Chapter 7
Motivation and Emotion
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Explaining Motivation
• Learning Outcomes
– Explain instinct approaches to motivation
– Explain drive-reduction approaches to motivation
– Explain arousal approaches to motivation
– Explain incentive approaches to motivation
– Explain cognitive approaches to motivation
– Apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to motivation
– Apply the different approaches to motivation
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Instinct Approaches: Born to Be
Motivated
• Motivation: the factors that direct and
energize the behavior of humans and other
organisms
• Instincts: inborn patterns of behavior that are
biologically determined rather than learned;
essential to survival
– Instincts provide energy that guides behavior
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Drive-Reduction Approaches:
Satisfying Our Needs
• Drive-reduction approaches: lack of a basic
biological requirement (such as water)
produces a drive (such as thirst) to obtain that
requirement
– Drive: motivational tension, or arousal, that
energizes behavior to fulfill a need
• Primary drives
• Secondary drives
– Homeostasis: the body’s tendency to maintain a
steady internal state; underlies primary drives
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Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive
Reduction
• Arousal approaches to motivation: we try to
maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity,
increasing or reducing them as necessary
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Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s
Pull
• Incentive approaches to motivation:
motivation stems from the desire to obtain
valued external goals, or incentives
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Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts
Behind Motivation
• Cognitive approaches to motivation:
motivation is a product of cognitions (thoughts
and expectations)
– Intrinsic motivation: motivated by your own
enjoyment rather than by any concrete reward;
intrinsic = internal to you
– Extrinsic motivation: doing something for a
concrete reward; extrinsic = external to you
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Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering
Motivational Needs
• Maslow’s model: motivational needs are in a
hierarchy; primary needs must be met before
higher-order needs can be satisfied
– Level 1, Physiological needs/primary drives: needs for
water, food, sleep, sex, etc.
– Level 2, Safety needs: the need for a safe, secure
environment
– Level 3, Love and belongingness: the need to obtain
and give affection & to be a contributing member of a
group or society
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Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering
Motivational Needs (cont.)
– Level 4, Esteem: the
need to develop a
sense of self-worth
from others knowing
and valuing your
competence
– Level 5, Selfactualization: a state
of self-fulfillment in
which people realize
their highest
potential, each in his
or her own unique
way
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Applying the Different Approaches to
Motivation
• Which approach best explains motivation?
– Any or all of them! Applying multiple approaches in
a given situation provides a broader understanding
than if we use just one approach alone.
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Human Needs and Motivation: Eat,
Drink, and Be Daring
• Learning Outcomes
– Describe the biological and social factors that
underlie hunger
– Summarize the varieties of sexual behavior
– Explain how needs related to achievement,
affiliation, and power are exhibited
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The Motivation Behind Hunger and
Eating
• Obesity: body weight that is more than 20
percent above the average weight for a person of
a particular height
– Body mass index (BMI): based on a ratio of weight to
height; BMI > 30 considered obese, BMI between 25
and 30 are overweight
• Weight set point: particular level of weight that
the body strives to maintain; may be affected by
injury to the hypothalamus
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The Motivation Behind Hunger and
Eating (cont.)
• Metabolism: the rate at which food is
converted to energy and expended by the
body
• Social factors (such as cultural influences),
along with biology, play an important role in
eating and hunger
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The Motivation Behind Hunger and
Eating (cont.)
• Anorexia nervosa: a severe eating disorder; people
may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior
and appearance (which can become skeleton-like)
are unusual
– Mainly afflicts females between 12 and 40, but can affect
men and women of any age
– Typically stable background
– Can happen when serious dieting gets out of control
– About 10% of people with anorexia starve themselves to
death
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The Motivation Behind Hunger and
Eating (cont.)
• Bulimia: disorder in which people binge on large
quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the
food by vomiting or other means, such as taking
laxatives
• Causes of eating disorders
– Biological: chemical imbalance in hypothalamus or
pituitary gland; differences in how the brain processes info
about food
– Social: society values slenderness and obesity is
undesirable; overly demanding parents or other family
problems
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Sexual Motivation
• Estrogens and
progesterone: female sex
hormones produced by
the ovaries; greatest
production during
ovulation (when an egg is
released from the ovaries)
• Androgens: male sex
hormones secreted by the
testes
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Sexual Motivation (cont.)
• Masturbation: sexual self-stimulation
• Heterosexuality: sexual attraction and
behavior directed to the other sex
• Double standard: the view that premarital sex
(sex before marriage) is permissible for males
but not for females
• Extramarital sex: sexual activity between a
married person and someone who is not his or
her spouse
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Sexual Motivation (cont.)
• Homosexuals: those who are sexually
attracted to members of their own sex (many
prefer terms gay and lesbian)
• Bisexuals: those who are sexually attracted to
people of the same sex and the other sex
– Kinsey considered sexual orientation along a
continuum, from “exclusively homosexual” to
“exclusively heterosexual”
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Sexual Motivation (cont.)
• Determinants of sexual
orientation
– Biological: genetics,
hormones, brain structures
– Parenting: research does not
support the idea that sexual
orientation is brought about by
child-rearing practices or
family dynamics
– Most likely a combination of
biology & environment
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Sexual Motivation (cont.)
• Transsexuals: People who believe they were
born with the body of the other gender
– Transgenderism: includes transsexuals,
transvestites (dress in the clothing of the other
gender), and others who believe traditional malefemale gender classifications do not adequately
describe them
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The Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
• Need for achievement: a stable, learned
characteristic in which a person obtains
satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level
of excellence
– Measured by the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT): series of ambiguous pictures, about which a
person is asked to write a story
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The Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power (cont.)
• Need for affiliation: an interest in establishing
and maintaining relationships with other
people
• Need for power: a tendency to seek impact,
control, or influence over others, and to be
seen as a powerful individual
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Understanding Emotional Experiences
• Learning Outcomes
– Define the range of emotions
– Explain the roots of emotions
• Emotions: feelings that generally have both
physiological and cognitive elements and that
influence behavior
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Determining the Range of Emotions:
Labeling Our Feelings
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The Roots of Emotions
• James-Lange theory of emotion: emotions are
experienced as a reaction to bodily events occurring
as a result of an external situation (bodily changes
cause feeling of emotion)
• Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: both physiological
arousal and emotional experience are produced at
the same time by the same nerve stimulus
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The Roots of Emotions (cont.)
• Schachter-Singer theory of emotion:
emotions are determined jointly by a
nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and
its interpretation, which is based on
environmental cues
• Contemporary perspectives: specific patterns
of biological arousal (such as activating
different parts of the brain) seem to be
associated with individual emotions
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