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CHAPTER
- IV
THEORETICAL BASES OF FAMILY PLANNING
A STUDY IN INNOVATION
THEORETICAL BASES OF FAMILY PLANNING
It has already been made clear in Chapter III that
family planning is closely related to population policies and
the population policies followed by a particular country are
drawn against the background of competiting population theories
and are largely determind by the economic needs of a coimtry.
Looking at family planning in isolation will be erroneous from
analytical point of view. Hence in the following chapter an
attempt has been made to examine the important population theories
which are supposed to have influence the carving out of the population policies in different countries from time to time.
Needless to mention that great philosophers like Aristotle,
Confucius and others have dealt with population and problems
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66
associated with it but they are neither systematic nor have the
characteristics of theories. For the sake of systematic discussion
the population theories have broadly been placed in the following
order.
1.
Pre Malthusian view
2.
Malthusian theory
3.
Biological theories
A.
Social theories
5.
Economic theories
6,
Contemporary theories
Pre Malthusian view :
As reported by United Nations (1973) Confucius
the
great Chinese t h i n k e r held d e f i n i t e view regarding p o p u l a t i o n .
He had developed the concept of optimum number. Confucius along
with other Chinese t h i n k e r s believed t h a t population should be
determined by the land a v a i l a b l e . Obviously the i m p l i c i t argument
behind land-population r e l a t i o n s h i p i s , t h a t i f s u f f i c i e n t land
i s not a v a i l a b l e for meeting the needs of population of society
United Nations. The Determinants And Consequences of Population
Trends, ST/SOA/SER.A/50, Population Studies No.50, New
York 1973, p p . 33-34.
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67
it will become poorer. Therefore the optimxM number of population
or ideal population will be judged by the land available for
subsistence. In their view low production of food and child
marriages are the contributory factors to high rate of mortality,
Stangeland (1904) holds the view that Plato and
Aristotle also thought in terms of optimum size of population.
According to him they believed that the size of population of
a city-state should be as such that man's capibilities be utilized
for 'highest good'. Aristotle has reportedly observed as follows:
"A state, then, comes into existence only when the
population has grown large enough to live well as a political
association. Should it exceed this limit, it may indeed be a
greater state; but; as I was saying, there must be some point
at which it
stops increasing
the best limit of population
is the largest number requisite for self-sufficiency, and which
can be taken in at a single view (i.e. which will enable all the
members to know one another's characters'.*
Stangeland, Charles Emil. Pre Malthusian Doctrines of Population:
A Study in the History of Economic Theory, Columbia
University Press. New York, 1904, p. 24.
*Cannan, Edwin. Wealth, King and Son, London, 1914, pp. 25-54.
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Both Plato and Aristotle advocated the checks on
population. Plato mentioned that birth should be restricted "if
necessary, by restraining the reproduction of those in whom
generation is affluent". People should be rewarded, in order to
increase the population, if it is required; he believed. Aristotle
mentioned child-exposure and abortion.
Hutchinson (196?) is of the view that like the Chinese,
the Romans favoured a big empire rather than city-states. They
were not bothered about population growth, but wanted big population for defence needs. They were against the practice of
celibacy and made rules for encouraging marriage and birth rates.
Cicero(
) disfavoured the philosophy of Plato and proposed
monogamous marriage. In order to restrict the population growth,
he, believed in floods, famine, war etc.
Carr-Saunders (1965) refers to the medieval Christian
philosphers view regarding poJ)ulation problem. Reportedly they
did not seem interested in the material world but disapproved
abortion, Child exposure, divorce 6tc. However they strongly
support celibacy and virginity of people. Although in the
Hutchinson, C.P. The Population Debate: The Development of
Conflicting Theories up to 1900, Houghton Mifflin
Company, Boston, 196?, pp. 12-13.
Carr-Saunders, Alexander M. World Population: Past Growth and
Present Trends, Barnes and Noble, Inc., New York,
1965.
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:
beginning they did not favour big population for protection of
state but later imder the influence of Aristotle they emphasized
for the need of big population for the protection of State.
According to Shamsuddin (1974) Islamic texts are also
clear on the point that the primary objective of the establishment of a family is the perpetuation of the human species through
the satisfaction of the sexual urge, which is achieved through
sexual intercourse between husband and wife. Ibn Khaldun, a
noted Muslim thinker of the I4th century, believed that a densely
settled population was conducive to higher standards of living
because manpower & resources will be utilized to produce more
and more. According to him big population is necessary for economic and political security of the State. Better economic facilities and political stability increase large population.
A cursory look at the aforesaid description clearly
shows the lack of systematic theorization on population. They
are bizarre views which failed to give a definite form to any
theoretical formulation on population. However, a tentative
point seems to emerge from these views that there seems to exist
some relationship between population growth and economic development. This paved way for the emergence of a definite approach
Shamsuddin, S.M. Mahdi. Islam and the Planning of Parenthood. In
Islam R. Nazar, et.al., Islam and Family Planning,
Vol.11. The International Parenthood Federation,1974,
pp. 66-90.
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J—4_a.,-__ ^Yie role of population in the affairs of State. This
aracterised as mercantile approach to population.
Mercantilism is considered to he a link between the
medieval period and the modern period. In the 17th and 18th
centuries mercantilists believed in a big and increasing population and it was considered to be an essential factor in the
economic and political power of a country. The general opinion
at that time was that birth rate should be increased for purposes
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of economic and political gains Births were regarded monetarily.
They suggested adoption of following measures for increasing
the size of the population as reported by Cipolla (1962) :
i m
I
(a) placing various disabilities on celibates;
(b)
encouraging marriages directly;
(c)
encouraging f e r t i l i t y ;
(d) making punishment for illegitimate births less
severe or abolishing such punishment entirely; and
(e) encouraging immigration and preventing emigration.
According to mercantilists the growth of population
was the real strength of the manufacturers which benefit the state
They regarded a favourable balance of trade, for example,
Cipolla, Carlo. The Economic History of World Population,
Penguin Books, Inc., Baltimore, 1962.
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:
Cantillion, believed that the size of agricultural production
would determine the size of the population.
Matras (1973) is of the view that Botero, an Italian
citizen, was one of the first to study population phenomena in
a broad scientific manner. Along with Macchiavelli, he may be
considered one of the precursors of Malthus, as his work contained
the basic thoughts of the Malthusian doctrines. He expounded
that a population, after increasing for some time, can not continue to increase at the same rate. It may grow slowly or may
even start declining. In his opinion, the limitation of the
means of subsistence was the reason why population growth had
to be limited. He regarded limited means of subsistence as the
primary check to population growth, while the secondary checks
were sterility of the soil, bad climate, disease and epidemics.
Though Botero was convinced that food for subsistence was necessary for any population, he still regarded a large population a
source of strength for a country.
Malthusian theory:
During the latter half of the 18th century, mercantilist
idea of growing population was on decline. The propogoBists
of
this tradition were against the mercantile theory of population.
Matras, J., Population and Societies, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1973.
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The Utopian school which had already come into existence, was
represented by Godwin in Britain and Condorcet in France. The
Utopians asserted that defective laws, corrupt administrator and
inefficient government made men morally low, mean and selfish
and caused social deterioration. If these view were changed
society would become better and man will develop properly.
Against this background, as reported by Beals (1958),
Thomas Robert Malthus, a renowned English Professor of History
and Economics, wrote the first edition of his book "Essays on
the Principle of Population". His first volume was primarily
a polemic against Condorcet's view related to perfectibility of
man. It was also against the Godwin's system of equality and
Wallance's proposition of over population. Malthus (1826) contended, "the abosolute imposibility from the fixed laws of our
nature, that the pressure of want can ever be completely removed
from the lower classes of society, and that schemes for social
reform such as Condorcet and Godwin had proposed would only
increase the number of the poor by removing existing barriers to
marriage and multiplication."
Beals, H.L. Historical context of the Essay on Population, in
D.V. Glass (ed,), Introduction to Malthus, Frank
Cass and Company, London, 1958, p.3.
Malthus, Thomas R. An Essay on the Principle of Population, Vlth
Edition 1826, p.543.
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:
He advocated n e i t h e r the m e r c a n t i l i s t s ' view of over
population nor the Utopian's p r i n c i p l e s of changing human n a t u r e .
Maithus a n a l y s i s was based on the proposition t h a t man's capacity
t o increase h i s means of subsistence was much l e s s than h i s
capacity to m u l t i p l y . He argued t h a t man could increase h i s
subsistence only i n a r i t h m e t i c a l progression, whereas h i s numbers
tended t o increase in geometrical p r o g r e s s i o n . In two c e n t u r i e s
the population would be t o the means of subsistence as 256 t o 9;
in three c e n t u r i e s as A096 t o 13» and in t e n thousands years
M
the difference would be almost i n c a l c u l a b l e . His basic assumption
as mentioned i n the Essay i s t h a t man's a b i l i t y t o reproduce
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was g r e a t e r than h i s a b i l i t y to produce.
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The two basic postulates mentioned in "Principle of
I
Population" are: (i) that food is necessary to the existence of
man. (ii) that the passion between the sexes is necessary, and
will remain nearly in its present state.
He observes, "assuming then, my postulate as granted,
I say, that the power of population is indefinitely greater than
the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man."
"Population when unchecked, increases in a geometrical
ratio. Subsistence increases only in arithmetical ratio"(Malthus
1826).
Malthus, Thomas R. An Essay on the Principle of Population,
Vlth Edition 1826. pp. 11-14.
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As already explained, Malthus, believed that unless
and untill increasing population was checked, a day would come
when population would exceed food availability. Accordingly
powerful checks are required to impose on growing population,
beyond the means of subsistence. Malthus terms two types of
checks - the 'preventive' and the 'positive'. The main Preventive
check refers to "moral restraint", or 'the postponment of marriage]
which are considered to reduce the birth rates. The other types
of prevention checks include, i.e. promiscuity, homosexuality
'S
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and birth control (or abortion). He proposed that people should
use contraceptives and go in for abortion. He preferred late
marriage and self restraint.
The 'positive' check includes wars, excesses, and many
|4
i5
others which are avoidable. He firmly believes that nature itself
arranges population according to availability of food.
The main ideas of Malthusian theory can briefly be
summarised as follows.
1. That the population grows faster than the food
resources and therefore there will always be gap between population and subsistence leading in tension.
2. That the tension between population and subsistence
can be reduced to the minimum by the 'positive checks' of
mortality.
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3. He suggested that people should prefer delayed
marriage or abstinence from sexual intercourse (continuence in
marriage), which could supersede the 'positive checks'.
Malthus felt that tension between growing population
and subsistence, would benefit society. According to him postponement of marriage until 'a man is able to support his family
is driven by his several urge to work hard. And this is the only
mode of keeping population on a level with the means of subsistence which is perfectly consistent with virtue and happiness.
CO
Malthus occupies same place in building population
,| II
theory that Thorndike occupies in propounding learning Theory
in Psychology. Both are controversial, but both are pioneers.
I II
Their theories are frequently quoted in their respective field.
o.
Like Jhomdike Malthus has been much criticised for
his doctrines, but even by his critics his theory is considered
as a deliberate positive analysis of relationship between population and economy, and population change, and social structure,
Malthus has tried to establish that the increasing population
in the society is responsible for the poverty of society, and
thus he deserves great credit for focussing this problem to
the eyes of the people and nation for obtaining human welfare.
It is interesting to note that Government of India in its desire
for removal of poverty - 'garibi hatao' mentions it into its
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objectives of the Fifth-Five Year Plan, which Maithus had proposed for removal of poverty. Fifth plan (1976) indicates:
"The existence of poverty is incompatible with the
vision of an advanced, prosperous, democratic, egalitarian and
just society implied in the concent of a socialist pattern of
development. In fact, it holds a potential threat to the unity,
integrity and independence of the country. Elimination of poverty
must, therefore, have the highest priority".
Prom this point it is observed that what Government
appreciate these days, Malthus did long-long ago. It has been
mentioned in Fifth Plan that the high rate of population constitutes an important constraint on progress towards removal of
poverty,
Malthus also believed that every individual has to be
made conscious that his welfare lies in limiting the size of
the family, which he can easily maintain. Malthus, therefore,
realised before hand the necessity of keeping the size of
family within the limit one can reasonably hope to support.
Government of India, Planning Commission, Fifth Five Year Plan,
New Delhi, 1976, pp. 14-15.
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Some population theories since Malthus;
Coale (1974) pointed out that Malthus's 'natural law'
of population growth that man's number tended to increase faster
than his subsistence because of the passion between the sexes,
provoked several contemporary as well as 20th century social
scientists and statesman. Their thoughts/theories can broadly
be categorised as in three- (a) Biological (b) Social and
(c) Economic. The Biological theories make us believe heredity
as the principal determinant of natality. Social theories about
population maintained that the problem would be solved through
reorganisation of society or it denied the existence of population problem. The thinkers of Economic school observe that there
are no general laws for population. Population growth tends to
depend on economic development.
(a) Biological Theories;
The influence of biological factors on fertility has
been emphasized by Hankins who argues that tendency of the people
should be changed from reproduction to other activities of mental
and physical character. In highly developed societies he observed
difference in attitude regarding increase in growing population.
Therefore he suggested change in mentality.
Coale, A.J. The History of the Human Population. Scientific
American, September 1974, pp. 41-53.
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Michael Thomas Sadler, a British Social reformer, is
another exponent of biological theories. He put forward the
principle that fertility varies inversely with the density of
population. He was contemporary to Malthus. According to him
natural law of population growth was just the contrary to those
advocated by Malthus. He did not agree with Malthus that population grows in geometrical proportion. He felt that 'increase
of population brings with it increase in the means of subsistence
also'. He believed that if people wish nothing is impossible in
world. People will produce what they required.
Dumond (1975) opine
that Sadler believed in nature
which itself is helping mankind and discovered that all other
things being equal, the man's tendency to increase will diminish
as density of population increase, and cease to grow at first
point when people will enjoy the greatest happiness.
Sadler's theory of population has been criticised on
account of lack of clear distinction between fecundity and
fertility. It is argued that a population did not possess high
fertility without highly fecund, but with practice of contraceptive and other methods like abortion etc. it can have highly
Dumond, D.E, The Limitation of Human Population: A Natural
History. Science, Vol.187, February 28, 1975 pp.30-39.
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fecund without having high fertility. He found no evidence of
his assumption. In spite of his criticism he proved to be a
hope to sociologists and many other demographers.
Another British Economist and Social Philosopher,
Thomas Doubleday assembled data to describe his theory what he
called the true law of population, which attempted to establish
a relationship between population growth and diet of the people.
Accordingly he says that increase in population was inversely
related to supply of food. He believed that poverty stimulates
population growth as the diet of the poor is insufficient. He
based his principle on the well known fact about plant and
animal life. When abundant manure was supplied to a plant, it
influences its sterility. Flowers, trees and other plants ceased
seed when over-fed, but the same plant becomes new when some
depletion process like lopping and trending the root is done.
He maintained that rabbits and swines will not conceive if fed
to a certain height of fatness. He similarly applied the same
logic to whole population and explored that increase in food
supply will sexsually decrease the rate of population growth.
For example the Chinese, the Irish and the Scotch were highly
fertile because their diet was inadequate while the birth rates
in France were low because the French were well-fed.
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Thomlinson (1965) pointed out that the diet principle
of Douhleday
concludes that people belonging to high income
group do not reproduce more, while population in lower class
rapidly multiplying, and population remains stationary in average
income group of population. Thus he enumerated that where the
people live on vegetables and creals tends to be high fertile,
and people who consume non-vegetarian get excellent food reproduce less.
Remarkably, a difference of this theory has been put
forward by Josue
de Castro (1952). He has contended that defi-
ciency of proteins makes under-nourished people more fertile
!g
than those who are well-nourished. He based his conclusions on
the negative correlation between the protein content of the
i
diet and the birth rates of various countries. Therefore it is
required to enriched food with high protein content to slow
population growth among the lower class of the world.
Both Doubleday and Castro have been criticised on the
ground that they had very little factual evidence for their
theory. There is no scientific evidence to prove their proposition
Thomlinson, Ralph. Population Dynamics: Causes and Consequences
of World Demographic Change. Random House, Inc.,
New York, 1965.
Castro Jouse'de. The Geography of Hunger. Little, Brown and
Company Boston, 1952, pp. 71-72, revives Doubleday's
theory and apprenily gives it a scientific foundation.
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that the high protein enriched food and high compact poptilation have much effect on fecundity. Today it is proved by aany
findings that economically highly developed urban societies
had a lower fertility than the rural societies.
Herbert Spencer, a renowned English Philosopher, is
primarily concerned with self-adjusting biological principle of
population growth. His theory of social and biological development by natural forces, seems somehow similar to those of Sadler
in
and Doubleday.
(3
rf
g*
Thomson (1965) observes that Spencer believed in a
natural law that would absolve man from any responsibility in
(O
regard to growth of population was concerned. This is because
3
4
nature
itself weaken man's interest in reproduction and this
leads to denote more time and effort towards personal, scientific
and economic development, Spencer supposed that there exists
an antagonism between individuation and genesis. According to
him individuation refers to effort made by man to maintain life,
on the other hand genesis refers to reproduction of man. He
believed that both were inversely related. He also believed that
as our man tried to increase their social and economic problem
Thomson, Warren S. and David T. Lewis. Population Problem
McGraw Hill Book, New York, 5th ed. 1963 pp.41-44.
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theiB-selves, t h e i r r a t e of reproduction w i l l also begin t o
slow or come down, Spencer proposed socio-economic and s c i e n t i f i c
development of man to r e s t r i c t b i r t h .
As reported by Glass and Eversley (1965) the populat i o n pressure was no cause for danger to Spencer. He was of the
view t h a t t h i s pressure w i l l automatically promote self c o n t r o l ,
i n t e l l i g e n c e , education and methods of production which intimately
diffuse the growth of population and weaken i n t e r e s t in r e p r o duction.
Thus t h i s theory b e l i e v e s t h a t reproduction decreases
with socio-economic development of population and i t f o s t e r the
small family norm. I t was Spencer who ' f i r s t stressed the need
and n e c e s s i t y of socio-economic progress and education for slower
growth of population.
Corrado Gini, an I t a l i a n s o c i o l o g i s t , i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
the study of population change as i t influences the evolution of
society and p a r t i c u l a r the evolution of n a t i o n s . Gini (1930)
has gathered s t a t i s t i c a l data t o prove t h a t t h e r e are cycles i n
the r i s e and f a l l of p o p u l a t i o n s . G i n i ' s theory advocated t h a t
basic factor in population growth i s b i o l o g i c a l change r a t h e r
Glass, David V., and Eversley, D.C.C. eds.Population in History
Essay i n H i s t o r i c a l Demography, Aldine Publishing
Company, Chicago, 1965.
G i r i , Corrado. The Cyclical Bise and F a l l of Population in Han's
Foundation, Population, University of Chicago
1930: PP. 4-23.
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83
than social and economic change. He further explained that
different rates of increase which were found in different strata
of society rapidly because of biological factor of population.
Rag (1978) pointed out that Gin's theory the process
of growth of nation and of the individuals was "the cyclical
rise and fall of the population.
The first stage of this cycle
comes the period of extremely rapid growth, in which youths are
in large number. They possess a high rate of fertility. As a
consequence, a'nation grows more and more in members. When the
pressure of population is realised expansion happens through
was and colonisation.
Bahadur (1977) maintained that the second stage of
cyclical theory is followed by decline of population growth and
nature achievement. The decrease is due to (a) loss of most
energetic people through was and colonisation (b) and partly
because of increase in the proportion of upper class population,
who are less sterile. Gini also observed that qualities of the
people also declines with result of decline in reproduction due
to biological change in the hereditary qualities of the people.
Raj, Hans. Fundamentals of Demography, Subject Publication
Delhi, 1978 p. 144.
Bahadur, K.P, Population Crisis in India, National Publishing
House, Delhi 1977, pp. 14-15.
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:
Cb) Social theories;
Goode (1963) and Benjamin (1968) observe that social
thinkers of early part of the nineteenth century did not believe
in the presence of population problem. They uphold that it would
be solved through reorganisation of society. They were of the
view that poverty is not the result of growth of population, but
it is the result of social disorder. All these thinkers have
tried to explain that new form of society which they attribute
are the check
on population growth. They believed that these
social and economic factor will increase production more than
numbers.
Arsene Dumont an exponent of the theory of 'Social
Capillarity', is a Professor in the University of Strasbourg. In
view of Dumont, the works of Economists, Philosophers and Historians are not relevant in the study of Population. Various
statistical data, first hand information etc, of the universe
under research are vital. He himself carried out research in
latter part of the nineteenth century, and went village to
village of France to collect data to find out causes of fertility.
Goode, William J, World Popxilation and Family Patterns. The
Free Press, New York, 1963*
Benjamin, B. Social and Economic Factor Affecting Mortality
Humanities Press, Inc., New York 1965.
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Eversley (1959) pointed out that Dumont believed in
three principles of population. For him, Malthusian theory of
natural law was fit for animals and savages. The second conformed
the Guillard's dictum, "where bread is born, is born a man," This
doctrine is applicable to a society where main goals of men were
accumulation of wealth. Dumont's third principle of 'social
capillarity' was applied to a highly modern societies. This he
imagines that all societies have hierarchy of social status. In
his opinion inclination for change from one stratum to the other
was direct cause of decrease in population. He did not agree
with Spencer of that change in rate of population was result
of biological changes. He did believe that his principle of
social capillarity is relevant to all civilised societies, but
rigid barriers of caste and status prevent upward social movement.
In such societies, for example in India, rate of fertility is
very high, because movement from one class to other was highly
restricted. This theory was, however, criticised on the groxond
that it was not backed by sound statistical proof. But it is the
credit of Dumont that he emphasised the need for investigating
individual attitude in their social context in order to determine national population trends.
Eversley, D.E.C. Social Theories of Fertility and Malthusian
Debate. Clerendon Press Oxford, 1959 p. 110.
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Frank Fetter was also a social philosopher who had
particular interest in population problem. He was critical of
Malthus's view about population growth and asserted that Maithus
had given much weight on sex. Besides passion for sex, men have
many emotions and feelings. He also believed that population
growth can not be explained by any one theory. He maintained
that people of higher classes want to have less children and
use family planning methods than lower class. They wanted to
en;ioy maximum pleasure than to have more children. On conterary
lower class of people favour more children for labour and additional property. Although they did not pay attention for their
up bringing. This class of people also have no problem of division of property etc. because they have no property. Fetter came
to the conclusion that economic progress itself will work as a
preventive for birth control (Coale and Hoover 1958).
The Italian Economist, Francesco S. Nitti also described economic factors to fertility. The level of the birth rate
were high among the poor class of the society. He was also critical of Malthus, Marx, Spencer and Dumont. Describing his
principle Cipolla (1962) explains that improvement in economic
condition will certainly bring about a lowering of the birth
Coale, A.J. and E.M. Hoover. Population Growth and Economic
Development in Low-Income Countries Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 1958.
Cipolla, C. The Economic History of World Population, Penguin
Books Inc., Baltimore, 1962,
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87
rate. It plays very important role in growth of population.
Nitti did not advocate
any solution for the population growth,
but believed that it would be automatically considered by 'establishing a strong social organisation with opportunity for the
development of individuality'. Then increase in number will not
be feared much.
John Stuart Mill, another social reformist, has given
his theory of individual happiness and social utility. Draper
(1965) observes that his theory is based upon the presumption
that the sole goal of human life is to have pleasure, Bentham
and James Mill were his main followers, who propogated happiness
as a primary aim of morality. Mill, made one of the first systematic effort to persuade people to support family planning movement. Although he was supporter of Malthus, but advanced different
view regarding birth control and declared that the problem is
to find out how to limit the number of birth. He was against the
imposition of restriction upon women to have child.
According to Lorimer (1959), Brentano also believed
man to be ideally fond of pleasure and prosperity. Fertility is
highly correlated with happiness, which a man have in society.
Draper, E. Birth control in the Modem World: The Role of the
Individual in Population Control, Penguin Books, Inc.
New York, 1965.
Lorimer, Frank, The Development of Demography in The Study of
Population edited by P.M. Hauser and O.D.Duncan, Universitj/j
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1959.
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He was of the view that lower class of the people have less
resources of enjoyment, therefore they make up for it by sexual
intercourse and thus have a number of soiirces of pleasure beyond
sex. Thus they limit their family to maintain their enjoyment.
Accordingly he inferred that additional children with higher
class is always less in regard to lower class of the people.
3.
Economic Theories:
Becker (1960), Clark (1967) and Sanderson (1976) view
that early nineteenth century theories of population were mostly
dominated by classical school of political economists. These
thinkers devoted their times to find out causes and consequences
of population growth. They consumed their energies to establish
relationship between population change and level and trends of
production, wages, interest, rent, profits, supply of capital
and standard of living. And advocated that growth in population
is tended to lessen wages and create poverty.
Becker, G.S. An Economic Analysis of fertility in Demographic
and Economic Changes in Developed Countries. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1960. pp.209-31.
Clark, Colin. Population Growth and Land Use, St. Martin's Press.
Inc., New York, 1967.
Sanderson, W.C. On Two Schools of Economics of Fertility. Population and Development Review, Vol.2 No.3 and 4
Sept. and Dec. 1976. p. 470.
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Henery George, an American economist and renowned
philosopher, argued that population growth was nothing else but
the unequal distribution of land ownership and the tax structure.
He did not accept that there was a basic antogonism between man's
natural tendency to increase in numbers, and his ability to provide subsistence for them.* He recognised the possibilities like
Spencer that with development of individual intellectual, fertility and/or fecundity will simultaneously decrease. Although it
is not clear from his view that fertility will decrease by voluntary control of family size, but favoured contraception most
suitable for reducing fertility.
An English Economist Carr-Saunders (1965) developed
a theory that man has always striven to attain an optimum number,
which he explained in his book 'World Population' as follows:
'This is the number which-taking into consideration the
nature of the environment, the degree of skill employed, the
habits and customs of the people concerned, and all other relevant
facts - gives the highest average return per head
is not
fixed once and for all. On the contrary, it is constantly varying
as the conditions referred to vary, and as skill has tended to
Carr-Saxinders, Alexander M. World Population: Past Growth
and Present Trends. Barnes and Noble, Inc,
New York, 1965. pp. 58-61.
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90
increase throughout history, so has the number economically
desirable tended to increase.'
Carr-Saunders also described that man's growth in
ntimber is basically dependent upon his n\uabers of economically
desirable people. He advocated abortion, infanticide and segregation of women for checks of population growth. He differed with
Malthus regarding possible checks. He also regards
growth in
niimber was totally controlled by man.
'S
Marx
conception of population problems was signifi-
cantly different from that of several nineteenth century classical
^i
school of economist, who paid considerable stress on 'individual-
CO
ism, unrestricted competition;, 'private property' and self
I
interest. He held that there is no such thing as 'overpopulation'
and gave a different economic inter-pretation of population
growth. The population problem, according to him was not real
but is deliberately created by the capitalist. Unemployment is
created by them by not giving jobs to all the labours. Thus the
capitalist way of production created its own 'relative - surplus
population' or army of unemployed who are exploited. This was
the 'law of population' xinder capitalism, which was responsible
for growth in population.
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91
Peterson (1965) states that Marx linked population
growth with the artificial stratification of the society and his
remedy was that the proletariat, who are in a vast majority, when
the come to power will be able to ensure that there is no unemployment or population problem.
He also held that commxmism is the way out of all
hardships. Over population would disappear when capitalism
was
superseded by a collective way of production. In a communist
regime there can be no misery or evil arising from over population,
Reorganisation of society by increase of income, the reduction of
inequalities in income, distribution would decrease the growth
of population. No exploitation of labourer and rise in standard
of living would also decline the birth rate.
In words of Marx (1929) it is the working population
which, while effecting the accumulation of capital, also produces
the means where by it is itself rendered relatively superfluous,
is turned into a relatively sxirplus population; and it does so
to an ever increasing extent. This is a law of population
Peterson, W, The Politics of Population, Doubleday Anchor Book
Edition, Garden City, New York, 1965. pp. 25-46.
Marx, Karl, Capital, A Critique of Political Economy, The Process
of Capitalist Production, translated from the 4th
edition by Eden and Paul, -^-ntemational Publishing
Company, New York, 1929. pp. 697-698.
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92
peculiar to the capitalist method of production; and in fact,
every method of production that arises in the course of historyhas its ovm peculiar, historically valid, law of population. It
is only for plants and animals that there is a law of population
in the abstract and that only in so far as man does not interfere
with them,'
Accordingly Marx believed that poverty, ^unemployment
and under-employment were not due to growth in population but
caused by capitalism which failed to provide enough job. The
communist system, on the other hand, had a social panacea to offer]
good employment, excellent living to all capable people and
thus was to be widely preferred,
Malthus emphasis on biological causation of poverty
and population pressure was highly rejected by Marx. He also
did not accept the Malthus view that poverty was universal and
invitable. He condemned Malthus opposition to the poor laws and
other social welfare legislation,
Loraine (1970) criticised the theories of Malthus
and Marx as too simplistic as it did not take into account stnd
anticipate the technological development which could enable
Loraine, John-, A. Sex and the Population crisis, William
Heinmaun Medical Books Ltd, New York, 1970, pp.125-26.
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:
human beings to ward off this catastrophe to a very distant
future. However, with the rapid growth of technology and industrialisation this problem has been realised xoniversally.
In the 1960's a new theory on demographic transition
was enunciated in which changes in vital rates were directly
linked with modernisation and economic developmant. Thompson(1929)
and Notestein (1953) were one of the formulators of this transition theory. The twentieth century transition theory of Thompson
and Notestein has been called 'a modern elaboration of Mill's
distinction between Malthusian and non-Maithusian populations.'
In simple terms the theory can be explained that, in traditional
societies fertility and mortality are high. In modern societies
fertility and mortality are low. In between there is the demographic transition.
Notestein (1954) pointed out that pre modem birth and
death rates in Europe was higher than those obtaining after their
industrialisation and economic development. It was inferred that
Thompson, Warren S. Population, American Journal of Sociology
Vol. 34, No.6, May 1929. pp. 959-975.
Notestein, Frank W, Population: The Long View, Theodore Schultz
(Ed.) Food for the Worla, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago 1945, pp. 36-57.
The Economic Problems of Population Change, Proceedings
of the Eight International Conference of Agricultural
Economists, London, 1953, pp. 15-18.
Some demographic Aspects of Ageing Proceeding of the
American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , Vol.XCVIII, N o . I . F e b .
1954. p . 3 8 .
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the population surviving from pre-modem to the modem period
had both physiological and sociological capability to have
high birth rates to countract the high risk of mortality
obtaining there. "When the mortality rates are high, the couples
are not so confident of survival of their children and hence
desire for a large family size. High dependency burden make them
economically weak, consequently their children take up employment
without proper education; the society tesfis to remain conservative and quality of human resources remain poor. Women in
such societies tend to engage themselves in continuous process
of child bearing. In such traditional societies mortality started
showing some decline with the advent of modern discoveries in
the field of public health measures and control of communicable
diseases.
Notestein characterised three types of populations
according to their stage of demographic evolution:
(a) Population in the stage of 'incipient decline'
where fertility had fallen below the replacement level or those
approaching this stage (e.g. populations of Europe, U.S.A.
Australia and New Zealand).
(b) Population in the stage of 'transitional growth'
where births and death rates are still high and growth in rapid,
but the decline of the birth rate is well established (e.g.
populations of U.S.S.R. Japan ^ • and some countries of Latin
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95
America).
(c) Populations in the stage of 'high growth
potential' where mortality is high and variable and is the chief
determinant of growth, while fertility is high and thus far has
shown no evidence of downward trend. In these populations, rapid
growth is to be expected just as soon as technical developments
make possible a decline in mortality, (e.g. populations in most
countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America).
The process of demographic transition in the course
of economic development has been explained by Stolnitz (1964)
as follows: 'All nations in the modern era, which have moved
from a traiiitional, agrarian based economic system to a largely
industrial, urbanised base, have also moved from a condition
of high mortality and fertility to low mortality and fertility.'
Although this theory has been generally accepted
but criticised for over simplification,(Hatt, Farr and
Weinstein 1955).
The problem of population growth was also discussed
by Coale and Hoover (1958). Their purpose was to measure
Stolnitz, G.J. The Demographic Transition: From High to Low
Birth Rates and Death Rates, Ronald Freedman (Ed.)
Population: The Vital Revolution. Doubleday and Co.
New, York, 1964, p. 30.
Coale, A.J. and Hoover, E.M,, Population Growth and Economic
Development in low income countries. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 1958. pp.9-13.
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quantitatively "the economic significance of a reduction in
fertility". They were interested in focussing that for a rapid
growth of per capita income in a developing country like India,
a faster decline in fertility is extremely important. They
studied the Indian economic and demographic trend by constructing]
an econometric model of Indian economic growth. They concluded
that investment is a linear function of income if the population
size is assumed to be demographically determined. Once the level
of income and investment are determined then the levels of
welfare investment are also determined. Prof. Gunnar Myrdal(l968)
has criticised Coale and Hoover model as rather too simplistic.
He observed, models would have to contain many more parameters
and account for many more interrelationship. They would have to
be very much more complex in
order to be logically consistent
and correspond with reality. With the present dearth of empirical
data, indulging in this type of preparatory macro-analysis data
does not seem to be a rewarding endeavour."
No doubt that aforementioned theories of demographic
transition or development provide us with some insight into the
Paul. K. Hatt, Nellie Louise Farr and Eugene Weinstein, Types of
Population Balance. American Sociological Review, Vol.
XX. No.1. Feb. 1955. pp. 14-21.
Myrdal, Gunnar, Asian Drama; An inquiry into the poverty of
nations: Harmondsworth; Penguin Book, 1958.
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inter-relationship among births, deaths and other demographic
characteristics, but for obvious reasons these theories can at
best
give some broad guidlines. The specific action programmes
for tackling the
population problem are to be designed by
each country seperately keeping in view the social, economic
and cultural background of the people.
ia>