Andra
the French National Radioactive
Waste Management Agency
• Over 40 years of experience
• Disposal solutions suitable / adapted for all types of radioactive waste
Andra’s solutions and experience
For more than 40 years Andra has been responsible for managing all radioactive waste generated in France,>
mainly by nuclear installations like reactors and nuclear-related facilities.>
Andra has developed and demonstrated various concepts and methodologies for a large variety of waste categories,>
notably for low- and intermediate-level short-lived (LL/IL-SL) and very-low-level (VLL) waste.>
These concepts are flexible enough to accommodate new waste types and forms throughout the operation of disposal facilities.
French national radioactive waste management agency
Waste resulting
from the maintenance and
dismantling of nuclear facilities
Andra has already successfully addressed
with a large number of dismantling issues,
such as:
>> Identification of a quantitative and radiological
inventory of VLL dismantling waste, followed by
the design and operation of adapted disposal
facilities for VLL waste (CIRES) and for low- and
intermediate-level (LIL) waste (CSA), both located
in the Aube district;
>> Dealing with large components as PWR vessel-heads
and steam-generators respectively disposed of at
the CSA (LIL-SLW facility) and the CIRES (VLLW
facility), following the analysis of various options.
Placing a concrete package in a
disposal cell
NORM & TENORM waste
>> In its radwaste management organization, the Agency has
accumulated more than 15 years of experience in compiling
inventories (notably prospective) and characterizing
radioactive waste generated by nuclear power sector
but also by the chemical industry and other industrial
applications of radioactivity.
>> Andra has also developed disposal solution concepts and
methodologies for VLL and “low-level long-lived” LL-LL
residues (such as NORM & TENORM radium-bearing waste
resulting from industrial activities), as well as residues
occupying substantial volumes.
Geological disposal - Cigéo Project
>> Andra has over 20 years of experience in the preparation of
projects for the implementation of a repository for HL and
IL-LL waste. Since the late 1990s, it has been carrying out
surveys notably through Meuse/Haute-Marne Underground
Research Laboratory (URL). The results of the research
program were published in the Dossier 2005 in which
Andra demonstrated the basic feasibility of deep geological
disposal for HL and IL-LL waste and SF, in case if it is
required in the future by the French policy that would be
consistent with a reversibility rationale.
>> The Dossier 2005 was followed by an updated version,
Dossier 2009, that included further steps towards siting,
by selecting a restricted 30-km2 area. The Cigéo (industrial
center for geological disposal) facility project has entered in
its licensing process in 2013 with a national public debate.
The license to build the repository is expected by 2019 with a
commissioning process launched by 2025.
>> Andra has demonstrated its ability to design and to lead the
required scientific R&D program to to justify its proposed
options and to demonstrate the safety of its solutions, thus
ensuring a high added value to its projects. In addition,
it also develops various construction and handling methods
and processes; the corresponding demonstrators and
pilot models that were built and tested by Andra, are now
displayed at its Technological Exhibition Centre.
>> The Research Program carried out in preparation for the
implementation of disposal facilities relies on a detailed
knowledge of the waste and of the sites involved, and uses
an iterative design method. The performance of the disposal
facility and the safety it provides is constantly re-assessed
via a series of methods developed by Andra and aim at
integrating both the existing knowledge and system analysis.
>> For example, the Agency has developed a methodology for
the phenomenological analysis of repository situations in
order to describe and to analyse any phenomenon likely to
occur throughout the evolution of the repository.
Deep geological disposal
concept
Radioactive waste
management
Andra’s competencies include:
>> Radioactive waste management policies
>> Radioactive waste management strategies: inventories,
management plans
>> Training
>> Communication & public relations
>> Management of radioactive waste originating from “small
scale nuclear activities” (medical, chemical industry, etc.)
>> Environmental monitoring
Radioactive lightning conductor
head
Relying on its wide-ranging competences in the field of waste
management and disposal, Andra offers multiple solutions,
from consultancy and document review, to technology transfer and
turnkey projects - to all countries and organizations concerned by the
safety and the efficiency of their radwaste management
Waste management policies
>> Development of framework for radioactive waste
management
>> Waste management organization implementation
Waste management strategies
>> National strategy and waste management plans
>> National, corporate & site waste inventories
>> Waste characterization and tracking
>> Waste compliance verification
>> Data archiving and site memory
Communication & public relations
>> Stakeholder engagement and communication strategy
>> Communications resources: web, edition, video, public
debates and consultations
Research and Development
>> Geology, geophysics, rock mechanics, geochemistry,
sensors & networks…
>> R&D program design & management
Training
>> Specific or generic waste management courses
>> Training program design
>> Extensive use of Andra facilities and R&D resources
Site remediation
>> Site characterization
>> Site clean-up
>> Waste management
Disposal facility design: VLLW, LLW, ILW, HLW &
Spent Fuel
>> Conceptual to detailed design : waste treatment,
conditioning and disposal
>> Siting of facilities: early bibliographical studies to site
characterization management
>> Safety analysis: modeling, simulation, studies
Disposal facility licensing
>> Environmental and safety reviews
>> Site and waste disposal licence preparation
Disposal facility construction
>> Construction management
>> Project owner support
Disposal facility operation
>> Waste treatment and packaging facilities design
>> Operations and quality reviews and improvements
assessment
Disposal facility closure
>> Site closure planning
>> Safety reviews
>> Final site capping design
“Small scale nuclear activities”
waste producers
>> Collection, sorting, treatment, packaging
and disposal of radioactive waste
>> Environmental monitoring
FRENCH NATIONAL RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT AGENCY
1-7, rue Jean-Monnet
92298 Châtenay-Malabry cedex - France
www.andra.fr
For further information or contact : [email protected] - Tel. : + 33 1 46 11 82 99
© Andra - 434VB - DCOM/14-0170 - July 2014 - Graphical design and production: Demoniak – Photo credits: P. Maurein - illustrations : Andra / J. Mariez - Printing certified by Imprim’Vert using vegetable inks on partially recycled paper, FSC certified - Distributed free - Not for sale
A unique array of skills
and services
Andra
The surface disposal concept
for LIL-SL waste
• Over 40 years of experience in disposal concept development, repository design /
construction / operation / closure to post-closure monitoring
The Radioactive waste
Most low-level and intermediate-level short-lived (LIL/SL) waste results from the nuclear power industry. Their specific activity level is
sufficiently high to justify a protective conditioning and to ensure proper confinement until the activity has decreased to harmless levels
for human beings and the environment (several centuries, considering the half lives of the radionuclides contained in LIL-SL waste).
French national radioactive waste management agency
The disposal design
The disposal concept for such waste relies on a multi-barrier protection system, each barrier being
designed to fulfil different or redundant functions in order to delay or mitigate radionuclide transfers first
into the environment and onwards to the population.
The originality of the concept pertains to its
flexibility, since:
>> it is adaptable to various geological environments, and its
overall performance can be guaranteed by modulating that
of the engineered barriers;
>> it is suitable for the disposal of waste packages of different
types and sizes, as long as their characteristics are
consistent with the acceptance criteria, which are de facto
specific to each case.
With its wide-ranging competences in the field of radioactive waste management and disposal, Andra
offers multiple solutions, from consultancy and document peer review, to technology transfer and
turnkey projects
Containment
The safety of the disposal
facility is guaranteed by the
combination of the package,
the concrete vaults, the
backfill materials between the
packages, and the watertight
clay cap that will be installed
at the end of the operational period of the facility. Such design
configuration also takes all natural risks into account. Last, all
disposal structures are built away from any potential flood
zones and from the highest possible level of the groundwater
table.
Disposal
The vaults for concrete and metal packages have a slightly
different configuration. Once a vault is full, the concrete
packages are immobilised with gravel backfill, whereas the
metal packages are blocked in place by the concrete that is
poured between them. Once a disposal is filled, it is sealed
by a reinforced concrete slab, covered by an impervious
plastic membrane in order to ensure the water-tightness
of the disposal vault. Ultimately, a final cap will be put in
place in order to protect disposal structures against external
aggressions.
Monitoring
A network of underground galleries has been built under the
disposal structures. The first piping network collects rainwater
from empty vaults that are not yet in service, and directs them
towards the on site storm basin. The second piping network
constitutes the so-called “separative gravity-assisted network”,
collects any seepage water that may migrate through the
disposal structures and directs it towards an external
treatment plant, in case of contamination.
The French disposal facility
for low- and intermediate-level
short-lived waste (CSFMA-CSA)
The disposal concept developed by Andra consists in isolating radioactive materials from the environment for
the period required for their radioactive content to decay, until the impact of the disposal facility reaches a
level comparable to the impact of naturally-occurring radiation.
In order to prevent the dispersion of radioactive elements into the environment,
the three following barriers have been designed to isolate the waste :
>> the waste package 1 into which the waste is embedded within a concrete, polymer or bitumen matrix ;
the disposal structures; the network of underground galleries and the final capping; 2 and the geological environment of the site: 3 an
impermeable clay layer covered by a draining layer of sand (on which the disposal structures are built) constitutes a natural barrier to
protect the environment in case of accidental releases of radioactive elements towards the groundwater table.
2
3
1
1
Relying on its wide-ranging competences in the field of waste
management and disposal, Andra offers multiple solutions,
from consultancy and document review, to technology transfer and
turnkey projects - to all countries and organizations concerned by the
safety and the efficiency of their radwaste management
Waste management policies
>> Development of framework for radioactive waste
management
>> Waste management organization implementation
Waste management strategies
>> National strategy and waste management plans
>> National, corporate & site waste inventories
>> Waste characterization and tracking
>> Waste compliance verification
>> Data archiving and site memory
Communication & public relations
>> Stakeholder engagement and communication strategy
>> Communications resources: web, edition, video, public
debates and consultations
Research and Development
>> Geology, geophysics, rock mechanics, geochemistry,
sensors & networks…
>> R&D program design & management
Training
>> Specific or generic waste management courses
>> Training program design
>> Extensive use of Andra facilities and R&D resources
Site remediation
>> Site characterization
>> Site clean-up
>> Waste management
Disposal facility design: VLLW, LLW, ILW, HLW &
Spent Fuel
>> Conceptual to detailed design : waste treatment,
conditioning and disposal
>> Siting of facilities: early bibliographical studies to site
characterization management
>> Safety analysis: modeling, simulation, studies
Disposal facility licensing
>> Environmental and safety reviews
>> Site and waste disposal licence preparation
Disposal facility construction
>> Construction management
>> Project owner support
Disposal facility operation
>> Waste treatment and packaging facilities design
>> Operations and quality reviews and improvements
assessment
Disposal facility closure
>> Site closure planning
>> Safety reviews
>> Final site capping design
“Small scale nuclear activities”
waste producers
>> Collection, sorting, treatment, packaging
and disposal of radioactive waste
>> Environmental monitoring
FRENCH NATIONAL RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT AGENCY
1-7, rue Jean-Monnet
92298 Châtenay-Malabry cedex - France
www.andra.fr
For further information or contact : [email protected] - Tel. : + 33 1 46 11 82 99
© Andra - 434VA - DCOM/14-0173 - July 2014 - Graphical design and production: Demoniak – Photo credits: P. Maurein - illustrations : Andra / J. Mariez - Printing certified by Imprim’Vert using vegetable inks on partially recycled paper, FSC certified - Distributed free - Not for sale
A unique array of skills
and services
Andra
The surface disposal concept
for VLL waste
• Over 10 years of experience
• A reference concept and facility for such waste
Waste
Disposal facilities for very-low-level (VLL) waste have been designed to accommodate both residues originating from the
decommissioning of nuclear facilities and used components. Those residues have very low specific-activity levels that lie below a few
hundreds of becquerels per gram (Bq/g). As for the average activity found in any disposal facility, it never exceeds more than a few tens
of becquerels per gram. In that case, waste disposal involves no special processing or conditioning, except for handling requirements or
volume-gain purposes.
French national radioactive waste management agency
Basic disposal concept
The main barrier against radionuclide dispersion is provided by the geological formation being used for
waste disposal.
The design and construction provisions allow for the optimal
operation of the disposal facility without any risk of altering
the required safety level. They also ensure a satisfactory
containment level for several centuries at the end of the
operating lifetime. Hence, the natural materials in their original
context constitute a particular advantage for the safety
demonstration over the long term.
A concrete achievement :
the disposal facility for very-lowlevel waste (CSTFA)
With due account of the nature of VLL waste, their
containment envelope (drums, big bags, etc.) has no role
in confining radioactivity, but rather in facilitating handling
and disposal operations, while protecting operators.
Approximately 30% of all waste received at the CSTFA
undergo a specific treatment before disposal. Low-density
residues (plastics, thermal-insulation materials, etc.) are
first compacted by a baling press, then strapped and
wrapped in clear plastic-sheet. Another bundle press
is used to reduce the volume of scrap metal. Some
waste, such as the polluted waters generated on site
or the sludges sent by producers, are processed in the
solidification and stabilisation unit.
VLL disposal cell
under operation
Disposal cells Disposal cells are excavated progressively, as needed, directly
in the clay formation down to a depth of 8 m and are operated
in sequence. Cell design has evolved to maximize the disposal
volume, and now offers 25 000 m3 in a 26 m wide by 174 m long
and up to 8.5 m deep structure. Cells are filled up in successive
waste packages layers (about 10 on average), while void spaces
between waste packages are gradually backfilled with sand.
>> a 2-mm-thick high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane
1 is first fitted at the bottom and on the sides of the cell before
emplacing the waste. Once each individual cell is filled up,
an identical membrane is laid over it and thermo-welded to
the first, in order to form a continuous and water-tight barrier
around the waste. The geomembrane is fully waterproof and
is designed to prevent any dispersion of radioactivity and any
seepage of external waters (rain, infiltrations) over several
decades;
>> a containment envelope made up of natural clay-based
materials. 2a The lower part of the envelope corresponds to
the first 5 m of the clay layer located immediately under the
geomembrane and characterized by a very low permeability
(at least 10-9 m/s). The upper part 2b is made of clay-based
materials that were removed during cell excavation and
consists of a layer measuring 1 to 5 m in thickness, shaped
and compacted mechanically in order to restore its initial low
permeability (at least 10-9 m/s).
>> Ultimately, a clay backfill, 3 approximately 2.5-m in thickness,
will isolate the clay-based containment layer from:
- weathering (frost, draught);
- burrowing animals, and
- erosion.
>> Lastly, a permanent 30-cm-thick layer of grass-covered topsoil
4 will be laid over the entire structure.
4
3
2b
1
2a
Relying on its wide-ranging competences in the field of waste
management and disposal, Andra offers multiple solutions,
from consultancy and document review, to technology transfer and
turnkey projects - to all countries and organizations concerned by the
safety and the efficiency of their radwaste management
Waste management policies
>> Development of framework for radioactive waste
management
>> Waste management organization implementation
Waste management strategies
>> National strategy and waste management plans
>> National, corporate & site waste inventories
>> Waste characterization and tracking
>> Waste compliance verification
>> Data archiving and site memory
Communication & public relations
>> Stakeholder engagement and communication strategy
>> Communications resources: web, edition, video, public
debates and consultations
Research and Development
>> Geology, geophysics, rock mechanics, geochemistry,
sensors & networks…
>> R&D program design & management
Training
>> Specific or generic waste management courses
>> Training program design
>> Extensive use of Andra facilities and R&D resources
Site remediation
>> Site characterization
>> Site clean-up
>> Waste management
Disposal facility design: VLLW, LLW, ILW, HLW &
Spent Fuel
>> Conceptual to detailed design : waste treatment,
conditioning and disposal
>> Siting of facilities: early bibliographical studies to site
characterization management
>> Safety analysis: modeling, simulation, studies
Disposal facility licensing
>> Environmental and safety reviews
>> Site and waste disposal licence preparation
Disposal facility construction
>> Construction management
>> Project owner support
Disposal facility operation
>> Waste treatment and packaging facilities design
>> Operations and quality reviews and improvements
assessment
Disposal facility closure
>> Site closure planning
>> Safety reviews
>> Final site capping design
“Small scale nuclear activities”
waste producers
>> Collection, sorting, treatment, packaging
and disposal of radioactive waste
>> Environmental monitoring
FRENCH NATIONAL RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT AGENCY
1-7, rue Jean-Monnet
92298 Châtenay-Malabry cedex - France
www.andra.fr
For further information or contact : [email protected] - Tel. : + 33 1 46 11 82 99
© Andra - 434VA - DCOM/14-0172 - July 2014 - Graphical design and production: Demoniak – Photo credits: P. Maurein - illustrations : Andra / J. Mariez - Printing certified by Imprim’Vert using vegetable inks on partially recycled paper, FSC certified - Distributed free - Not for sale
A unique array of skills
and services
Andra
The deep geological disposal
concept as developed by Andra
• Over 20 years of experience in the preparation of a deep repository projet
• More than 10 years of studies and investigations within Andra’s URL
The waste for disposal
Nuclear reactors run on fuel assemblies consisting of uranium, which is sometimes combined with plutonium.
As time goes by, the fuel becomes less efficient and must be replaced by new fuel.
At that stage, it may either be considered as waste or recycled at the Areva plant
at La Hague, Manche district, in order to extract new energy resources.
Spent fuels and/or vitrified residues form the large majority of high-level (HL) waste.
In case of reprocessing, the metallic structures of the fuel assemblie
are compacted and placed in stainless steel containers,
similar to those used for vitrification, to form intermediate-level long-lived (IL/LL) waste.
The activity level and the long half-lives of that waste, either in the form of spent fuel or after treatment,
justify their deep geological disposal in order to ensure their confinement
over several hundreds of thousands of years
French national radioactive waste management agency
The disposal concept
>> The disposal concept relies on the remarkable properties
(retention capability, low permeability and homogeneity
of the formation) of the various clays, which delay and
mitigate the migration of the radioactive substances
contained in the HL or IL/LL waste intended for deep
underground disposal.
The purpose is to limit their contact with the biosphere
until their impact does not induce more risk than naturallyoccurring radioactivity.
Basic diagram of an HLW package disposal cell. calImage
>> Hence, the overall performance is guaranteed by the natural
environment, while the actual array of disposal packages
and structures is greatly simplified. In fact, the main role of
packaging will be to delay any contact of the waste with the
geological environment beyond the thermal phase, which
spans over a few centuries.
Under such conditions, there is no need for any engineered
barrier containing exogenous materials, since its
performance is necessarily limited over time. Only seals will
call for the use of cements and bentonite.
Basic diagram of an ILW-LL package disposal cell.
An adapted disposal concept for each waste category
>> Upon their arrival at the facility, high-level (HLW) waste
packages will be conditioned one by one in steel containers,
which in turn will be put in transport casks in order to
ensure the radiological protection of the staff, and finally laid
down one behind the other in tunnel-like disposal cells.
principle of HL waste over-pack
>> Before being transferred to underground installations,
intermediate-level long-lived (ILW/LL) waste packages will
be deposited in concrete containers, which in turn will be
inserted into transport casks. In the repository, they will be
juxtaposed and stacked in dedicated disposal cells.
principle of IL/LL containers
Exemple of repository lay-out
The geological repository for HLW and ILW/LL waste, otherwise known as the Industrial Centre for Geological
Disposal (Centre industriel de stockage géologique – Cigéo) will include surface installations for controlling
and conditioning waste packages, as well as underground installations for waste-disposal purposes and
connecting infrastructures between surface and underground.
2
1
3
5
4
>> Surface installations will be spread over two sites.
>> The first site 1 will be mainly used for the excavation and
construction of the underground structures. With a footprint of
the order of 110 ha, this zone will be located directly above the
underground facility.
It will include the required industrial workshops and areas
for the construction of the repository, shafts, administrative
buildings and a specific stockpile area for the muck removed
during the gradual excavation of the facility.
>> A second site 2 located a few kilometers away from the
excavation site, with a footprint of 200 extra hectares, will
include mostly the nuclear installations where radioactive
waste packages will be controlled and conditioned in
containers, if required, before being transferred to the
underground installations.
The second site will also integrate a specific stockpile area for
the muck resulting from the opening of the incline.
>> One ramp 3 will be used to transfer waste packages to the
underground facility, while another will be used as a technical
access drift.
>> Underground installations 4 will be progressively added as the
operation progresses until they reach a total maximum area
of about 15 km2, after about 100 years. Located at a depth of
approximately 500 m, those installations will consist of specific
disposal areas for the different waste categories, as well as
connecting drifts and technical installations.
>> Connecting infrastructures 5 will ensure transfers between
surface and underground installations, notably for conveying
staff, transferring disposal containers and worksite machinery,
as well as ventilating underground installations
Relying on its wide-ranging competences in the field of waste
management and disposal, Andra offers multiple solutions,
from consultancy and document review, to technology transfer and
turnkey projects - to all countries and organizations concerned by the
safety and the efficiency of their radwaste management
Waste management policies
>> Development of framework for radioactive waste
management
>> Waste management organization implementation
Waste management strategies
>> National strategy and waste management plans
>> National, corporate & site waste inventories
>> Waste characterization and tracking
>> Waste compliance verification
>> Data archiving and site memory
Communication & public relations
>> Stakeholder engagement and communication strategy
>> Communications resources: web, edition, video, public
debates and consultations
Research and Development
>> Geology, geophysics, rock mechanics, geochemistry,
sensors & networks…
>> R&D program design & management
Training
>> Specific or generic waste management courses
>> Training program design
>> Extensive use of Andra facilities and R&D resources
Site remediation
>> Site characterization
>> Site clean-up
>> Waste management
Disposal facility design: VLLW, LLW, ILW, HLW &
Spent Fuel
>> Conceptual to detailed design : waste treatment,
conditioning and disposal
>> Siting of facilities: early bibliographical studies to site
characterization management
>> Safety analysis: modeling, simulation, studies
Disposal facility licensing
>> Environmental and safety reviews
>> Site and waste disposal licence preparation
Disposal facility construction
>> Construction management
>> Project owner support
Disposal facility operation
>> Waste treatment and packaging facilities design
>> Operations and quality reviews and improvements
assessment
Disposal facility closure
>> Site closure planning
>> Safety reviews
>> Final site capping design
“Small scale nuclear activities”
waste producers
>> Collection, sorting, treatment, packaging
and disposal of radioactive waste
>> Environmental monitoring
FRENCH NATIONAL RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT AGENCY
1-7, rue Jean-Monnet
92298 Châtenay-Malabry cedex - France
www.andra.fr
For further information or contact : [email protected] - Tel. : + 33 1 46 11 82 99
© Andra - 434VA - DCOM/14-0171 - July 2014 - Graphical design and production: Demoniak – Photo credits: P. Maurein - illustrations : Andra / J. Mariez - Printing certified by Imprim’Vert using vegetable inks on partially recycled paper, FSC certified - Distributed free - Not for sale
A unique array of skills
and services
Products and Services
Training sessions on Radioactive
Waste Management
From theory to practice
Going from the methodology
to the specification and
the implementation, then
backward in order to
adapt solutions to specific
situations, is the most
significant feature of Andra’s
Training Sessions.
Deconstruction worksites
of decommissionned nuclear facilities
Services in andra’s field of scientific and technical expertise
We offer to help our customers develop and implement their radioactive waste management plans. Our wide range of services
includes:
>> Project definition, program & management
>> Research and Development programs definitions and
implementation for HLW
>> Establishing detailed inventories for existing as well as for
future radioactive waste
>> Specification of waste & packaging (Waste Acceptance
Criteria)
>> Waste tracking
>> Design, construction, operation, and closure of waste
repositories
>> Defining plans and strategies for your radioactive waste
management
>> Safety assessments and safety cases
>> Site investigation, processing and databases
>> Facility and environment monitoring
>> Disposal concept development
>> Expertise and consultancy, including on economic aspects
>> Communication and public information
>> Relationship with stakeholders
Methodology
Andra proposes competence enhancement modules that consist of 1-2-week training sessions in the framework of its « home-made » educational program. Several modules may
be combined, to a course duration of up to 16 weeks. The modules and sessions are tailored to the Client’s wishes and constraints both regarding the content and the schedule.
Accommodation may be also organized in France by Andra.
>> For example: Operational and Long Term Disposal Safety modules.
French national radioactive waste management agency
>> To become familiar with a step-by-step safety oriented
methodology in the frame of a radioactive waste disposal
facility development
>> To perform a thorough functional analysis and to identify
suitable solutions that will match the safety criteria
>> To understand the major safety key components and to
allocate relevant performances to all of them
>> To become familiar with the key parameters and their
uncertainties that drive the safety performances with
regards to the long term impact
>> To perform case studies in order to optimize the design
of the most suitable solutions (safety, cost, operability,
maintenance)
>> Specifications of adapted financing schemes;
>> Organisation of the collection and storage of diffuse
nuclear waste in order to ensure the immediate safety of
populations and of the environment;
>> Modular design and then construction of installations
allowing for the swift take-over of existing volumes over
the short term, at least in storage facilities;
>> Training and gradual apprenticeship with the Andra teams.
Andra Solutions
Andra has implemented design, construction, operation and closure solutions for the radioactive waste generated in France; including R&D programs for the HLW
geological reversible disposal. With this important and exhaustive background, Andra has built-up a training program covering many of the activities related to
Radioactive Waste Management.
Andra has, over the past years, provided training to professionals at the request of IAEA, institutional organizations, and major companies in the radioactive waste management
sector. Benefiting from our experience, the trainees acquire the insight that enables to reduce costs and delivery times whilst minimizing risks for their own projects.
> CUSTOMIZED TRAINING LECTURES AND OPERATIONAL TRAINING
Andra can supply specific and generic waste management courses designed for specific customers’ needs: training programs on
safety, repository design, waste acceptance criteria and process, facility operation, capping and closure, phenomenology and related
scientific topics. The trainees have operational use of Andra facilities and R&D resources if the sessions take place in France. The
session may also be organized at the client’s location.
Andra is responsible for managing all
radioactive waste produced in France.
©Andra – 358-1VA/B – July 2011 – DCOM-11-0118 – 300 copies – Graphical design and production: Logic Design – Photo credits: Andra / P. Demail – Illustrations:
Andra – Printing certified by Imprim’Vert on partially recycled paper, FSC certified - Distributed free - Not for sale
For further information or contact : [email protected] - Tel. : + 33 1 46 11 82 99
Andra - 358-5VA/B - July 2014 - DCOM-14.0214- Graphical design : Demoniak - production: Logic Design – Photo credits: Andra / Studio Durey / P. Demail – Illustrations: Andra - Printing certified by Imprim’Vert using vegetable inks on partially recycled paper, FSC certified - Distributed free - Not for sale
Objectives of the modules
Products and Services
Radioactive Materials and Waste
National Inventory and Management Plan
The National Inventory gives the
origin of the radioactive materials
and waste according to a breakdown
into 5 activity sectors leading to the
production, possession or handling
of radioactive waste :
1• Very-low-level
radioactive waste
1
2
>> The nuclear power generating
sector : the nuclear power plants,
the front-end fuel cycle plants
(ore extraction and processing,
conversion, enrichment and fuel
fabrication), and the spent fuel
processing plants ;
2• Intermediatelevel short-lived
radioactive waste
National Radioactive
Materials and Waste Inventory
>> The Defence sector : activities
linked to the deterrent force and
nuclear propulsion of certain
ships, including various research
activities;
>> The Research sector : civil nuclear
research activities ;
Since the 1991 Act on the management of radioactive waste was passed, Andra has been responsible for
inventorying radioactive materials and waste throughout France. Until 2002, Andra published an annual
“observatory” of waste, which was replaced in 2004 by the first National Inventory of Radioactive Materials and
Waste. This inventory is updated annually by Andra and published every three years. It is above all an information and
transparency document used as the basis for the National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan
(PNGMDR). The issue of considering not only waste, but also radioactive materials is essential to assess the amount of
committed waste.
Moreover, the inventory describes the quantities of present but also future materials and waste, based on existing and
forecast activities according to the remaining operating lifetime of current nuclear facilities, in order to plan current
and future waste management solutions to be included in the PNGMDR.
>> The Industrial sector other than
power generation : in particular
the extraction of rare earths, the
manufacture and use of sealed
sources ;
>> The Medical sector : therapeutic,
medical diagnosis and medical
research activities.
Methodology
2012
The National Inventory is built around declarations from producers
and those in possession of radioactive materials and waste. A strict methodology
and rigorous verification procedures underpin the production of the inventory. Andra
has developed an IT tool enabling owners of materials and waste to declare their current
and forecast stock per geographical site.
On-line declarations are transmitted to Andra via internet.
The information collected is analysed and put together with various other data sources
available to Andra. Information is then presented in three catalogues :
>> The geographical inventory gives
a regional breakdown of the sites
which produce, process, package
and store radioactive materials and
waste, operated by the producers
and those in possession of the waste.
>> The descriptive catalogue of families
gives an inventory of the waste broken
down into families, defined as being
a group of waste with comparable
characteristics, in particular with
respect to packaging criteria.
2012
Rapport se
de synthè
INVENTAIRE
NATIONAL
des matières
et déchets
radioactifs
Catalogue
descriptif
des familles
INVENTAIRE
NATIONAL
des matières
et déchets
radioactifs
Inventaire 2012
géographique
INVENTAIRE
NATIONAL
des matières
et déchets
radioactifs
>> The summary report which gives
an overview of quantities and
anticipated scenarios per economic
sector.
French national radioactive waste management agency
The National Radioactive Materials and Waste
Management Plan
>> Describe the existing methods for
managing radioactive materials and
waste,
>> Identify the foreseeable needs for
storage or disposal facilities,
>> Specify the necessary capacity for
these facilities and the storage
periods and, concerning radioactive
waste for which there is not yet any
final management method, determine
the objectives to be achieved.
Rigorous, detailed work is therefore carried out, based on all the information compiled in
the National Inventory. This consists in identifying and describing the safe management
solutions available for each family of radioactive materials and waste. The availability
time-frame of these solutions, in particular with regard to treatment and disposal
capacity, makes this plan a forward-looking management tool.
For waste with no identified solution, research programmes are defined, with an indication
of the expected results and the corresponding time-frames.
In this way, no radioactive material or waste can remain without a solution, either one
that already exists or one that has a clearly identified time-frame.
Standard compacted waste container
Andra Solutions
>> Andra has developed a remotedeclaration system for materials and
waste. Those in possession of this
material or waste can enter their
declarations on-line.
>> After verification of the information
declared, data is compiled and
analysed. It is then input into the
National Inventory of radioactive
materials and waste, which can then
be published and distributed.
>> On the basis of the National
Inventory, a National Management
Plan is drawn up, in conjunction
with the various stakeholders. The
aim is to verify the current or future
availability of safe management
solutions. The National Management
Plan is also published and available
on-line.
Remote-declaration system for radioactive
materials and waste
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The June 2006 Planning Act stipulates that a national radioactive materials and waste
management plan should
Products and Services
A stepwise management approach
combining “small-scale nuclear activities” radioactive waste>
and the waste from a future nuclear-power industry
A stepwise and adapted
approach for managing
radioactive waste
in countries intending
to develop a nuclearpower programme
1
2
Small-scale nuclear activities waste may result from
industrial uses, such as the manufacturing of aircraft
dials (1) or electronic tubes (2) or from the medical
applications of radioactivity
Today, almost all countries use radioactivity for medical, industrial or research applications. Such activities (also referred to as “small-scale nuclear activities” or “diffuse
nuclear sector”) generate radioactive waste and it generally includes both very-low-level (VLL) & low-level short-lived (LL-SL) waste. Scattered all over the country, these
activities involve many operators and owners varying in size (from a large hospital centre to the private expert using a lead detector) and in the level of their safety culture.
The management of radioactive waste resulting from the diffuse nuclear sector imposes organisational constraints, such as characterisation and conditioning, temporary and
long-term management. In all cases, the take-over of the waste should not burden the owners with excessive costs, since they might be inclined to abandon them carelessly.
First and foremost, it is therefore necessary, in the short term, to implement temporary storage mechanisms for such waste in order to protect populations and the environment.
Second, the implementation of a nuclear-power programme can provide an opportunity to organise and, hence, to finance the joint management of the waste originating from
both the nuclear industry and small-scale nuclear activities.
Methodology
>> Enforcement of the legislative and
regulatory frameworks with their
institutional mechanisms (inventory,
organisations);
>> Specifications of adapted financing
schemes;
>> Organisation of the collection and
storage of diffuse nuclear waste
in order to ensure the immediate
safety of populations and of the
environment;
>> Modular design and then construction
of installations allowing for the swift
take-over of existing volumes over
the short term, at least in storage
facilities;
>> Training and gradual apprenticeship
with the Andra teams.
French national radioactive waste management agency
For countries intending to develop a
nuclear-power industry, the next step
will consist in integrating radioactivewaste management in that system,
bearing in mind that a nuclear-power
reactor generates approximately 100
m3 of low- and intermediate-level
short-lived (LL/IL‑SL) operational
waste per year. In line with a
responsible approach, which is
essential to ensure the socio-political
acceptance of the nuclear-power
venue, the management of such
operational waste must be initiated
from the very beginning of the
nuclear-power project, notably with
the objective to implement a disposal
facility capable of ensuring long-term
safety.
The mechanisms set in place for the
diffuse nuclear sector are available
to be extended and established
permanently in order to take over the
future operational radioactive waste
generated by the nuclear-power
industry, with due account of longterm safety. Relying on a gradual and
modular concept, the corresponding
disposal facility would be able to
manage small waste volumes of a
newly-born nuclear-power industry
and of the diffuse nuclear sector,
before adapting itself to increasing
volumes, as need be, if the decision
is made to expand the nuclearreactor fleet.
Andra Solutions
Andra is responsible for managing all radioactive waste produced in France. In that capacity, the Agency has more than 20 years’ specific experience in drawing
inventories and in organising the management of radioactive waste resulting not only from the nuclear-power industry, but also from the chemical industries and
other industrial applications of radioactivity.
Andra has developed concepts and
methodologies for a large variety of
waste categories, notably for LL/IL-SL
and VLL waste.
Those concepts are flexible enough
to take into account new types
and forms of waste throughout the
operation of disposal facilities.
The Agency also welcomes trainees
who wish to complete their initial
education.
1
1• Collection and conditioning of small-scale nuclear
activities waste
2• A disposal cell under its mobile roof at the CSTFA
VLL waste disposal facility which accommodates part
of the small-scale nuclear activities waste
2
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At the end of the initial phase,
as presented previously, the first
management mechanisms for
radioactive waste will be available.
Products and Services
Operational waste
from nuclear facilities
Andra is performing consultancy services
under the label Andra Solutions (AS).
The scope of Andra Solutions is all the
process dealing with radioactive waste
management, from inventory to disposal.
The LILW management is a 42 year feedback
activity, from disposal design, operation,
post-closure to package delivery process.
Disposal of waste packages
at the CSFMA
All nuclear facilities, whether reactors, fuel-cycle front-end facilities (conversion, enrichment, fuel-fabrication plants) or spent-fuel processing plants, generate
operational waste. In particular it is generally estimated that about 100 m3 of operational waste are produced every year just by each power reactor.
Such waste includes, for instance, the ion-exchange resins produced in reactor circuits or the operating filters, both of which contain a large amount of cobalt-60 activation
products. A specific process is necessary to ensure that all operational residues are sorted, measured, treated, conditioned, packaged and stored or disposed of under good
operational safety and long-term safety conditions. Those activities must also be carried out at the most cost-efficient rates.
The selection of the disposal concept has an impact on all phases of the waste-management process, especially on the producer’s premises beginning when the radioactive
waste is produced. Therefore the waste manager must intervene very early in the process in order to ensure its entire consistency.
Methodology
>> The AS Surface methodology is to set
up an iterative process that includes
the folloawing steps:
>> The determination of the radiological
capacity of the disposal sites and
acceptance limits;
>> The implementation and follow-up
of the radiological and chemical
inventory (both for existing and future
waste);
>> The definition of the waste-packaging
and containment specifications, from
which will derive the relevant sorting
and conditioning operations on the
producer’s premises;
>> The identification of the adequate
ratios for long-lived radionuclides that
are difficult to measure;
>> The prescription and enforcement of
systems to measure waste activities;
>> The implementation of wasteacceptance criteria and control
procedures required prior to accepting
waste at the disposal facilities;
>> The selection of the disposal site;
>> The design of disposal facilities,
followed by their construction,
operation and, finally, their closure;
French national radioactive waste management agency
>> The enforcement of environmental
monitoring programmes;
>> The closure of disposal facilities and
enforcement of the long-term postclosure monitoring programme;
>> conditions, reversibility options, longterm monitoring, etc.;
>> Cost evaluation for such a facility.
>> The preparation and submission
of application files for review by
authorities.
Andra Solutions
Andra is responsible for managing all radioactive waste produced in France. It benefits from 40 years’ experience in the management of the waste coming from
the French nuclear reactors, including all fuel-related facilities.
The Agency is currently operating
two disposal facilities: one for shortlived low- and intermediate-level
waste (CSFMA) and the other for
very-low-level waste (CSTFA). In
accordance with waste production
rates and with a very good safety
record, both facilities accommodate
almost all operational waste
generated in France. Andra also
ensures the active monitoring of a
third disposal facility, the Manche
Disposal Facility, which is now in
post-closure monitoring phase.
Moreover, the Agency intervenes
on the overall processing of the
waste and prescribes the wasteacceptance criteria to be met by
the producers before they send their
2
1
waste to Andra’s disposal facilities.
Hence, it implements integrated
solutions for radioactive waste
management, from initial production
until final disposal.
3
1• Drum containing low-level waste resulting from the operation of a nuclear facility
2• Grass sampling as part of the environmental
monitoring at the CSFMA
3• Filter-cartridge waste from the water primary circuit of
a nuclear-power plant
4• Compaction of a radioactive-waste package at the CSFMA
4
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>> The realisation of safety assessment
studies on the disposal sites;
Products and Services
Waste from decommissioning
and maintenance of nuclear facilities
Identify best
environmental and
practical solutions
for Low Level and
Very Low Level Waste
management and
disposal.
Deconstruction worksites of
decommissionned nuclear facilities
The maintenance of nuclear facilities and their dismantling, once their operating life is over, generate radioactive waste of various kinds:
> ln activity level, for instance between waste originating from containment envelopes and waste resulting from the reactor core itself;
> ln bulk and weight, for instance, between concrete rubble and huge metal components, such as reactor vessels;
> ln gross waste volume, for instance between concrete waste from containment envelopes and waste resulting from filtration systems.
Waste management solutions must be analyzed at building, site, regional and national levels to demonstrate their efficiency. They must also consider physical and
radiological characteristics, treatment and disposal routes available. They must be shared by waste producers and safety regulators.
With over 40 years of experience, Andra delivers an in-depth knowledge of maintenance and decommissioning waste, from generation to final disposal, and has developed
innovative disposal techniques that save dose to the workers and money to the producer.
Methodology
>> Quantitative and radiological
inventories;
>> Waste-treatment specifications in
partnership with waste producers;
>> lnventory work at every
deconstruction step:
electromechanical dismantling,
cleanup of concretes, followed by
dismantling and demolition, and
specific treatment proposal;
>> Packaging specifications in
partnership with waste producers;
>> Construction, operation and final
closure of disposal facilities;
>> Waste-acceptance criteria, waste­
>> Prospective economic studies;
>> compliance control specifications;
>> Technical and economic analyses;
>> Development of adapted disposal
>> Consistency studies between forecast
inventory and existing disposal
solutions.
facilities fulfilling regulatory
requirements;
French national radioactive waste management agency
Andra Solutions
Some Low Level Waste (LLW) and Very
Low Level Waste (VLLW) management
solutions developed by Andra:
>> Optimize Very Low Level waste
disposal solutions, improving disposal
costs and available volumes at
surface
>> Analysis of an adapted system
for direct disposal of large
uncontainerized items, such as PWR
vessel heads and Steam Generators,
including regulatory acceptance
>> On-site disposal solutions for VLLW
NPPs and large nuclear facilities
>> On-site volume reduction treatment
for metallic and soft waste (LLW and
VLLW)
>> Optimization of disposal facility in
several areas including operational
safety, disposal capacity, disposal
process efficiency,
>> Compliance verification programmes,
including waste characterization and
waste generation process audits
1
>> Computerized waste tracking system,
including direct waste generator
remote declaration and acceptance
criteria verification functionalities
>> Sorting and grouping facilities for
waste from small scale producers
(hospitals, laboratories, universities…
>> Emergency of crisis situations large
volume disposal solutions for VLLW
>> Training and courses for waste
producers
2
1• PWR Steam generator arrives for disposal at CIRES
2• Disposaiceli for waste packages at the CIRES
under its mobile roof
3• Internal view of a disposal cell at CSTFA
3
Consultancy services are available for waste management strategy, waste disposal capacity building, waste acceptance and
compliance programmes, waste tracking solutions and more. Contact [email protected] for information
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Andra is responsible for managing all radioactive waste produced in France.
Products and Services
Polluted and contaminated sites:
the industrial legacy
Andra cleans up and
remediates polluted
and contaminated
sites
Remediation of a private
residence contaminated with
radioactivity
Today, almost all countries use radioactivity for medical, industrial or research applications. Such activities (also referred to as “small-scale nuclear activities” or
“diffuse nuclear sector”) generate radioactive waste and it generally includes both very-low-level (VLL) & low-level short-lived (LL-SL) waste. Scattered all over the
country, these activities involve many operators and owners varying in size (from a large hospital centre to the private expert using a lead detector) and in the level
of their safety culture.
The management of radioactive waste resulting from the diffuse nuclear sector imposes organisational constraints, such as characterisation and conditioning, temporary and
long-term management. In all cases, the take-over of the waste should not burden the owners with excessive costs, since they might be inclined to abandon them carelessly.
First and foremost, it is therefore necessary, in the short term, to implement temporary storage mechanisms for such waste in order to protect populations and the
environment. Second, the implementation of a nuclear-power programme can provide an opportunity to organise and, hence, to finance the joint management of the waste
originating from both the nuclear industry and small-scale nuclear activities.
Methodology
The objective is to set up a multi-step process, as follows:
>> Identification of the radiological and chemical inventory
concerned;
>> Detailed mapping of the site, with clear indications of the
radioactive spots;
>> Detailed analysis of the geology and of the hydrogeology
of the site, followed by, most of the time, geotechnical and
hydrogeological surveys and studies;
>> Assessment of the radiological risk of the site by taking into
French national radioactive waste management agency
>> Analyses of potential solutions: in situ treatment of materials,
transport, future capping of the site, etc., taking into account
safety and cost criteria;
>> Implementation of the selected long-term solutions;
>> Specification of an environmental-monitoring programme;
>> Preparation of application files to safety authorities.
Andra Solutions
Andra is responsible for the management of all radioactive waste produced in France. This includes the securing of French orphan sites where industrial,
medical and research activities have led to radioactive pollution.
On behalf of the country, the Agency
is therefore called upon to manage
polluted sites: old industrial plants,
laboratories, schools, etc.
In the Paris suburbs, for instance,
Andra cleaned up homes that had
been built on the site of a former
company which used radium.
The Agency is also intervening in
Southern France to clean up a site
where the former operator has
abandoned radioactive products.
2
1
3
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1•2•3• Sites that are contaminated
with radioactivity may be quite different
in nature:
(1) private homes built on sites where
radioelements were used in the past,
(2) an industrial site where watches and
alarm clocks were manufactured,
(3) a former research laboratory on
radium.
For further information or contact : [email protected] - Tel. : + 33 1 46 11 82 99
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account different scenarios and the risks associated with
other pollutions;
Products and Services
Deep Geological
Repository
Deep geological disposal of spent fuel
and of high-level (HL) and intermediate level
long-lived (IL-LL) waste.
The planned lay-out of the
deep geological disposal
facility
Once unloaded from nuclear reactors, spent fuel may be either considered as waste to be disposed of or processed in order to retrieve its recyclable content. In the
second case, the residues are in the form of HL or IL-LL waste and include on the one hand fission products and minor actinides, and on the other hand processinduced salts and waste produced by the structures of the nuclear fuel assembly (as hulls and end-caps). Many countries have already selected deep geological disposal as
the reference solution for the management of HL and IL-LL waste. In fact, the remarkable characteristics of certain deep geological formations make them suitable for
confining the hazardous substances present in such waste during the radioactive-decay period until they represent no more risk for human beings and the environment.
Methodology
>> Identification of preliminary disposal
concepts: search for adapted solutions
based on the characteristics of the
waste and geological conditions;
>> Scientific-research, modeling and
simulation programmes;
>> Construction and operations of an
>> Search for potential host sites for the
siting of deep geological repository;
Underground Research Laboratory
>> Communication and relations with
stakeholders in the framework of
the decision-making process at the
national, regional and local levels;
experiments);
>> Design of the waste repository and of its
>> Geological-survey programmes;
>> Cost evaluation for such a facility;
(including the conducting of
structures;
>> Definition of waste-package acceptance
criteria, disposal specifications and
control modalities;
>> Technological development programmes
and construction of technological
demonstrators;
>> Safety studies and assessments,
preparation of regulatory licensing
applications;
>> Specific studies on operating
conditions, reversibility options, longterm monitoring, etc.;
French national radioactive waste management agency
Andra Solutions
Andra is responsible for managing all radioactive waste produced in France. It benefits from 40 years’ experience in the preparation of projects for the
>> The research carried out notably at
the URL (Underground Research
Laboratory) led to the publication
of the Dossier 2005 in which Andra
demonstrated the feasibility of deep
geological disposal for HL and ILLL waste, including a reversibility
rationale.
>> Andra has demonstrated its capability
to design and to lead the required
scientific R&D program to justify its
proposed options and to demonstrate
the safety of its solutions, thus
ensuring a high added value
to its projects. Similarly, it also
develops various construction and
handling methods and processes,
for which demonstrators and pilot
models were built and tested.
They are now shown at the Andra
Technological Exhibition Centre.
>> The Research Program carried out
in preparation for the implementation
of disposal facilities relies on
a rigorous knowledge of the waste
and of the sites involved, and uses
an iterative design approach. The
performance of the disposal facility
and the safety it provides are
constantly re-assessed via a series
of methods developed by Andra
and are designed to integrate both
the existing knowledge and system
analysis.
>> The Agency has developped
a methodology for the
phenomenological analysis of
repository situations in order
to describe and analyse any
phenomenon likely to occur
throughout the evolution of
the repository, including over
the long-term.
1
2
1• Before being emplaced in disposal cells, HL radioactive-waste packages are conditioned in disposal containers
3
2• Aerial view of Andra’s Meuse/Haute-Marne URL, where Andra is studying a suitable clay-rock formation for
siting the future repository for HL and IL-LL waste at a depth of 500 m
3• The Technological Exhibition Center showing the demonstrators of waste packages and handling robots
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implementation of a repository
Products and Services
Radium-bearing
waste
The management of radioactive waste
resulting from the production of rare earths or
from groundwater containing mineral salts
In France, Andra is currently studying a disposal
concept for long-lived radioactive waste, such as
radium-bearing residues
Radium-bearing waste is radioactive and, as its name implies, contains radium. It may result from ore mining, the treatment of groundwaters originating from deep
geological formations, oil production or industrial activities.
Often important in volume, radium-bearing waste is generally of low-level or intermediate-level activity, which means that a light protection mechanism is sufficient
against irradiation risks. However this type of waste is radon gas producing and this must also be taken into account. The storage solution, which usually involves waste
preconditioning, must ensure the safety and radiation protection of the staff working on the site, of neighbouring populations and of the environment.
However, storage must be considered only as a temporary measure. In fact, radium-bearing residues are long-lived and require specific long-term management solutions in
order to prevent any future migration or transfer (notably by air) of radioactive substances and to protect the populations and the environment against contamination risks.
Methodology
>> 1• Good knowledge of the waste
and of its future production
The first step consists in drawing
an inventory of existing waste on
the different sites, starting with a
preliminary characterisation, in order
to design and implement immediate
radiation-protection systems, if need
be.
The assessment of future waste
production will complete the
preliminary inventory by including in it
a prospective dimension.
>> 2• Short-term protection and
development of concepts for
long-term management
The second step implies the short-
term protection against the risks
induced by radium-bearing waste
through their preconditioning before
collection, transport and potential
temporary storage (centralised or
not).
On the basis of the characteristics
of the residues, preliminary disposal
concepts are developed for their long-
French national radioactive waste management agency
A safety assessment concludes that
phase and ensures the conformity
of the overall solution with the
regulatory framework, notably with
regard to environmental impacts.
order to select the service providers
or the building contractors.
>> 3• Conduct of the project
Once the licence is granted, the third
step consists in establishing on the
basis of the selected concepts and
of their modus operandi, technical
requirements and specifications in
Andra Solutions
Andra is responsible for
the management of all radioactive
waste produced in France.In that
capacity, the Agency has more than
15 years’ experience in drawing
inventories (notably prospective)
and characterising radioactive
waste resulting not only from
the nuclearpower sector, but also
from the chemical industry and other
industrial applications of radioactivity.
Andra has developed concepts and
methodologies for a large variety
of waste categories, notably those
with “very-low-level” and “lowlevel long-lived” residues, such as
radium-bearing waste from industrial
activities, as well as for substantial
volumes.
1
2
1• Radium-bearing waste resulting from
the treatment of rare earths for industrial
applications.
3
2• 3• Industrial activities, such as the
production of zirconium (2) generate
radium-bearing residues, stored here in
the same industrial facility where they are
produced (3).
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term management. For economic and
safety reasons, it is worth mentioning
that the design of preconditioning
must be consistent with the long-term
safety objectives and the disposal
concepts.