Introduction
The shape of any useful thing will be those combinations of elements best
suited for its particular use.
If the combination of intro., verses, turn-around, choruses, solos, bridges,
tags, and outro. is the form or “shape of the container”, then melody, chords,
chord progressions, and lyrics plus a host of arrangement and production
elements, constitute the “shapes within the container”. Let’s call these
“shapes” the songs DNA. They are the snapshots of working principles that
give each song its unique character. Just as living organisms share similar
strands of DNA, songs share similar “strands” as well. In the examples that
follow we will be isolating some of these structural processes for the
purpose of uncovering the work they do in delivering the Big Hit Chorus.
The Big Hit Chorus
One of our expectations, when listening to a popular song, is the Big Hit
Chorus. We’ve been conditioned to wait for it and we expect to get it. We
sing along at the top of our lungs with the car windows up, while others in
traffic make fun of us. In our modern society, where every second seems to
count for more and more, a personal investment of time and emotion (even
for 3 ½ minutes) better be rewarded by the big “payoff”. Obviously, there
are many examples of popular hit songs whose choruses would not be
considered “Big” and some don’t even have choruses. As far as commercial
music is concerned though, all hits are homeruns; it’s just that Big Hit
Chorus songs really “knock ‘em out of the park!” They are the kinds of
songs that make publisher’s mouths water, and 1Pro’s beat a path to your
door. They also have the potential to invoke what is known, in some
songwriter circles, as the “mail box dance”- a peculiar and uncontrollable
bodily gyration which accompanies the receipt of a large monetary sum in
the mail from performance royalties earned by the Big Hit Song.
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Performing Rights Organizations BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC
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Delaying Gratification
The over-arching principle of the Big Hit Chorus song is the principle of
Delayed Gratification. Delaying Gratification is an important component of
human psychology, and is the ability to wait in order to obtain something we
want. We say no to that slice of cheesecake in anticipation of a more
desirable future event- how good we’ll look in that bathing suit in six weeks.
We decline an offer from friends to go out over the weekend so that we may
study for an upcoming exam in the hopes of earning a high mark.
We don’t simply think about future possibilities, we feel future
possibilities. And if our expectations are high enough we are likely to wait
for their fulfillment, as long as the promise of that fulfillment remains
interesting and doesn’t take too long to get. This imaginative response
provides the foundation for Delayed Gratification.
Looking good in a bathing suit and scoring high on an exam is one thing,
but what sort of gratification are we expecting from a Big Hit Chorus?
The answer: emotional relief and disclosure of meaning.
By it’s very design, the Big Hit Chorus song accomplishes this by setting
up expectations, denying them, and finally fulfilling them while keeping the
listener interested during the whole process.
Setting up Expectations
The goal of expectation is to make accurate predictions about the future.
Cognitive science (research concerned with how the brain works) has shown
that human beings process most quickly those things we most expect. And
according to the 2Statistical Learning Model what we most expect is what
most frequently occurred in the past. What seems to be most pleasurable is
what’s most predictable. This “exposure effect” only strengthens with each
presentation, and when varied slightly to reduce boredom (and copy write
infringement) the old music biz saying about wanting “something the same,
only different” begins to make more sense! Perhaps this is why innovation is
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difficult in the arts, and can take a long time to become assimilated into a
culture.
From a biological standpoint accurate predictions are valuable because
they minimize the expenditure of energy. Toss an apple across the room to
someone and they will usually wait until the last moment to raise a hand in
front of them to catch it. Accurate knowledge about when events happen
allows you to stay in a restful state longer (Law of Thermodynamics).
So what are some of the most predictable (most frequently occurring) past
events that happen when it comes to listening to music- those things we have
learned to desire the most?
The Power of One
Chords exist in a dynamic relationship with one another and in greater or
lesser service to the tonic or one (1) chord. If chords in a chord progression
were thought of as bases on a baseball diamond, the 1 chord would be home
plate. Depending on their harmonic relationship with the 1 chord, other
chords would be closer or further away from home plate.3
To fully understand the power of the 1 chord and its relationship to other
chords in a key, a little music theory (don’t worry, just a little) is essential.
It’s easier than you think and really a lot of fun. So………
Chords
Chords are built by starting on each scale degree of a major or minor scale
and adding every other note up to three notes (triads).
Example:
Key: C (Major)
Scale: C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
(8)
Chord Spelling: CEG DFA EGB FAC GBD ACE BDF (same as 1)
These three notes are called the root, third, and fifth of each chord.
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Diatonic Chords
The above 3-note chords (Triads) each have a particular quality associated
with them and are said to be Diatonic (chords occurring within the key).
Chord quality is the same in all keys.
Example:
Key: C (Major)
Scale: C
D
1
2
Chord Quality: Major minor
NNS:
1
2-
E
3
F
4
G
5
minor Major Major
3-
4
5
A
6
B
7
C
(8)
minor diminished
6-
7°
(Guitar fingerings for Diatonic chords in 5 Major keys can be found in the
Appendix)
Nashville Number System (NNS) assigns a number to each chord along with various symbols
and abbreviations denoting chord quality and/or chord 1inversions. See the Appendix for Diatonic
Chords in 5 Key-Forms with guitar fingering.
Diatonic Chord Function
As mentioned earlier, chords function in greater or lesser service to the 1
chord. The five (5) chord is very unstable with a strong tendency to progress
to the 1 chord.
Diatonic chords grouped by their tendency to resolve to the 1chord:
Dominant- very unstable; strong resolution tendency to 1 chord.
5
7°
Subdominant- moderately stable; can progress anywhere.
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1
A chord is said to be in “root position” when the note in the bass (the lowest note in the chord) is the note
upon which the other chord members are built. Chords can be played by juxtaposing these notes in various
ways. These different “spellings” are referred to as chord inversions (slash chords: 1/3, 5/7, etc.)
Inversions can also be spelled with notes in the bass that are not found in the chord (4/5, 2-/7, 6-/#4, etc.)
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23Tonic- stable; doesn’t need to progress.
61
Diatonic 7th Chords
Triads can be expanded to include the next (every other) note from the
scale creating a four-note chord. These four notes are the roots, thirds, fifths,
and sevenths of each chord.
Example: Key: C
Chord Spelling: CEGB
Chord Quality: Major 7
NNS:
1Δ7
th
D
E
F
G
A
B
(C)
DFAC EGBD FACE GBDF ACEG BDFA
minor 7th minor 7th
2-7
3-7
Major 7th Dom. 7th
4Δ7
57
minor 7th minor 7th flat 5
6-7
7ø
(Guitar fingerings for Diatonic Seventh Chords in 5 Major keys can be found in the
Appendix)
Diatonic 7th chords function in much the same way as Diatonic Triads, with
the added tendencies of the:
4∆7- can serve as temporary tonic- key center.
57- strongest resolution tendency to tonic.
Non-Diatonic Chords
Chords that occur outside the key (sometimes referred to as borrowed
chords) include Triads and Seventh Chords. Guitar fingerings for common
Non-Diatonic Seventh Chords in 5 Major keys can be found in the
Appendix.
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Denying Expectations
We’ve learned from our discussion of chord theory that in a chord
progression, the function of the 1 chord is to provide stability, permanence,
and the feeling of arrival, or of having “come home”- remember our baseball
diamond? The Power of One is in delaying resolution to the 1 chord until
the chorus, while setting up anticipation for it in the sections preceding it.
By delaying resolution we are denying a listeners expectations. And in this
context, nothing is more effective than denial of the 5-1 cadence.
Unresolved Cadences
Cadences (from It.) “To fall or decline”; are points of closure found at the
end of musical phrases; usually occurring in the fourth or eighth measure.
By controlling these points we can delay resolution of cadences until a
chosen section- like the Chorus!
*cadence point
Ex: Verse
2- 1/3
4
4 3-
*cadence point
5
2- 1/3
*expectation
*denial
4
4 27 57
*expectation
Tonic Substitution
You may remember from our discussion of chord function that the 6- is a
Tonic category chord. By substituting the 6- for the 1 chord a sense of keycenter can be suggested without committing to a fully resolved 1 chord.
*cadence point
Ex: Verse
2- 1/3
4
4 27
57sus4 57
*expectation
6*denial
Note the 57sus4 chord in the example above. After playing the progression
you will feel an even greater pull to the 1 chord. This is due to the fact that
the 57sus4 chord contains the tonic note- thus suggesting a resolution to it.
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Less Stable 1 Chords
Sometimes its necessary, even desirable, to introduce the 1 chord before
the Chorus. By treating this chord in special ways, its unique tonic-affirming
qualities can be muted.
Incomplete 1 Chords
Since it takes three notes to make a complete chord- root, third, and fifth,
eliminating the third or the fifth from the 1 chord can result in a mild
ambiguity that lessens its stability. Remember: the third of the chord
determines whether it’s Major or minor. Interestingly, even when the third is
absent the ear will hear the chord as Major. This is another result of
Statistical Learning- Major chords outnumber minor chords 3 to 1; we’ve
heard them more often, so we are conditioned to expect them more often!
Examples of Incomplete 1 Chords: 1(no 3
rd)
/ 1(no 5th) / 1(sus2) / 1(sus4)
Inverted 1 Chords
The most stable chord position is “root position”; the “root” of the chord
(the note C in a C chord) is in the bass (the lowest note position). Placing the
third or the fifth in the bass lessens its stability.
Examples of Inverted 1 Chords: 1/3 / 1/5
Added 1 Chords/ Extended 1 Chords
Adding other notes to the 1 chord adds harmonic color while subtly
lessening its stability, just as the color red is less-red when mixed with blue
forming the new color Magenta.
Examples of Added 1 Chords: 1add9 / 1add2
Examples of Extended 1 Chords: 16 / 1Maj7 / 1Maj9 / 111 / 113 / (etc.)
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1 Chords on Weak Beats
In a measure of 4/4 (Common Time) the accented or strong beats occur on
1 and 3. Placing the 1 chord on weak beats 2 and 4 lessens its predictability.
Examples of 1 Chords on Weak Beats: 4 1 5
Count: 1 2
34
4 1 5
/ 6- 4 1 5 6- 4 1 5
1 2 34 / 12 3 4
12 3 4
Of course, all of the above techniques for treating the 1 chord can be used
together in numerous ways. The choices you make will determine whether
the arrival of the chorus is mildly gratifying, or one that ‘knocks it out of the
park!’
Modulation
Modulation occurs when the 1 chord of a new key is established. Virtually
any key transition is possible, although some are more common than others.
Any song section can modulate, but the chorus is the most common.
Delaying the 1 chord of the original key before modulation is perhaps not
as essential for achieving the big payoff moment due to the psychological
“lift” that a new key presents. See examples below.
Ex.1 Original key center established:
1 5 | 4 4 1 5 1 / 4 1 2-7 5 / b7 5 6 7 / modulation up 2 whole steps
Ex.2 1 chord less-stable:
6-7 5 | 4 4 3- 5 6- / 4 1/3 2- 5 / b7 5 6 7 / modulation up 2 whole steps
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