MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
WhenIlookatmyfellowhumans,Iseeghostsofanimalspast.Glimpsesofanepicstorythat’shiddeninsideusall.
Myname’sNeilShubin.Asascientist,Ilookathumanbodiesdifferentfrommostpeople.Thewaywegripwithour
hands,wecanthankourprimateancestorsforthat.Howwehearsomanysounds,thatdatesbacktocreaturesthe
sizeofashrew.Andthefurtherbackwego,thestrangeritgets.Torevealwhywelookthewaywedo,we’lltravel
throughthedistantreachesofourfamilytreeandmeetanunusualcastofcharacters.Theancestorsthatshaped
yourbody.Thefamilyyouneverknewyouhad.FromthebadlandsofEthiopia…She'sbeautiful.…totheshoresof
NovaScotia…Thisisthespot.…we’llsearchforcluesthatlieburiedinrock.Hiseyesarelikeglobesandhe’slike,"I
foundit,Ifoundit."…andsearchforanswerswritteninourDNA.
PETERHOLLANDVO
Ithinkitgivesusaglimpseintothebrainofourancestors.
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Imean,Ifindthatmind-blowing.Theadventurebeginswithasearchforsomeofourmostelusiverelatives,fishthat
crawledontolandhundredsofmillionsofyearsago.Fromournecksandlungs,toourlimbsandhands,weowealot
totheseintrepidpioneers.Soifyoureallywanttoseewhyyou’rebuiltthewayyouare,it’stimetomeetyourinner
fish.
MUSICOUT
MUSICIN
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Wow,lookatthat.Paradise.
NEILSHUBINVO
Yeah.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Thatisperfect.
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
He’sgoingrightupthevalley.TheCanadianArcticisoneofthemostdesolateregionsoftheplanet,butthere’s
nowhereelseI'dratherspendthesummer.
NEILSHUBINVO
Whatdrawsmehereistreasure–mykindoftreasure:fossilshiddeninsideancientrocks.Inparticular,thefossilsof
longdeadfish,butnotjustanyoldfish.I’mhuntingforfishthatcarrythestoryofourownbodiesinsideofthem.
HowIgothereandwhatIfoundcouldchangethewayyouthinkaboutyourselfandyourbody.
NEILSHUBINVO
Thisisastorythatendsontopoftheworldwiththemostimportantdiscoveryofmylife.Butitbeginsinthecityof
Chicago,witharoomfullofhumancadavers.
NEILSHUBINVO
Itwasmorethanadecadeago,andI'djustmovedtotheUniversityofChicagoasChairmanoftheAnatomy
Department.AndIremember,youknow,hangingaroundwiththestudentsaroundthetableshere,justgettingto
knowthemandlettingthemgettoknowme.They’relaunchingtheircareersasfuturephysiciansandthere’ssome
nervesandskittishnessthosefirstfewdays…
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NEILSHUBINVO/OC
…andthey'dalmostinvariablyask“Dr.Shubin,whatkindofdoctorareyou?Youknow,areyouasurgeon?Areyoua
cardiologist?”AndI'dsay“Well,no,I'mafishpaleontologist.”AndI'dgetthislooklike“What?Iwantmymoney
back.”Butitsoonbecameclearthatbeingapaleontologist,andnotjustanypaleontologist,afishpaleontologist,isa
verypowerfulwaytoteachhumananatomy.Becauseoftensomeofthebestroadmapstoourownbodiesareseen
inothercreatures.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Nowyoumightnotthinkyourbodyhasmuchincommonwithafish,butIseeafamilyresemblance.Onthesurface,
youarenotveryfish-like,I'lladmit.Butyouarerelatedtothem.Andthecluestothatconnectionareetchedin
ancientstone.
NEILSHUBINVO
Fossilsunearthedaroundtheworldrevealthatfisharethefirstcreatureswithbonyskeletons.Theyhavebackbones
andskulls,justlikeyouandme.Thissharedanatomyconnectsustofishandtoalonglineofotheranimals.Tosee
whatImean,imaginethecompletehistoryoflifeonagiantfamilytree,fromthefirstmicroscopicorganismsbillions
ofyearsago,toallanimalsalivetoday.
NEILSHUBINVO
Ourhistoryliesononebranchofthistreeoflife,andwecantraceourancestryback.Around400millionyearsago,
you’llfindfishswimminginoceansandstreams.40millionyearslater,thefirstamphibiansappearonland.Then
weseereptiles,followedbythefirstmammalsaround200millionyearsago.Andmuchlater,wearriveatour
specialbranch:primates.Thishistorytellsussomethingremarkable.Everyreptile,birdandmammalalivetodayis
descendedfromancientfish,andthatincludesus.
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MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Sohowdoesthislegacyplayoutinouranatomy?Eachoneofus,walkingaroundinthislabtoday,carriesthehistory
oflifewithinus.Andtheevidenceisseenineverypartofourbodies.Andnotjustinourbones.Eventhecomplex
tangleofnervesinsidethehumanheadmakesmuchmoresensewhenyourealizeit’sthesamebasicwiringfoundin
fish.Butthere’sonedefiningpieceofhumananatomythatseemsremotefromtheworldoffish.AndIvividly
rememberwhenitfirstcapturedmyimagination.WhenIwalkedintotheanatomylabforthefirsttime,Iwassortof
scaredaboutwhatIwasgoingtosee,whatIwasgoingtofeel.Buttherealityis,afterthefirstfewweeks,thatfear
turnsintoasortofacockyself-confidence.
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NEILSHUBINVO
Andthesethings,youknowwhenyoudissectthem,itdoesn’tlookveryhuman,itkindoflookslikeawaxmodelina
lotofways,butthenyouhitthehand.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Andforme,asIunwrappedthegauzeandrevealedthepalm,thefingers,thefingernails,somethingelsehitme
entirely.Andthatwasadeepsenseofconnection,aconnectiontoanotherhumanbodylyingonthatslab.Thiswas
notawaxmodelthatIwasdissecting,thisformerlywasapersonwholivedalifejustlikeIamlivingnow.WhenIsee
theanatomywithinthehumanhand,I'minaweoftheintricateconnectionsbetweenbone,tendonandmuscle.
Reallyit’sthroughtheactionofthesemusclesthroughthetendonsthatthehanddoesits,youknow,doesitsmagic,
ifyouwill.Sothatwhenthemusclesfire,itpullsonthesetendonsandwatch,thefingersflex.
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NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Now,thefinemusclesofourhand,theselittletinymusclesthatliealongthetendons?Thesearethemusclesthat
controlthefinemotionofourfingers.Thesearetheonesthatarequintessentiallyprimateandhuman.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Sowheredidthismarvelofevolutioncomefrom?Itclearlyhasdeeprootsinthepast.
NEILSHUBINVO
Andyoucanseeevidenceofthatinthebonesofmoderncreatures.Morethan150yearsago,scientistswerefinding
connectionsbetweenthehandsandlimbsoffourleggedanimals.
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NEILSHUBINVO/OC
SirRichardOwenwasananatomistinthe19thcentury;hewasfortunatetobeananatomistinanageofdiscovery.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
AndsopeoplewerecomingbacktoLondonwithnewandoddballcreaturesforhimtoanalyze,andinanalyzingall
thedifferentcreatureshefoundcommonpatterns.Althoughtheoverallshapeandstructureofeachlimbwasvery
different,hestartedtoseethattherewasanunderlyingtheme.Itwasasifthesamesetofboneswasbeing
squashedorextendedtoperformdifferentfunctions.
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Here’sadog.Dogs,youknow,runandjump,whatdoyouhave?Onebone,twobones,littlebonesandthenthe
digits,theequivalentsofthefingersortoes.And,ofcourse,here’sabird.Itslimbhasbeenmodifiedintoawing,and
ithasonebone,twobones,lotsofbones,andthendigits.Theamazingfactis,ineachofthesecreatures,theskeletal
architectureislargelythesameasours.Andwhatwasutterlysurprisingisthattheskeletonofeveryanimalwalking
theearthtodayhasthisfundamentalpatternofonebone,twobones,littlebones,fingers.Owendidn’tknowwhy
creatureshadthatpattern.Itwasamysterytohim.Itreallytookanewinsight,aninsightfromCharlesDarwin,
whichbasicallysaidthereasonwhyanimalshavethiscommonpatternisbecauseatsometime,inthedistantpast,
theyallsharedacommonancestorthathadaversionofthispatterntoo.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
AccordingtoDarwin,weshouldbeabletotracetheevolutionofourlimbsandhandsbygoingbackintimedownour
familytree.Startingwithourprimateancestors,weseehandsandlimbsthatlookverysimilartoourown.Goback
abitfurthertothefirstmammalsandwefinddeepersimilaritiesinthepaws.Andweseehowpawsemergedfrom
moredistantrelatives.Andifwegobackevenfurther,wereachourmostdistantfour-leggedancestors.These
animals,theearliesttetrapods,wereamongthefirsttohaveOwen’s“onebone,twobones,lotsofbones”pattern.
Butwhenweentertheunderwaterworld,around400millionyearsago,insteadofanimalswithlimbs,wefind
prehistoricfishwithfins.Andthatbringsustoagreatmysteryofbiology.Howdidwegetfromfishwithfinsto
animalswitharmsandlegs?Darwinboldlypredictedthattheremusthavebeenancientanimals,transitionalforms,
thatbridgedthisgap.Butwhatwouldsuchananimallooklike?Wouldithavelimbs,orfins,orboth?Sucha
creaturereflectsacriticalstepintheoriginofthehumanhand.Isetouttofindone.
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NEILSHUBINVO
Istartedmysearchbackintheearly‘90s,whenIworkedinPhiladelphia.
NEILSHUBINVO
Okay.Iknewthatfindingthistransitionalfishwasgoingtobeatallproposition.
TEDDAESCHLEROC/VO
AlotofthemaroundintheChicagolab.
NEILSHUBINVO
Andthefirstquestionwaswheretolook.Theworld’sabigplace.TheEarthisagiantplanet…
NEILSHUBINOC
…andfossilsareverysmall,sohowdoyoufindthosethings?
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Wellthere’sachecklistwerunthrough.Welookforplacesintheworldthathaverocksoftherightage.Ifyou’re
interestedintheoriginofdinosaurs,there’soneageofrocktolookat.Ifyou’reinterestedintheoriginoftransitional
creaturesbetweenwaterandland,there’sanotherageofrock.
NEILSHUBINVO
Thenyoulookforplacesintheworldthathaverocksoftherighttype.Thekindsofrocksthatarelikelytohold
fossils.WeknewfrompreviousdiscoveriesthatrocksfromtheDevonianera,around360millionyearsold,were
likelytocontainearlytetrapodfossils.AnditturnedoutwehadrocksofthatagerighthereinPennsylvania.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Theotherthingisthat.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINVO
TolookforgoodsitesIteamedupwithgeologist,TedDaeschler,andwe’vebeenfossil-huntingbuddieseversince.
TEDDAESCHLEROC/VO
Youknowwhat?We'vetrieditthroughhere,evengoingdownintoWestVirginia.Wearesortofmaybeanodd
couple.
TEDDAESCHLEROC
Neilisexcitableandenthusiastic,whichiswonderful.I’menthusiasticaswellbutIthinkmaybenotquiteas
vociferous.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Imighttendtohunkerdownmoreandfocusonrecoveringthematerialaswestarttofindit.AndNeilmightbea
littlebitmore,"Okay,what’soverthenexthorizon.What'soverthenexthill?"
TEDDAESCHLEROC
Neilisonthatedge,alwaysthinkingaboutthenewplacetogo.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
TedandIwouldsitinthecarwithmapsinonehand,andgeologicalpapersintheother,andwetootledthrough
thesestateroads,lookingattherocks,saying,"Okay,whatkindofrockisthisagain?Whatkindofageisit?"Butthe
probleminPennsylvaniaisthatit’snotadesert.Thebedrockisnotexposedtothesurface.Youhaveforests.You
havegrass.TurnsoutthebestexposuresofrockinthestateweremadeforusbythePennsylvaniaDepartmentof
Transportation,becausetheywoulddynamite.They’dexposedsectionsofthegeologicalrecord.
NEILSHUBINOC
Andweeventuallyhitthisoneroadcut…
NEILSHUBINVO
…agiantexposure.It’scalledRedHill.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Itprobablyis.
NEILSHUBINVO
Oh,myGod.Andthenweknew…
NEILSHUBINOC
…okay,thiswastheplacetohit.
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NEILSHUBINVO
Wehadambitionstoexploretheglobe.Butourfirstexpeditiondidn’ttakeustoanexoticdeserthalfwayaroundthe
world…
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
…ithappenedbythesideofaPennsylvaniahighway.TedrevisitedRedHillonetimewhenIwasnotthere.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINVO
Hemadeaphonecalltome.Hesays,"Hey,Neil.IthinkI'vefoundsomethingreallyimportant."Isaid,"Well…
NEILSHUBINOC
…whatdidyoufind?"He'slike,"IthinkIfoundatetrapod."Isaid,"Ted,youkiddingme?Imean,no.You’renot
goingtofindatetrapodonyoursecondorthirdtriptoRedHill.Thisgonnatakeyearsofwork."
TEDDAESCHLERVO/OC
So,Iwasmovingalongthislayerandsawbeautifullittlefossilbonematerial,chippedarounditalittlebit,right,right
onthislayer,andloandbehold,uncoveredwhatturnedouttobeaverysignificantspecimen.
MUSICIN
TEDDAESCHLERVO/OC
Thisistheshouldergirdleofanearly,limbedanimal.Itwasanewspecies.Itwasawholenewkindofanimal.And
althoughweonlyhaveashouldergirdle,it’sactuallyaveryinformativepartoftheskeleton.Itwouldbeontheleft
side,theskullwouldgooffinthatdirection,andtheanimalitselfwouldbeaboutameterlong.Andjustfromthe
shouldergirdlewecanlearnthingsabouthowitmayhave…
TEDDAESCHLERVO
…heldthatlimb.Andofcourse,itdoescomparetootheranimalsthataresimilarfromotherpartsoftheworldand
wecanusethosetolearnotheraspectsofHynerpeton.
NEILSHUBINVO
Theseearlyfour-leggedanimalsbelongtoagroupIliketocall‘TheStegas.’
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NEILSHUBINVO
SomeofthebestspecimenshadbeenfoundinGreenlandbyapaleontologistnamedJennyClack,whobeganworking
thereinthe80's.
JENNYA.CLACKVO
Theideaoftransitionbetweenanimalswithfinsandanimalswithlimbs…
JENNYA.CLACKOC
…hasbeenthoughtaboutforalongtime.Butuntilrecentlytherehadonlybeenthreedatapoints.Somethingwas
obviouslyafishatoneend;somethingthatwasobviouslyananimalwithlegsandwalkingaroundattheotherend,
andinthemiddle,wasthisverypeculiarthingcalledIchthyostega.
NEILSHUBINVO
Usingthelatestscanningtechniquestobuilda3DmodelofIchthyostega,Jenny’stryinggetabettersenseofhowthis
creaturelived.She’sworkingwithanimalmotionexpertStephaniePierceatLondon'sRoyalVeterinaryCollege.
MUSICOUT
STEPHANIEPIERCEVO/OC
Basicallywhatwewantedtoseewashowmuchmovementwaspossibleateachofthelimbjoints.Andhowthis
comparedtomodernanimals.
NEILSHUBINVO
TheycomparedIchthyostegatomoderntetrapods…
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
…likesalamanders,tofigureouthowthisfossilmighthavemoved.Usingpressurepadsandhigh-speedcameras,
theycouldmeasurehowthelimbsofmodernanimalsworkandcomparethistothebonesofIchthyostega.
JENNYCLACKVO
Ichthyostega’sforelimbscouldpush…
MUSICOUT
JENNYCLACKVO
…thetophalfofthebodyofftheground.Butthebackendhasgotthesepaddle-likehindlimbs,whichareusefulin
waterforswimmingwith,butonlandactasstabilizerstostopthethingtopplingover.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Anatomyofthebonessuggestedthatthisfour-leggedanimalhadjustcomeontoland.Itwasrightattheedgeofour
search.Butbetweenthesetetrapodsandancientfish,therewasstillagapspanningmillionsofyears.Ifwecould
findananimalwithinthatgap,we’dbefillinginacrucialpieceofevolutionaryhistory.
MUSICOUT
TEDDAESCHLEROC
Thereitis.
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Yeah.Sonowtherewasanewchallenge,whereonearthshouldwelooknext?Iremembersittingintheoffice…
NEILSHUBINOC
…andweweredoingthesortofusualbanteronedayaboutsomethinggeological.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Wehadacollegetextbookandwerejustthumbingthoughthediagramsinthebookandboomtherewasthisfigure
thatchangedourlives.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
There'sthemap.
NEILSHUBINVO
ItwasamapofNorthAmerica,whichhighlightedthreeareasofDevonianrockofjusttherighttypetoholdfossilfish
movingontoland.TherewereourRedHillrocksinPennsylvania…
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Beentheredonethat.Workedonthoseveryrocks.
NEILSHUBINVO
ThentherewererocksinGreenland,whichJennyClackhadalreadysearched.
TEDDAESCHLERVO/OC
But,itwasthatlittle.
NEILSHUBINVO
Finally,therewasthisstripacrossnorthernCanadaandtheserocksweretenmillionyearsolder.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Irememberseeingthatandsayingtomyself,"Holycow.Thisiswhatwe’relookingfor."MyheartwasracingwhenI
sawthatbecauseno…
TEDDAESCHLEROC
Yeah.
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
…paleontologisthadworkedonthatexpresslylookingforearlytetrapods.Thenyoudugouttheaerialphotos,and
that’swhenIgotkindofterrified.Irememberseeingthis…
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Iknow.
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
…forthefirsttime,thinking,"Yougottobekiddingme.Youknow,lookatallthissnow.Howdoyouworkthere?"
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Allright,soone,two,three,four,five,six,seven,eight.
MALEDISPATCHERVO
Okay,two-sixisclear.
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Backin1999,whenweembarkedonourfirstArcticadventure,wehadlittleideawhatwewereinfor,northatwe
werestartingasearchthatwouldlastoveradecade.Wow,thatisalotofsnow.HereintheHighArcticofCanada,
therearenohumansettlementsformilesandmiles.Noroadsandallyou’vegotiswhatyoubringwithyou.Here
there’salwaystheriskofbeingtrappedbysomeoftheworstweatherontheplanet.We’reenteringthevalleynow.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Thisisthebiggate.
NEILSHUBINOC
Oh,theresheis.
TEDDAESCHLERVO
Yep.
NEILSHUBINVO
I’mlookingrightatthequarry.WehadanarrowwindowduringthemonthofJuly,whenthesnowmeltsjustlong
enoughtoletusin.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Weweretrainedfossilhunters,butnowwewouldhavetofigureouthowtobecomeArcticexplorers.Sowhenthe
helicopterdropsyouoffintheArcticforthefirsttime,you’restandingheresaying,"WhatamIdoinghere?"You
know,you’rethinking,"Oh,polarbears",that’sthefirstthingyoulookfor.Isthereanythingonthelandscape?
Everythingwhitebecomesapolarbear.Thelastthingonyourmindarefossils.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
It’shardtobelievewhenyoulookoutacrossthisfrozenterrainthatoncethiswasawarm,wateryworldswimming
withlife.HereweareintheArcticandwehaveasnowstormcomingand,youknow,we’relookingatrocksbehind
us,butthere'sthishugedisconnectbetweenthepresentandthepast.Whatweseetodayisvalleywithredand
greenrocks,thataretilted,stackedoneontopoftheother,butthat’snothowitwasinthepast.Thesevalleyshave
beencarvedbyglaciersthathavemovedbackandforth.Andthoseredandgreenrocksactually,atonepoint,
extendedacrossthevalleyandtheywerestraight.Theyweren’ttilted.Nowlookinsidetherocksandwhatthose
rockstellusthatthisvalley,375millionyearsago,wasagiantfloodplainandthatfloodplainwasfilledwithriversthat
swelledtheirbanksandsometimesshrunk,butinthoseconditionsformedswampsandstreamsofalldifferentsizes.
NEILSHUBINVO
Andinsidethosestreamswasdiverselife.
NEILSHUBINVO
Somewhereoutthere,wewerehopingtofindanintrepidfishonthebrinkofthehistorictransitiontolifeonland.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINVO
Couldweeverfindevidenceofthismomentouseventburiedinsediments…
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
…thathadbeencrushedanddistortedby375millionyearsofgeologicalupheaval?Whenyouthinkabouteverything
thathastogorightforacreaturetobefirsttobeafossilandthenacreature’sfossiltobediscoveredbya
paleontologist.Itislikefindinganeedleinahaystack.Weweredeterminedtofindthatneedle.Ifitwasoutthere.
MUSICOUT
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
BackinChicago,Ihadanotherwayoftracingtheanatomy…
NEILSHUBINVO
…wesharewithfish,usingadifferentkindofwindowintoourevolutionaryhistory.WhenIwasn’tlookingforfossils
inthesummers,I’dspendmytimelookingunderamicroscopeatembryos.AndIwaswatching,atthetime,bodies
formingfromeggtoadult.Andthereisanincrediblebeautytothatprocess.
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Intheearlystagesofdevelopmentallanimalsstartasasinglecell.Theydivideagainandagainuntilgraduallyabody
emergeswithafront,aback,atopandabottom.Itbecameveryclearearlyonintheprocesssomeofthemost
importantembryoswerefish.Becausefishhavethebasicbodyplanintheirembryosthatwastobecomeourown
bodies.
NEILSHUBINVO
Ifyouseeanearlyfishembryoandahumanembryosidebyside,you’llseesomethingremarkable.Theylookalmost
identical.Wereallydolooklikefish.Bothembryoshaveahead,abody,atailandmanyothersimilarfeatures.
NEILSHUBINOC
Andoneofthosesimilaritiesexistsintheneckorwhat’scalledthepharyngealarea.
NEILSHUBINVO
Inbothfishandpeople,whatyoufindareaseriesofswellingscalledgillarches.Turnsoutthatinfish,those
swellingsbecomecomponentsofthegillapparatus.Inpeople,theybecomeportionsofourlowerjaw,portionsin
ourmiddleearandpartofourvoicebox.Sothis…
NEILSHUBINOC
…isawonderfullyelegantdevelopmentalprocess.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINOC
Butsometimesthingsgowrong.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Andwhentheydo,yourinnerfishcancomeout.SomykidsarereallygoodfriendswiththeRichardsons,onedayI
getane-mailfromSeth,theirfather,whosays,"Doctor,mywife’safish."AndIsaidtomyself,"Igottocheckthis
oneout."We’rehereforthefish.
SETHRICHARDSONOC/VO
Thefishisavailable.It’sfresh.Comerightthrough.Ithinkifyougotowardstheback.
NEILSHUBINOC
Oh,we’llcutthrough,yeah.HeySeth,isthisyourfamilyalbum?
SETHRICHARDSONVO
Yes,exactly.
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Soyou’reafish?Nowfirstoff,ifyouare,andyou’remoreofafishthanIam…
MUSICOUT
MOLLYRICHARDSONOC
Yes.
NEILSHUBINVO
…I'mveryjealous.Soproveit.
MOLLYRICHARDSONVO
Allright.Well,hereitis.There’smygill.
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Rightthere.Sowhathappensduringdevelopmentisweallhavegillarches.Wealldevelopthem.Thislittlepitisa
leftoverfromanancientgill.AndIamincrediblyjealousofyou,Molly,becauseyouaremoreofafishthanIam.
We’reallfish,butsomearemorefishthanothers.
MOLLYRICHARDSONVO/OC
That’sright.Somejusthaven’tevolvedveryfar.
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
No,you’retheluckyone.Sowhat’sreallycooliswhenyouknowpaleontologyanddevelopmentalbiology,manyof
themusclesandnervesandbonesI'musingtotalktoyouwithrightnow,andmanyofthemusclesandnervesand
bonesyou’reusingtohearmewithrightnow,correspondtogillstructuresinfish.Youknow,andweseethatin
fossils,weseethatinembryos,weseethatinDNA,Imean,andweseethatinyou.
MOLLYRICHARDSONOC
Mybrother-in-lawhaswebbedfeet.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Iloveyourfamilybytheway.Whilefeatureslikefishgillshavebeenretooledinouranatomy…
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
…otherbodypartsperformthesamejob,butendupindifferentplaces.Liketesticles.Well,we’reheretoseesome
gonads.
DIRKOC
Okay.
NEILSHUBINOC
Fishgonads.
MUSICOUT
DIRKOC/VO
Oh.I’lljustdissectthislittleguyhere.
NEILSHUBINVO/OC
Yeah,ifyoucouldpopthatbadboy,thatwouldbe.
DIRKOC/VO
Sure.Comerightoutofthere.
NEILSHUBINVO
Right.
DIRKOC
Rightthere.
NEILSHUBINOC
Yeah,youknow,sothereyousee,youknow,there’stheheart.
DIRKOC
Right.
NEILSHUBINVO
There’stheliver,youknow.Thegonadisrightthere.
DIRKVO
Lookatit.
NEILSHUBINVO
Soyouknowwhat’sfunkyaboutthesethings?Isthegonadistowardsthechest,rightneartheheart.Youknow,but
what’sstunningisyouandI,likeeveryothermammal,youknow,ourgonadsstartedupthereanddescendeddown
tohere.
DIRKOC
Itmightbebetterwheretheywere.No.It'ssaferthatway.
NEILSHUBINOC
Well,insomesenses,theywould.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Havinggonadsclosetotheheartisfineforourcold-bloodedfishyrelatives,notsogoodforwarm-bloodedmammals.
Spermcan’tstandtheheat,sothat’swhyourtesticleshavetodroptoacoolerplace,outsidethebody.Whena
humanembryodevelops,thegonadsstartdeepinthebody,justliketheydoinfish,andthendescendthroughthe
bodywall,mirroringevolution.Butthatcreatesaweakspotinmaleswhereourgutscanpopthrough.Thisleavesus
vulnerabletocertainkindsofhernias.Youknow,youthinkaboutwhyhumanshavehernias…
MUSICOUT
DIRKOC
Okay.
NEILSHUBINOC
…it'sbecauseourtestesdescend…
DIRKOC
Right.
NEILSHUBINOC
Andtheystartuphere,theygodownintothescrotumandthebodywallgetsweakerbecauseofthat
reconfiguration.
DIRKOC
Thatpassingofthetesticles.Okay.
NEILSHUBINOC
Yeah.Andso,youknow,we’llfind,youknow,we'llfindthatyouhaveaweaknessinthebodywallinsomecasesand
folksgethernias.
DIRKOC
Andthat’swhyfishdon’tgethernias?
NEILSHUBINOC
That’swhyfishdon’tgethernias.
MUSICIN
NEILSHUBINVO
Flawsinthehumanbody,likeoursusceptibilitytohernias,remindusthatwe’realladaptedfromancientancestors.
Weare,everyoneofus,justajerry-riggedfish.
MUSICOUT
NEILSHUBINVO
InJuly2000…
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NEILSHUBINVO/OC
…wewerebackintheArcticforasecondseason,continuingthesearchforourelusivefossil.Now,we’veactually
foundfloatboneonthislevel,solet’sjuststayclose.Wewidenedourexplorationsacrosstheregion,butwewere
findinghardlyanything,letalonethetransitionalfossilofourdreams.Then,justbeforewebegantopullout,we
weresuddenlyconfrontedwiththerealdangersofworkinginthiswilderness.Theteamhadseparatedintoseveral
differentgroups,weusuallygooutinpairs,becauseit’s,youknow,adangerousplace.Onepairwentdownthe
valley,another…
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…wentupthevalley,youknow,wespreadapartfortheday.
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Two-six,two-sixthisisBirdFjord.ThisisBirdFjord,over.Weallreturnedtocampattheendofthedayandtheidea
iseverybodyneedstoreturnbacktocampbyradiocall.It’sseveno’clockwhenwemakeoursafetycheckbackto
thestation.Andsowe’remakingdinnerandwe’rewaitingfortheradiocall,andyouknowkindoflooking…
NEILSHUBINOC
…around,it’slike,"Hey,youguysseenJason?""No,Iain’tseenJason.YouseenJason?"Isaid,"Iaskedyouthat
question.Youdidn’tseeJason?"AndallofasuddenitbecamenobodysawJason.Where’sJason?
NEILSHUBINVO
Thisisouryoungestmember,wewerelookingoutforhimtheentireseason,andnoJason.
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Imean,myheartwasreallybeginningtorace.ThenIhearfootstepsoutsidethetent,thetentflyopens,andthere’s
Jason.Hiseyesarelikeglobes,andhe’slike,"Ifoundit.Ifoundit."AndIwaslike,"Jason,whatdidyoufind?Did
youfindapolarbear?What?"
NEILSHUBINVO
Imeaneverypocketwasburgeoningwithbones.Hegoes,"Igotthese…
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…bones."He’slayingthemoutonthetable,oneafteranother.
NEILSHUBINVO
It’sdaylight24hoursaday.SowerandowntoJason'ssiteandbeganthatnight,tocrawlit,lookingforthelayerthat
waskickingoutthebones.Assoon…
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…aswecametothisbluffhereandlookeddown…
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…wesawwhyJasonwassoexcited,becausebeneathourfeetwerefossilfishbones,fragmentsoffossilfish,manyof
them,thousandsofthem.Itwasn’tjustonefish,itwasawholeaquarium.Itwasdifferentspecies.Itgotbetter,
becauseaswewalkedupthehillandwefollowedthatcarpetoffossilfragments,itstopped.Meaningitlikelycame
fromonelayer.Andifwehadanyluckatallwe’dfindthatlayerandseewhat’sinside.
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That'snot.Butthereisthisherethough.Ittookseveralweeks,butweeventuallylocatedthelayerofrockfrom
whichthefossilfragmentswerespilling,andthenlookedfortelltalesignsofbonesprotrudinginthehopeitmight
leadustomorecompletespecimens.Youcanseethistiniestlittlewhitefleckhere…thattoldusstop,youknow,
becausethatlittlewhitefleckshowsthestructureofascale.Andthenyoulookcarefullyandit’sclearlyascaleon
end.Andonceyouseethatscaleonend…
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…youseeanotherpieceofbonehere.Youseeanotherpieceofbonehere.We’reonthelayeritselfsoit’samatter
ofstop.Nowwhatwe’regoingtodoisremovethisiceandrubbletoexposethelayerasalittleplatform.Onlya
person.Toreachtheburiedfossils,we’dneedtominetherockface,butwewererunningoutoftime.Allright,let’s
getthatrockoutofthere.Onceagain,ourshortwindowofsnow-freeweatherended.
MALEDISPATCHERVO
Now,areyouguyslookingforthatflighttomorrow?Orwereyouguysdelayingituntilthefourth?
NEILSHUBINVO
We’reaboutthreeaway.
MALEDISPATCHERVO
Okay.Rogerthat.
NEILSHUBINVO
We’dhavetowaitanothersummertodigoutourancientriverbed.
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Backhome,averydifferentkindofscientificadventurewasunfolding.Arevolutionwasunderway…
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…inevolutionarybiology.Onethatwouldrevealaprofoundgeneticconnectionbetweenfinsandlimbs.Mylab
wouldplayaroleinthesearch,butwewerepartofamuchbiggereffort.
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Attheforefrontofthisquestwasmycolleague,CliffTabin,ageneticistatHarvardUniversity.
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Cliffhadbeenfocusingonhowdigits,likefingers,form.Andinhiswork,hereliedonchickembryos.Forbiologists,
chickeneggsofferawindowintotheprocessofdevelopment.
CLIFFTABINOC
Ifyoutakeachickeggandcutaholeintheshellandthrowitaway…
CLIFFTABINVO
…youcanseetheembryofloatingontopoftheyolk.It'srightthere.It'saccessible.Youcanstarttoprobewhat’s
importantforittoformbyremovinglittlebitsandsaying,"Doesthatdisrupttheprocess?”Orbymovingtissuefrom
oneplacetoanotherandsay,"Whatdoesthatdo?”
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Cliffwasfollowingalonglineofscientistsusingchickenstoinvestigatehowlimbsdevelop.
NEILSHUBINVO
Inthe1950s,JohnSaunderswasonesuchscientist.Saundersandhisteamexperimentedonchickembryosjustafew
daysold.Theyfocusedonlittleprotrusions,calledlimbbuds,fromwhichthewingswouldeventuallyemerge.Inone
experiment,Saunderstookasmallpatchofcellsfromonesideofabudandtransplantedittotheoppositesideto
seewhatwouldhappen.Whenhecamebackaweeklater,muchtohissurprise,hefoundthatthechickembryohad
grownasecondsetofdigits,oneamirrorimageoftheother.Thattinypatchofcellswasclearlyspecial.Somehowit
wastellingthedigitswheretoform.
CLIFFTABINVO
Thewaythatwenowthinkofitisthatthosecells…
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…instructtherestofthelimbbymakingalong-rangesignal,abeaconthattheysendoutthattheothercellsseeand
respondto.
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Theidentityofthatsignalwasagreatmysterythatwentunsolvedfordecades.
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ButCliffhadahunch.He,andsomecolleagues,suspectedthatthesignalmightbeasinglemoleculethatcamefrom
asinglegene.
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Hebasedhissuspicionsonresearchthatwaschanginghowweunderstandtheroleofgenesinmakingbodyparts.It
wasworkthathadbeendoneonanentirelydifferentanimal.Itwasatinylittlecreaturethat’sreallysmall,that
breedsveryrapidlyandthatyoucanstudyinthelaboratory.Andit’sthis.Thehumblelittlefruitfly.Bystudyinghow
fruitfliesdevelop,scientistshadmadesomeamazingdiscoveries.Individualgenescandocomplexthings,like
guidingtheformationofentirebodyparts.Therewasonegene,dubbed“hedgehog,”thatcaughtCliff’sattention.It
stoodoutbecauseitseemedtosendoutanorganizingsignal.
CLIFFTABINVO
Inafly,thissignal,hedgehog…
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…tolddifferentcellstodothingsinaparticularorderdependingonhowclosetheyweretothesourceofthesignal.
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Cliffwonderedifagenelikehedgehogmightplayasimilarroleinchickens.Sohisteamtooktheflyhedgehoggene,
andlookedforamatchinthechicken.Aftermonthsofsearching,theyfoundit.Then,remarkably,theydiscovered
thegenewasactiveinexactlythesamepatchofcellsidentifiedbySaunders.Theydubbedthisnewgene“Sonic
Hedgehog,”afterthevideogamecharacter.SodidSonicHedgehogproducethemysterioussignaleveryonewanted
tofind?
CLIFFTABINOC
Ultimatelywewantedtoknowwhetherthisgenethatwediscovered,SonicHedgehog,reallyisthekeysignalfor
makingthearrayofdigitsinthehand.
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Inaground-breakingexperiment,CliffandhisteamaddedabeadcontainingpureSonicHedgehogtothewrongside
ofthegrowinglimbbud,echoingSaunders’experiments.Whenhereturnedaweeklater,hefoundhischickhadtwo
setsofdigitsjustlikeSaunders’chick.Thiswasamajordiscovery.SonicHedgehog,asinglegene,wasthesourceof
thesignalresponsibleforgeneratingthepatternofthedigits.
CLIFFTABINVO
Andthatreallynailsit.
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Itreallymeantthatwehadthelinchpininourhandsandcouldstartlookingathowthatprocessworkedindetail.
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ItturnsoutSonicHedgehogshapesnotjustthewingsofchickens,butthepawsofmiceandotheranimals,andeven
ourownhands.
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IfyouwanttoseejusthowimportantSonicHedgehogistous,meettheHubbardfamily.
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CanIcountyourfingers?Letmesee.Icancount.Iwenttoschool,too.
KAMANIHUBBARDVO
One…
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Two…
KAMANIHUBBARDVO
…two…
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…three…
KAMANIHUBBARDVO
…three,four…
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…four,five…
KAMANIHUBBARDVO
…six.
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…andsixisspecial.
MRS.HUBBARDVO
Yay.
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Lookatthathand.Kamaniwasbornwithanextradigitoneachhandandfoot.Grabmy,squeezemyfingerashard
asyoucan,letmeseeyourgrip.Noharderthanthat.Youcangowayharder.Oh.Oh!Whythishappenshadlong
beenamystery.ItturnsoutthatpeoplelikeKamanioftenhavemutationsthataltertheeffectoftheirSonic
Hedgehoggene.
MR.HUBBARDOC/VO
WiththeconditioninKamani,Ijustwanttoknowwhat’sallowinghimtobesodifferent?
NEILSHUBINOC/VO
Thewayourarmsandlegsoriginallydevelopinthewombistheypushoutfromthebodyasalittlebud.Sowehave
fourlittlebudsstickingoutofusaswe’relittleembryos.Thenthosebudsgrowout…
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…andeventuallytheygrowoutandtheyelongate.Whatyouhaveisapaddle,abigbroadpaddle.
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Justasinthechickenlimb,SonicHedgehogsendsoutasignaltoshapethepatternofourdigits.Whenit’sstrong,a
pinkyforms.Andasitweakens,onebyone,differentfingersaremadeuntilweendupwithfive.Ifweturndown
SonicHedgehog,fewerfingersaremade.ButifweweretoincreasetheeffectofSonicHedgehogwewouldgetextra
fingers,likeKamani’s.
CLIFFTABINVO
Itisreallyquitebeautiful…
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…thatsomethingassimpleasasinglesignalmovingthroughthelimbcouldhavesuchprofoundanddifferentialeffect
ondigits.
NEILSHUBINVO
WenowknewthatSonicHedgehogplayedapowerfulroleinshapingthelimbsofallsortsoffour-leggedanimals.
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Sohowfarbackdiditgo?Coulditbealegacypasseddownfromtheearliestfish?
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Backinmylab,thatwasaquestionmypost-doc,RandyDahn,wastackling.
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Randywasinvestigatinganancienttypeoffish,skates,whoseembryosgrowinasaccalleda“mermaid’spurse.”
RANDYDAHNVO
IguessthethingthatstruckmethemostwhenIfirstopenedtheskateeggwashowshockinglysimilar…
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…thatembryolookstoachickenembryo,amouseembryo,ahumanembryo.
RANDYDAHNOC
Asanembryologist,Ishouldhaveunderstood,ofcoursethey’regoingtolooksimilar,butstillwhenyouseethat
you’rethinking…
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…there’s400millionyearsofevolutionthatseparatesmefromthatembryoandat…
RANDYDAHNOC
…onestageinmylife…
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RANDYDAHNOC
…thatwasexactlywhatIlookedlike.
NEILSHUBINVO
It’sclearwehaveasharedgenetichistorywithfish,butdothegenesthatshapeourhandsalsoshapetheseskate
fins?Tofindout,RandymanipulatedtheskateembryoslikeCliffhaddonewiththechickembryos.Heputabead
containingtheSonicHedgehogmoleculeontheoppositesideofagrowingfinbud.
RANDYDAHNVO
Anditturnsoutthat…
RANDYDAHNOC
…SonicHedgehogwassufficienttocauseamirrorimageduplication,asecondfin,toformintheskate.
NEILSHUBINVO
ThisisexactlywhatSonicHedgehoghaddoneinCliff’schickens.
RANDYDAHNVO
Wewereabsolutelystunned.Andyouhavetorememberthatthisisaskateembryoandwhatthattellsusisthat…
RANDYDAHNOC
…theseverybasicpatterningmechanismsareperformingtheexactsamefunctions…
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…intheskate,intheshark,inthechicken,inthemouse,allthewayuptohumans.
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WehadtracedSonicHedgehogallthewaybacktolifeinancientoceans.Agenethatdeterminestheshapeofour
handswasalsoshapingthefinsofsomeofourmostdistantfishrelatives.Ourinnerfishrunsdeep.
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Buttherewasstillabigmysterytosolve.
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Howdidourfishancestorsmakethetransitionontoland?Andwhatdidtheylooklike?Wewerestilllookingforour
elusivefossil,frozenforeveronthebrinkofthisgreattransition.Eachsummer,wereturnedtoJason'sancient
riverbedtocontinueexcavating.Weneededtomovelotsofrock,toexposethenarrowseamcontainingthefossils.
Butthen,we’dswitchtobrushesanddentalpickstouncoverthedelicatefossilizedbone.It’sjustthisincredibly
funnyparadox.Youknow,we’reinthishugelandscapeandwe’realwayscrampedtogether.Youknow,our,my
head’snexttoTed'sfeet.Mark'shead’snexttomyfeet.It’sthistinylittlespot.Itwasinsuchatinycornerofthis
vastlandscapethatwefinallystruckgold.
NEILSHUBINVO
Well,itwasthesecondweekofJuly,in2004,wewereallworkinginseriesinthishole.AndStevesays“Hey,guys,
what’sthis?”TedandIgorunningover…
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…andwhatwesaw,wasthis"V"here,itwascoveredwithrock.Andassoonaswesawthis“V”andwesawthese
teethunderit,itbecameveryclearthatthislittle"V"we’reseeingisthetipofasnoutandthatthiswasasnoutofa
flat-headedfish.Westoppedinourtracks.Aflatheadwasalikelysignofatransitionalfish.Herewasthesnoutof
exactlythecreaturewewerelookingforanditwasstickingoutoftherocks.Soifwehadanyluckwhatsoever,the
restofthecreaturewouldbe,youknow,encasedintherock.Sowedugallthewayaroundthefossil,leavingachunk
ofrockthatwethenencasedinplaster.Wecouldn’twaittoseewhatwasinside.Okay,wegethome.
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Weknewwehadaflat-headedfish,buthowmuchofitdidwehave?Well,thenthepreparatorshadtotakeover.
Theyremovedtheplasterjackets…
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…andthefirstthingtheydidwastoetchawayattherock,exposingthefrontpartofthesnout.Thenaboutamonth
andahalfgoesby,andtheystarttofindtheorbits,theeyeholes,andthenweseetheshoulder,andthenweseethe
fins,andthenweseemoreandmoreandmoreandmoreuntilweseeprettymuchtheentiretopsideofthebody.
What’sreallywonderfulaboutthisspecimenisthatwehavetheheadconnectedtoabody,andthebodyis
connectedtothefins,soweknowthatthisfincomesfromthisanimal,andweknowitssizeandhowitfitstogether.
NEILSHUBINVO
Later,wefoundpartsofotherspecimens.Andsomeofthesewerereallybig,uptoninefeetlong.ThelocalInuit
peoplenamedourfossil“Tiktaalik,”whichmeans“largefreshwaterfish.”Andaswetookstockofourdiscovery,the
realexcitementbegan.HerewasananimalDarwinhadpredicted,arealanatomicalmixture.Ithadsomefeaturesof
fish,likescalesandfinsandgills.Italsohadlungsforbreathingair.And,toourastonishment,ithadaneck,the
earliestonelikeourseverfound.Butinsidethefinslietheclincher.WeseeanearlyversionofOwen’sonebone,
twobones,lotsofbonespatternthatweseeinourownlimbstoday.Itevenhadakindofwrist,thefirstsignsofa
linktothehumanhand.EverytimeyouflexyourwristorshakeyourheadyoucanthankTiktaalikanditsDevonian
cousinsadaptingtolifeintheseancientstreams.
NEILSHUBINVO
Unlikeotherfish,Tiktaalikcoulduseitsnecktowatchoutforpredatorsandtohuntsmallerprey.Andbecausethose
finswerestrongenoughtoliftitsbodyoutofthewater,awholenewfrontieropened.Overmillionsofyears,the
twopairsoffinsinfish-likeTiktaalikwouldleadtothetwopairsoflimbsineverybonyanimalonearth.It’sa
powerfullegacywecanseeinourownarmsandlegstoday.
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Well,tothinkaboutTiktaalik,thinkaboutthis,thinkaboutapush-up.Whatarewedoingwhenwedoapush-up?
We’reusingthemusclesthatattachtoourchest,andattachtotheundersideofourarmtogiveusthepowertoraise
up;weuseourelbows,anduseflexionatthewrist,whichisveryimportantbecauseitallowsourpalmtocontactthe
ground.Here’sthefinofTiktaalik.Andwhatdoesithave?Ithasamassivesurfaceforaconnectionofmusclesthat
wouldattachtheshouldertotheundersideoftheupperarm.Ithasevidenceofahighlymobileelbow,anditeven
hasawristthatcanflexsothattheequivalentofthepalmcancontacttheground.Here’safishthatcandoapushup.
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IrememberlookingatthewristofTiktaalikforthefirsttime,andatthatmomentIfeltakintowhatIfeltinthe
anatomylab…
NEILSHUBINVO
…whenIsawthecadaveranditshand.Thehandactuallydefinesusinmanyways.
NEILSHUBINVO
Whenyouthinkaboutwhatmakesourspeciesuniqueandspecial,it’shavingthoughtsandbeingabletomakethose
thoughtsreal.Andthewayourthoughtsbecomerealisthroughuseofourhands–tobuildthings,tomakethings.
Yetthebasicformofthiswonderfullycomplex,quintessentiallyhumanpieceofanatomycanbetracedbacktothe
finsofancientfish.It’sanincredibleevolutionarystorythatwecannowunravel.
NEILSHUBINVO
WhenTiktaalikwasfirstconceived,likeeveryanimalthathaseverlived,itstartedasasinglecell,whichslowly
formedintoabody.Smallbudsappearedandgenes,likeSonicHedgehog,shapedthemintofins.Overmillionsof
years,finsliketheseevolvedintoamyriadofforms.Likethelimbofthisearlyamphibianwitheightfingers.As
millionsmoreyearspassed,newvariationsemerged.Fromtheclawedlimbsofreptilesthatwouldcolonizedryland.
Tothepowerfularmsofprimatesthatcouldtraversethroughthetrees.Untileventuallyaremarkablepieceof
anatomyarosethatwoulditselftransformtheworld,thehumanhand.Thishistoryisnotjustinourbone,fleshand
muscle;it’sinourDNA.Andthat’swhatconnectsusallthewaybacktoourinnerfish.Fundamentalportionsofour
ownbodies…
NEILSHUBINOC
…originallycameaboutinfishlivinginwater,andthegreattransitionfromlifeinwatertolifeonlandsetthestage
forawholenewsetofanatomicalinventionsthatwerethemselvestoformthecoreforourownhumanity.
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