. The communication
between horse and rider is very subtle but always accurate.
Additionally, the horse carries the gear and the searcher.
ASTM International has been publishing voluntary mounted
search and rescue standards for some time.
A primary difficulty with using mounted searchers is the
logistics involved. The responder must hitch up a trailer, load
the animal and tack, establish a quiet area of containment on
arrival, and often work with ground search personnel whose
concept of mounted operations is a John Ford cavalry movie.
Horses establish relationships with their riders and owners
based on subtle communication patterns. Logistically, the
base manager must provide substantial space for parking, exercise, water, feed, hay, bedding, and area cleanup afterward.
Unlike that of dogs, however, horse waste is not dangerous to
humans and can be composted.
Wheeled Vehicles
A basic problem with using wheeled vehicles, regardless of
type, is that they are often prohibited in a wilderness area. In
the East, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), 4×4s, and even bicycles
are restricted to designated paths or are totally prohibited
from use. In Pennsylvania, ATVs may only be operated on
the owner’s property or with the written permission of the
property owner and must be titled, carry registration plates,
and carry insurance. Bicycles are treated as vehicles and are
● wilderness search
restricted to paved streets or bike lanes and paths.
A lack of areas in which to hold exercises makes it difficult
for vehicle operators to become adequately trained in search
and affects their vehicle operation skills. The opportunities to
train with these resources are often severely limited, which
results in reduced efficiency. It is difficult to integrate infrastructure if you cannot train together.
Technology
Some technology may also be available to assist the search
effort. The search subject may be located by detecting his
body heat against a cooler background by using infrared or
thermal imaging devices. Test the thermal imaging camera
(TIC), if one is carried on your fire apparatus, to determine if
it is sensitive enough to detect live people wearing ordinary
clothes against the normal ground background. Although the
field of view is limited, the TIC is commonly available on the
search scene. Forward looking infrared (FLIR) is mounted on
a ground or air vehicle, and a skilled operator will detect live
subjects in most terrains. In some areas, military-quality sensors mounted on aircraft or drones may also be used. Some
specialized sensors can even detect differences in vegetation
from aerial views. Synthetic aperture radar can see underground for several feet.
Many searches have been reduced to prearrival instructions
by technology. Most public safety answering points (PSAPS)
have Phase II cellular phone location capabilities. If the position of the lost person can be determined by the cell phone
location, the person can be talked out to a pickup zone or
back to the parking lot where he left his vehicle.
Another device is a satellite-based distress beacon. The
current version uses a UHF frequency data burst. The data
burst identifies the beacon and may contain a global positioning system position. Generally, the beacon’s data bursts are
detected by a satellite that passes overhead every two hours,
the ownership of the beacon is validated, and the beacon’s
location is determined within feet. A pickup team can go out
to the subject’s location.
Maps are critical in managing a search. U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps are available online for free downloading in a pdf-compatible format. The 7.5-minute quad is the
most useful size.
DISPATCH, MOBILIZATION, AND SIZE-UP
Dispatch, mobilization, and size-up are often conducted in
parallel. The dispatch center receives the call and initiates a
wilderness search protocol. In addition to the usual what and
where, the dispatcher should obtain a description of the subject,
how long since the last contact was made with the subject, and
the subject’s planned activity: route to be hiked, campgrounds
to be used, fishing, and birding, for example. The dispatch
should include a description of the subject’s physical characteristics, the clothes the subject was wearing, and of any equipment
the subject may have had with him, including a vehicle.
Send out as soon as possible an “attempt-to-locate” flash
message. The local response authority should also receive the
call taker’s notes and any other information developed. Use a
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
preplanned command post location or staging area for mobilization. The local incident commander (IC) will need space
to establish a base, a staging area, and associated activities.
Unlike a small structural fire, the IC does not have to see the
incident from his command location. Base the size-up for the
incident on the survival factors dispatch provides. The physical description and medical history of the search subject, his
survival skill set, the subject’s equipment, the terrain, and
the weather all play a part in developing the size-up and
determining the probability of the subject’s being alive when
the search starts. Many field operations guides (FOG) use a
21-point scale based on questions that have answer values of
1, 2, or 3. The higher the score, the more urgent the search.
Because search resources are not often local and may have
extended mobilization and travel times, the IC must size up
the incident and decide quickly if it is going to outgrow his
initial assignment. Automatic mutual aid with adjacent jurisdictions for personnel, aircraft, mounted units, dogs, and investigators may be designed into the dispatch. The IC decides
if the call for mutual aid will go out or be held off.
Verifying the call is difficult. With a fire call, the officer
in charge of the first response unit either finds fire, finds
evidence that the fire is out, or doesn’t find fire. A few
minutes after arrival, the initial report describes the scene
and advises if the follow-on resources will be needed. The
reporting party in a search case does not know where the
subject is. The only known fact is that the subject is not
where he is supposed to be. Investigators must verify the
data reported.
• Did the subject actually go on the trip as planned?
• Is there evidence the subject reached the trailhead and
proceeded from there?
• Did the subject check in with park personnel at any
time? If so, where?
• Is the subject at home/work/school or with friends?
• Is the subject at any known hangouts?
• Is the subject out of the area?
• Where is the subject’s vehicle, personal property?
Subjects often tell friends they are going hiking or make
it look like they are recreating locally while traveling to a
distant location. At least one hunting accident was staged
to trigger a local search while the subject and his girlfriend
traveled to London, leaving a wife and children behind. Also,
residents of long-term care facilities, particularly veteran
administration facilities, may want to go to another facility
in a warmer climate or away from relatives and simply walk
out and get on a bus or train. These incidents should not be
considered hoaxes.
A patient or a resident not present at bed check is a serious
problem for the institution and the locality. The resident may
be suffering from various debilitating diseases. Often, residents are in need of ongoing care and support.
On the other hand, there have been instances where subjects deliberately deceived third parties into thinking they
were missing or drowned while they were enjoying a vacation at Disney World. In some states, this is a crime, and the
hoaxer is liable for the costs of the search.
● wilderness search
OPERATIONS AND PLANNING
In a search, operations and planning are intimately connected. The initial response and possibly the first operational period
may use a concept called “PLOPS” where the planning and
operations functions are combined temporarily so field efforts
can get underway immediately.
Determine the most likely areas to search using a statistically based model of lost subject behavior and the information
gathered during the dispatch and size-up about the subject and
the activity the subject was to have planned. If the subject’s
place last known (PLK) location can be determined, add this
information to the initial data. The PLK is the geographic location at which the subject was known to be before the missing
report was filed. This may be a parked car, a campsite, a point
of purchase, and so on.
The initial field activities, based on this model, usually
involve limited resources rapidly examining trails or roads
generally representing the greatest distance possibly traveled
from the PLK. These hasty search tasks are conducted by
three or four persons walking along the trails marking clues
for follow-up by more detail-oriented tasks.
As the hasty teams rapidly search for clues, the initial data
are verified, usually by the police. Pictures of the missing
subject are obtained and circulated among the public and the
searchers. If a public area is involved, uniformed personnel
should post the missing person flyer at all entrance gates.
Unless criminal activity or potential violence is suspected, the
area, except the command post and the search crew camp,
should remain open to the public. The untrained public is
used as extra eyes. Informing them of the efforts being made
on behalf of the search subject enlists their cooperation:
Sometimes bystanders provide sighting reports and tips and
sometimes actually find the subject.
The personnel at access points are containing the search
area. It is impossible to search the entire world for a search
subject, but it is possible to detect if the subject has left the
area or is probably still in the initial search area. In the more
urban areas, this may involve checking gate surveillance
cameras, placing personnel at access points, and finding and
questioning transit personnel or those who drive regular
routes through the area or surrounding roads. Whereas a person might have to walk miles in the western United States to
reach a dirt track, a local bus route may be outside the gate
of an eastern park.
Outside the area, investigators should be tracking credit
cards, ATM activity, E-Z Pass or other electronic toll systems,
parking tickets, and moving violations. Many cases have been
resolved by determining the subject was out of the area by
verifying credit card transactions.
Record a general description and the location where found
of any clues discovered, whether identifiable shoe prints or
tire tracks, possible campsites, or personal property that may
belong to the subject. If possible, an evidence technician
should recover the clue as evidence. It may be difficult to
verify that the clue actually came from the subject if laboratory work is required; in most cases, clothes, brand names,
and food wrappers can be taken at face value.
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
Do not be misled by the subject’s habit profiles. One subject had a preference for one brand of morning coffee. When
we found another locally available brand of coffee cup, we
were told the subject never went there. However, he had used
the alternative brand because his favorite was not available at
his usual coffee shop that morning. People are creatures of
habit, but sometimes addiction trumps habit.
Plot on a map of the area the locations of clues and the
length of time they have been on the ground. This allows
the behaviorists in the planning section to propose shifts in
resources to operations based on the model of the subject’s behavior and the debriefing of search personnel who have been
in the field. Draw a new probability map and design new tasks
for each period or a shorter time frame if the effort is difficult.
A search planner and the operations section leader must
continuously evaluate an almost mythical number called
“Probability of Detection” (POD). Usually expressed as a
percentage, it quantifies the likelihood (probability) that a
search resource will detect the search subject. This number is
generated by evaluating the terrain, type of resource, area to
be covered, time used to cover the area, and general degree
of difficulty. Any number higher than 50 percent is suspect,
but advanced techniques, such as dogs, FLIR, or mounted
searchers, may be more effective. Each resource used in a
specific area has its own POD.
Properly using resources to repeat low-intensity sweeps
can increase the overall POD as this number is calculated. If
the first pass is credited with a 50-percent POD and a different crew is used for the second pass, preferably in a different
direction of travel, the POD has been raised to 75 percent
overall. The third pass would raise the POD to 87.5 percent.
This number is based on each crew’s being able to independently locate 50 percent of the clues left in the field. The first
crew gets the first 50 percent; the second crew gets 50 percent of what is left behind by the first crew, or 75 percent of
the original number of clues; and the third gets half of what’s
left again. However, as it takes the same amount of resources
for each pass, there will come a time when results no longer
will justify searching the area.
The types of searches vary with the resources available.
Totally unskilled or inexperienced searchers may have to be
lined up shoulder to shoulder with highly skilled personnel
who manage them as they search. This also requires very
large support forces to transport, feed, and recover all those
search personnel. If you are looking for evidence that is very
small, such as cartridge cases, and destroying any other evidence in the area is not a problem, a line search is feasible.
Personnel who can operate in the terrain and expected
weather and are equipped for such duty can be spread out to the
point where they can just see each other and be allowed to walk
the area other than in lock step. This lowers the resource POD,
but it drastically reduces the personnel needed to search an area.
A team with a metal detector can cover an area more effectively
than persons with just the Mark 1 eyeball when looking for some
kinds of evidence. Using a smaller, less destructive approach
allows you to search more area in less time. On the way out or
back, these people can search another area, raising the overall
● wilderness search
POD by being the second crew through. Less support is needed
for a smaller crew used to working in the field.
Wilderness search was one of the first nonwildfire hazards
to adopt ICS. Because of several large-field efforts in national
parks, the NPS talked with the NFS about how to properly
control these incidents. In this historical time period, FIRESCOPE was coming into effective use for forest fire command
and control. Many early texts and FOGs for search included
FIRESCOPE orientation and used terms such as “crew boss”
and “fire boss” to describe positions in the ICS structure.
Today, we are adopting the All Hazards ICS within NIMS for
most incidents. In those areas where search is a fire rescue field
function, the model works well. The local jurisdiction retains
authority, even in cases where there may be concurrent or
overlapping jurisdictions. The emphasis is on planning based
on clues found and logistics support for a large incident. You
must appreciate that resources from many jurisdictions may be
used in this effort. The train-together, work-together, respondtogether mindset often seen in the fire service where mutual-aid
or multiple-company responses are common may not be present
when the search groups are responding to your mission from
several states away for the first time in several years. However,
they should be trained in the national ICS model and be able to
operate within your incident management system.
COSTS AND FUNDING
The reality is that since high-risk mission wilderness
search is a low probability, it is not funded as other fire rescue or law enforcement functions are, especially when there
is no clear authority as to who is responsible for the effort.
In many jurisdictions, looking for lost people is nobody’s responsibility. This often results in family or friends responding with no oversight. The loss of experienced volunteer
search personnel to the community results in a loss of skills,
corporate memory, and nongovernmental organizations
servicing the need.
Most of the costs associated with volunteer SAR organizations revolve around insurance, communications, and very
limited equipment costs. The organization provides a photo
ID for each member and a means to receive dispatches such
as an alpha numeric pager or a text message on the member’s
phone and e-mail. If the member is an animal handler, the
animal is his, as would be the vet bills, the horse trailer, and
the tow vehicle in most cases. If legal in your area, off-highway
vehicles may be useful. Unless a government agency has specific responsibility for search in the jurisdiction, it is rare that
anything would be furnished by the SAR jurisdiction to the
SAR organization or volunteers because of a lack of funding.
Each jurisdiction has different insurance requirements for
SAR. In most jurisdictions, some public liability insurance is
necessary if only to defend your immunity if granted by the
state. You will also need some form of workers’ compensation
or accident insurance to cover members from dispatch until
returning home from real missions and training sessions.
Training for SAR is generally unregulated. A few states provide for credentials if a SAR organization member passes a
state-specified class. The National Fire Protection Association
publishes international standards for fire rescue personnel,
and ASTM International does for SAR personnel. Regional fire
rescue training facilities or emergency management agencies
may offer courses designed to convey these skills.
Even in training, there may be conflicts in authority. For
instance, fire rescue may claim authority because volunteer
fire companies furnish many of the initial personnel and may
supply technical resources. The Parks and Forests departments may claim authority because searches happen on
“their” land. Police want the find for their missing person
case, and the emergency manager may want the resources
because they are useful in other situations.
The SAR resource must have access to the regional communications system if only through a cache of portables and the
use of the mobile command post or communications vehicle
in the field. Other equipment may be shared with other agencies. In many cases, maps, global positioning systems, and
data processing equipment are common to all large incidents.
SAR resources are usually organized on a multiple-jurisdictional basis because of the low probability and high risk
associated with a SAR incident. Each jurisdiction in the region should be aware of the resources available and plan for
their use, training, and enhancement as part of the regional
planning process. Funding for such a regional organization
is trivial in comparison with similar specialized responses;
expenses consist primarily of insurance and communications equipment. ●
● IRVIN LICHTENSTEIN is chief of operations at Southeast
Pennsylvania Search and Rescue. He has more than 40
years of experience as an emergency responder, trainer,
and planner. He is a certified instructor for nonlive-fire
courses offered by the Pennsylvania State Fire Academy
and regional training facilities. He is a vehicle rescue instructor and an EMT (since 1985). He has been a volunteer
firefighter and fire service administrator since 1972. He
has taught first aid and CPR for the Red Cross for almost
40 years and responds with the Red Cross Disaster Assistance Team. He is certified to the operations level for
hazardous materials response.
Notes
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
Continuing Education
Why and How to Prepare for a Search in the Wilderness
COURSE EXAMINATION INFORMATION
To receive credit and your certificate of completion for participation in this educational activity, you must complete the program post examination and receive a score of 70% or better. You have the following options for completion.
Option One: Online Completion
Use this page to review the questions and mark your answers. Return to www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com and sign in. If you have not
previously purchased the program, select it from the “Online Courses” listing and complete the online purchase process. Once purchased,
the program will be added to your User History page where a Take Exam link will be provided. Click on the “Take Exam” link, complete all
the program questions, and submit your answers. An immediate grade report will be provided; on receiving a passing grade, your “Certificate of Completion” will be provided immediately for viewing and/or printing. Certificates may be viewed and/or printed anytime in the
future by returning to the site and signing in.
Option Two: Traditional Completion
You may fax or mail your answers with payment to PennWell (see Traditional Completion Information on following page). All information
requested must be provided to process the program for certification and credit. Be sure to complete ALL “Payment,” “Personal Certification
Information,” “Answers,” and “Evaluation” forms. Your exam will be graded within 72 hours of receipt. On successful completion of the posttest
(70% or higher), a “Certificate of Completion” will be mailed to the address provided.
COURSE EXAMINATION
1) Wilderness search is considered what type of event in the fire
service?
a.High-risk, low-frequency
b.High-risk, low-probability
c.Low-risk, Low-probability
d.High-frequency, high-probability
2) Responders not properly trained or equipped for the wilderness
search may sustain injury and death when attempting carry out
these missions
e.True
f.False
3) Wilderness search responses using fire department personnel
are often:
a.Prolonged
b.Intensive
c.Inefficient
d.All of the above
4) Personnel involved in direct field efforts or incident management
must have what skills to lower the risks to first responders?
a.Search
b.Extrication
c.High-angle rescue
d.Minimal
5) What types of rescue can occur in high-risk terrain?
a.Water rescue
b.Cave rescue
c.Alpine or mountain rescue
d.All of the above
6) Wilderness search is undertaken on an emergency basis to
locate, extricate and remove from danger one or more persons
who have been lost or missing by an appropriate jurisdiction
a.True
b.False
7) Examples of causes for wilderness searches include which of the
following?
a.Lost during a trip
b.Missing in a roadless area
c.Survivor of an accident
d.All of the above
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
8) Parkland, forest, recreational areas, undeveloped land, and urban
environments are considered what in wilderness search?
a.Habitats
b.Terrain
c.Area
d.None of the above
9) Analyzing risks, possible locations, training and equipment
needs are components of:
a.Incident management
b.National Incident Management System
c.Wilderness Search Incident Cycle
d.Wilderness Incident Command
10)During the demobilization of resources, what factor may be
significant?
a.Cost
b.Emotional
c.Risk
d.Fatigue
11)People put in the field to conduct Wilderness Search should
have minimal training in which of the following areas?
a.Situational awareness
b.Clue awareness
c.Navigation and map reading
d.All of the above
12)The usual practice is to assign how many people to a task and
to ensure that the team has a sufficient level of skills needed?
a.Three to five
b.Four to five
c.One to three
d.Three to six
13)People who can read the marks left behind by a traveling person
and determine the direction and speed of travel are referred to
as:
a.Searchers
b.Locators
c.Navigators
d.Trackers
Continuing Education
Why and How to Prepare for a Search in the Wilderness
14)Which agency is most credited with having the most skilled
trackers?
a.U.S. Forest Service
b.Department of Natural Resources
c.U.S. Border Patrol
d.U.S. Park Rangers
a.Infrared and thermal imaging devices
b.Radar
c.GPS
d.All of the above
15)Which type of animal may be used to track people and detect
clues related to the area?
a.Dogs
b.Horses
c.Pigs
d.All of the above
18)Which of the following should a dispatch center obtain from a
caller reporting a lost or missing subject?
a.Description of subject
b.Last contact made with subject
c.Subject’s planned activity
d.All of the above
16)What is a basic problem with using wheeled vehicles during
Wilderness Search?
a.Often get stuck in wet terrain
b.Often prohibited in a wilderness area
c.Too wide for most trails
d.All of the above
17)What devices can be used to locate search subjects by detecting
their body heat against a cooler background?
19)Many Field Operations Guides use a _____________ point scale
to determine the urgency of the search
a.50
b.5
c.21
d.12
20)Most of the costs associated with volunteer search and rescue
organizations revolve around insurance, communications, and
very limited equipment costs
a.True
b.False
Notes
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
Continuing Education
Why and How to Prepare for a Search in the Wilderness
PROGRAM COMPLETION INFORMATION
If you wish to purchase and complete this activity traditionally (mail or fax) rather than Online, you must provide the information requested
below. Please be sure to select your answers carefully and complete the evaluation information. To receive credit, you must receive a score of
70% or better.
Complete online at: www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com
PERSONAL CERTIFICATION INFORMATION:
Answer Form
Please check the correct box for each question below.
Last Name (PLEASE PRINT CLEARLY OR TYPE)
First Name
Profession/Credentials License Number
Street Address
Suite or Apartment Number
City/State Zip Code
1. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
11. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
2. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
12. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
3. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
13. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
4. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
14. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
5. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
15. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
6. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
16. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
7. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
17. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
8. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
18. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
9. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
19. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
10. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
20. ❑ A ❑ B ❑ C ❑ D
Daytime Telephone Number with Area Code
Course Evaluation
Fax Number with Area Code
Please evaluate this course by responding to the following statements, using a scale of Excellent = 5 to Poor = 1.
E-mail Address
1. To what extent were the course objectives accomplished overall?
5
4
3
2
1
traditional compleTION INFORMATION:
2. Please rate your personal mastery of the course objectives.
5
4
3
2
1
Mail or fax completed answer sheet to
Fire Engineering University, Attn: Carroll Hull,
1421 S. Sheridan Road, Tulsa OK 74112
Fax: (918) 831-9804
3. How would you rate the objectives and educational methods?
5
4
3
2
1
4. How do you rate the author’s grasp of the topic?
5
4
3
2
1
PAYMENT & CREDIT INFORMATION
5. Please rate the instructor’s effectiveness.
5
4
3
2
1
Examination Fee: $25.00
6. Was the overall administration of the course effective?
5
4
3
2
1
Credit Hours: 4
Should you have additional questions, please contact Pete
Prochilo (973) 251-5053 (Mon-Fri 9:00 am-5:00 pm EST).
7. Do you feel that the references were adequate?
Yes
No
❑ I have enclosed a check or money order.
8. Would you participate in a similar program on a different topic?
Yes
No
❑ I am using a credit card.
9. If any of the continuing education questions were unclear or ambiguous, please list them.
My Credit Card information is provided below.
❑ American Express ❑ Visa ❑ MC ______________________________________________________________
❑ Discover
Please provide the following (please print clearly):
10. Was there any subject matter you found confusing? Please describe.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Exact Name on Credit Card
11. What additional continuing education topics would you like to see?
Credit Card # Expiration Date
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Signature
PLEASE PHOTOCOPY ANSWER SHEET FOR ADDITIONAL PARTICIPANTS.
AUTHOR DISCLAIMER
The author(s) of this course has/have no commercial ties with the sponsors or the providers of the unrestricted educational
grant for this course.
INSTRUCTIONS
All questions should have only one answer. Grading of this examination is done manually. Participants will receive
confirmation of passing by receipt of a verification form.
COURSE CREDITS/COST
All participants scoring at least 70% on the examination will receive a verification form verifying 4 CE credits.
Participants are urged to contact their state or local authority for continuing education requirements.
SPONSOR/PROVIDER
No manufacturer or third party has had any input into the development of course content. All content has been derived
from references listed, and or the opinions of the instructors. Please direct all questions pertaining to PennWell or the
administration of this course to Pete Prochilo, [email protected].
EDUCATIONAL DISCLAIMER
The opinions of efficacy or perceived value of any products or companies mentioned in this course and expressed
herein are those of the author(s) of the course and do not necessarily reflect those of PennWell.
RECORD KEEPING
PennWell maintains records of your successful completion of any exam. Please go to www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com to
see your continuing education credits report.
Completing a single continuing education course does not provide enough information to give the participant the
feeling that s/he is an expert in the field related to the course topic. It is a combination of many educational courses and
clinical experience that allows the participant to develop skills and expertise.
© 2009 by Fire Engineering University, a division of PennWell.
COURSE EVALUATION and PARTICIPANT FEEDBACK
We encourage participant feedback pertaining to all courses. Please be sure to complete the survey included with the course.
Please e-mail all questions to: Pete Prochilo, [email protected].
www.FireEngineeringUniversity.com