121
THE METAPHORICAL PRISON AS AN EXEGETICAL
Karl-Heinz
IMAGE OF
MAN
Göller
Outline
1.
P r i s o n as r e a l i t y a n d m e t a p h o r :
2.
The
of
t h e ConsolaCio
of Boethius
as a p o i n t
departure.
l e v e l s o f m e a n i n g and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m e d i e v a l
3.
The l i t e r a l l e v e l o f " P r i s o n " ( s e n s u s
4.
From t h e l i t e r a l
5.
From t h e a l l e g o r i c a l
6.
The m e t a p h o r o f p r i s o n a n d human d e s t i n y :
7.
F a c t and f i c t i o n :
1.
P r i s o n as r e a l i t y and metaphor:
of
departure
In
the year
Boethius
was
Theoderich
level
book
officiorum
for alleged
While
o r m o r a l one.
treason
upon
This
the
visit
of
as a p o i n t
named P a t r i c i u s
by
i n p r i s o n , he w r o t e
guide
level.
literature.
of B o e t h i u s
the
imperial
t h e wondrous
t h e l a s t m a j o r w o r k i n t h e Greco-Roman
centres
i n prison.
historicus).
the anagogical
t h e Consolatio
was t o become a h a n d b o o k a n d s p i r i t u a l
The
o r sensus
- and v i c e v e r s a .
to the t r o p o l o g i c a l
524 a Roman magister
Philosophiae,
Boethius
one
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e a l i t y and
imprisoned
i n Pavia.
Consolatio
litteralis
l e v e l to the a l l e g o r i c a l
texts.
Severinus
guards
book
o f the
spirit,
throughout the Middle
of
which
Ages.~
t h e p e r s o n i f i e d Philosophia
to
c o n c e p t f o r m s t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e d i a l o g u e , and t h e
image o f t h e p r i s o n r e m a i n s a k i n d o f p i v o t a l p o i n t f o r t h e w h o l e work w h i c h
d e a l s w i t h t h e meaning o f f o r t u n e and m i s f o r t u n e
o f Philosophia
culminates
meaningless.
for
i n human l i f e .
The r e j e c t i o n o f a l l t h a t i s
p u r e l y m a t e r i a l i s p a r t o f the P l a t o n i c h e r i t a g e o f Boethius.
the
t a s k o f human r e a s o n
realm
of ideas
undertaking
things.
more t h a n
teaching
Man i s a d m o n i s h e d t o r i s e a b o v e t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d and t o s t r i v e
t h e h i g h e s t good - t h e o r i g i n o f a l l Good.
highest
The
i n t h e p r o o f t h a t e a r t h l y goods and good f o r t u n e a r e
by
This
beyond
the d e s i r e
i s r e c o g n i t i o n of the e t e r n a l ,
the merely
of
material.
the senses
Man
For P l a t o , the
the
search f o r
i s hampered
f o r e a r t h l y and h e n c e
i s t h e c o n g e n i t a l w e a k n e s s o f t h e human b o d y w h i c h
in
this
transient
i s nothing
the p r i s o n o f the s o u l .
The c o n c e p t o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o d y a n d s o u l h a d a l r e a d y become a
commonplace
2 o f Book V.
i n late antiquity.
Boethius
Here t h e s o u l makes i t s e l f
makes p a r t i c u l a r u s e o f i t i n P r o s e
a p r i s o n e r by r e l i n q u i s h i n g
reason
122
and
yielding
to v i c e .
ever-present
the
But
P l a t o n i c concept.
literally;
already
she
Philosophy
Philosophy
has
only
knows no
values
descended
t o be
Philosophy,
from
imprisoned
only
Consolatio
The
upper
f e a r , and who
submit of t h e i r
imprisonment.
own
surrender
to the
the
i s no
to the
first
confusion
i n s t e a d the
( M e t r e 2,
pp.
11-12).
The
eyes o f
to
contradict
of meaning and
various
S.
the
their
Lewis^,
proves,
is
part
and
am
well
yet
one
wants to u n d e r s t a n d
were
acquainted
structures.
parcel
of
s i g n i f i c a n c e of h i s t o r y .
authors
acquainted
necessarily with
the
neck i s
the
Philosophy
however,
that his
o f human e x i s t e n c e .
voluntarily
Thus e a c h man
bears
with a l l i t s rich tradition
Ages as p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e ,
I
and
f o l l o w e r s must be
corresponding
turn
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of medieval t e x t s
Consolatio
e x e g e t i c a l m o d e l s o f t h o u g h t h a v e t o be
Anyone who
the
A t no p o i n t i n t h e b o o k d o e s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which
imprisonment. ^
C.
the p r i s o n e r
"dead e a r t h " ,
a p r i s o n e r ; she
the model o f B o e t h i u s '
of
to
freedom.
i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h o u t the M i d d l e
metaphor
they
and t h e b e a u t i e s o f
through a f a l s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to r e a l i t y .
levels
the
earthly
doing,
t h i n g i s t h e p r i s o n o f t h e s o u l , i n w h i c h man
w i t h i n h i m s e l f the key
analyze
i n so
who
i m p r i s o n m e n t means a k i n d
the s t a r s of the heaven, n a t u r e
is in reality
important
The
his
accusations.
p r i s o n f o r t h e man
concrete p r i s o n i s i r r e l e v a n t f o r a l l s i g n i f i c a n t aspects
Using
l o n e l i n e s s of
I m p r i s o n m e n t t h u s becomes a m e t a p h o r f o r a s i c k n e s s o f
deny t h a t B o e t h i u s
2.
her
that
o f s l a v e r y , i n o t h e r words
l i n e s o f t h e Consolatio,
human s o u l e r r i n g f r o m i t s d e s t i n y . - *
locks himself
into
Only those bound by
g a z e i s b e n t downwards t o w a r d
bowed i n s l a v e r y . ^
only
prison
assumes
false
enemy, and
shackles
with
J
away f r o m t h e s p h e r e s ,
The
in his
draws h i m
v i c t i m i z e d by
no v a i n e x p e c t a t i o n s .
and
free w i l l
From t h e v e r y
of s p i r i t u a l
has
shield
Boethius
to
the
i n keeping
prisoner at f i r s t
regions
h e r s e l f and
transforms
one,
t h e p r i s o n e r , and
"we".
the
visits
h o w e v e r , makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e
drop t h e i r
world;
not
identifies herself with
a r g u m e n t a t i o n by u s i n g t h e p l u r a l
exile,
Book I o f t h e
genuine p r i s o n i n P a v i a i n t o a metaphorical
The
that
The
with
have
aware
of
my
taken
the
with
been
of
first
dangerous
premises
like
with
i t is
will
be
to
the
to
that
into consideration.^
mentality
their
how
I should
associated
of
of medieval
patterns
of
authors
thought
and
and
the
theory o f a l l e g o r i a , of the l e v e l s o f meaning,
heritage.
I t provided
an
explanation
of
texts I s h a l l deal with a l l indicate that
the
various
levels
of meaning
- although
the p e r t i n e n t s c h o l a s t i c e x e g e t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y .
the
their
not
Fourfold
123
t e x t a n a l y s i s h a d become so commonplace t h a t by t h e L a t e M i d d l e Ages ( a n d e v e n
in
t h e E a r l y M o d e r n p e r i o d ) i t was
thought.
Not
only
interpretation
was
i t used
of e x i s t i n g
automatically part
for exegetical
texts,
but
i t also
substratum f o r the c r e a t i v i t y o f the p o e t i c
The
genuine
prison
(sensus
o f t h e p o e t ' s way
purposes,
formed
that
a kind
of
i s f o r the
of
underlying
imagination.
historicus)
as
a
building
i n which
the
p r i s o n e r i s e n c l o s e d s y m b o l i z e s i n B o e t h i u s , as i n o t h e r a u t h o r s , t h e n e t h e r
w o r l d above w h i c h mankind
the
world,
contains
or
the
of
love
nucleus
of
must r i s e ;
(sensus
a l l further
s i g n a t i per spiritum l i t t e r a e ,
already
namely
embodies the m o r a l
can break
h o w e v e r , he
The
other.
to
task which
by
i n t h i s way
different
understand
examples
ensues
striving
man
levels
new
of
level
reality
are
from
t o make
i n which the l e v e l s
them
"quia
spiritual
sunt
level
enlightenment,
s i n (sensus
tropologicus).
f o r t h e H i g h e s t Good, w h i c h i s
(sensus
S h o u l d he
fail,
anagogicus).
interrelated
accessible.
of r e a l i t y
meaning
The a l l e g o r i c a l
and
i s not only a r e f l e c t i o n of h i s t o r i c a l
them and
of
interpretation,
p a r t a k e s o f the D i v i n e .
i s doomed t o t h e p r i s o n o f h e l l
Literature
of
o f f the bands o f
imprisonment
i d e n t i c a l w i t h God;
planes
This
e t non p e r l i t t e r a m . " ^
the c h a l l e n g e to throw
Mankind
i t s t a n d s f o r the p r i s o n o f the body, o f
allegoricus).
I will
refer
to
each
f a c t s b u t a means
limit
and m e t a p h o r a r e a l m o s t
myself
to
necessarily
r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r b y c h o o s i n g poems on p r i s o n and i m p r i s o n m e n t w r i t t e n i n
p r i s o n or during imprisonment.
I t c a n be assumed t h a t p o e t s i n s u c h
were f o r c e d t o w r i t e i n a g o n i z i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e i r r e s t r i c t i o n s .
extremes
We
can
f u r t h e r assume t h a t t h e i r a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r w o r k .
The
1.
f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s seem t o be r e l e v a n t i n t h i s r e g a r d :
How
are the p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f imprisonment r e p r e s e n t e d i n the
p o e t ' s work?
2.
In which
way
allegorical
and
with
level
what
intention
made
are
mutually
the
literal
dependent
and
and
the
thus
interchangeable?
3.
How
4.
What d o e s t h e p r i s o n m e t a p h o r t e l l us a b o u t t h e p o e t ' s c o n c e p t i o n
5.
What i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i t e r a t u r e
of
does the a l l e g o r i c a l
s e n s e become a m o r a l l e s s o n ?
human d e s t i n y ?
and r e a l i t y
- is i t
r e a l l y mimetic or homologic?
3.
The
l i t e r a l level of "Prison"
(sensus
The
outer
i s hardly
reality
of
prison
litteralis
ever
o r sensus
described
historicus)
in detail
in
124
medieval poetry.
U s u a l l y the a u t h o r s are
c o n t e n t w i t h v a g u e comments on
l o c a t i o n o f t h e p r i s o n o r dungeon, w h i c h was
g e n e r a l l y s i t u a t e d i n the
tower or keep of a c a s t l e .
R o y a l and n o b l e p r i s o n e r s , h o w e v e r , o f t e n
luxury
deep d a r k v a u l t s .
suites
prisoner
rather
than
o f t e n meant s o m e t h i n g l i k e
being
In
the
Middle
defeated
enough i n l i t e r a t u r e .
opponents to A r t h u r ' s
t o Queen G u i n e v e r e .
The
Such k n i g h t s
r e l e a s e d from detention.
know o f p r i s o n e r s who
knights
d'Orleans's
( 1 3 9 1 - 1 4 6 5 ) s t a y as
f.
on
i t can
be
read
a
for
There
are
sent
their
himself,
parole,
or
i.e.
many f a c e s .
We
of others
who
a prisoner
(MS
from r i g h t to
i n the
W h i t e Tower
B r i t i s h Museum R o y a l
left.
On
the
far right
16
F
side,
i s s i t t i n g a t a w r i t i n g - t a b l e u n d e r an a r c h , c l o t h e d i n e r m i n e - f u r r e d
robes
and
g u a r d e d by
s o l d i e r s wearing
middle of the p i c t u r e Charles
what may
Charles
w e l l be
the
Cross
of
Saint
George.
i s l o o k i n g o u t o f a window, and
a writing roll
or
parchment.
green.
horse
On
the
court,
with
i t s red
left
side of
together
caparison
the
i s being
p i c t u r e the
w i t h h i s p a g e and
p i c t u r e story i s apparently
held
Halfway
knight
by
a
a l a r g e company.
to
the
The
he
the
left
a roll.
The
page
is riding
a c e r t a i n message t h e p r i s o n e r
In
i n each hand
i s g r e e t i n g a k n i g h t w i t h a r e d s u r c o a t , w h i l e g i v i n g him
knight's
palace
but
be
at a l l .
II,
holds
King
I m p r i s o n m e n t i n t h e M i d d l e Ages h a d
been p r e s e r v e d i n a k i n d of p i c t u r e s t o r y
73).12
Round T a b l e
p r a c t i c a l l y r o t t e d i n d a r k d u n g e o n s , and
has
Charles
the
were a l s o p r i s o n e r s ,
b a r e l y changed t h e i r r o y a l s t y l e o f l i f e
Charles
of
to
Thus,
castles.H
C o u r t a f t e r a j o u s t , to the
great
occupied
Ages,
under house a r r e s t . ^
e x a m p l e , E n g l i s h k i n g s w e r e o f t e n p r i s o n e r s i n t h e i r own
parallels
the
dressed
away f r o m
in
the
subject of
the
i s sending to
his
friends.
An
level
the
a d d i t i o n a l p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l m e a n i n g and
of the
reason
r a n s o m and
allegorical
often
Two
t e x t are
for his
the
p o e t ' s comments on
imprisonment,
t h r e a t s of revenge.
complaints
poems, f o r e x a m p l e i n t h e
poems w r i t t e n by
English
about h i s
A l l these motifs
ballads
they comprise the major p o r t i o n o r
kings,
therewith
d e t a i l s of h i s
the
Richard
the
life
opponents, pleas
occur i n h i g h l y
of
Charles
for
complicated
d'Orleans.
e s s e n t i a l content of
I and
literal
in prison,
Quite
the
Edward I I , c a n
poem.
serve
as
Leopold
IV
examples.
Richard
of
the
A u s t r i a during
Lionhearted
(1157-1199)1-^ was
his
from
Dürnstein C a s t l e , and,
captivity,
he
return
the
Third
l a t e r , on t h e T r i f e l s
Crusade,
and
kept
prisoner
I n 1193,
during
his
complained of h i s fate
and
(1192-1194).
w r o t e a poem i n F r e n c h i n w h i c h he
addressed b i t t e r accusations
t a k e n c a p t i v e by
toward h i s v a s s a l s .
He r e g a r d e d i t as a
in
disgrace
125
t h a t he h a d t o s p e n d two w i n t e r s
he h i m s e l f
i n p r i s o n simply
f o r l a c k o f ransom, whereas
w o u l d f r e e t h e p o o r e s t comrade f r o m s u c h d u r e s s i f i t were m e r e l y
a matter of gold.
A l l t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e poem a r e s o b e r , o b j e c t i v e , a n d
d i r e c t l y connected w i t h the s i t u a t i o n , and the i n d i v i d u a l peoples and n a t i o n s
f r o m w h i c h he h a d h o p e d f o r h e l p
does R i c h a r d
person.
wax p o e t i c :
a r e named e x p l i c i t l y .
O n l y i n one p a s s a g e
when h e a d d r e s s e s h i s poem a s t h o u g h
i t were a
I t i s t o t e l l h i s comrade w a r r i o r s t h a t t h e y h a v e p r o v e d u n r e l i a b l e :
" q u * i l s ne s o n t p a s c e r t a i n s " . ^
I n a s i m i l a r manner Edward
in
Kenilworth
and
later
imprisonment (preserved
poem
i n the s t y l e
original.
font
i n Berkeley
to
compose
i n a manuscript of before
of Provencal
lyric
poetry
has been
idleness
poems
on h i s
One A n g l o - N o r m a n
preserved
fortune
p e r s i s t i n t o r m e n t i n g h i m e v e n i n p r i s o n ("En f o r t
p e n e r " , V. 16; " P e n e r me
funt
c r u e l e m e n t " ; V. 1 7 ) .
s e c o n d p o r t i o n o f t h e poem c o n s i s t s o f a p r a y e r
and
several
1350).^
The f i r s t p o r t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t
e n e m i e s , who s t i l l
me
I I (1307-1327) u s e d h i s e n f o r c e d
1 6
i n the
and h i s
prison
The l a r g e r ,
f o r the forgiveness
of sins
f o r i n t e r c e s s i o n i n b e h a l f o f t h e y o u n g E d w a r d , who h a d j u s t b e e n c r o w n e d
king
his
inhisplace.^
inmost wish.
poem.
May God d e s t r o y
Like
I t i s to v i s i t
message:
Richard
a l l t h e enemies o f t h e K i n g
I , Edward t h e n p r o c e e d s
a woman i n K e n i r e
when t h e r a g i n g
stag
turns
- this i s
t o a d d r e s s h i s own
( ? ) a n d g i v e h e r a somewhat c r y p t i c
back from f l i g h t
and a t t a c k s
t h e dogs,
1Q
she w i l l n e e d no p h y s i c i a n s i n c e s h e i s so w i s e .
J
(??) -°
Edward's poem c l o s e s
w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r t h e g r a c e o f God.
4.
From t h e l i t e r a l
l e v e l t o t h e a l l e g o r i c a l one - a n d v i c e
versa
F a r more o f t e n t h a n g e n u i n e p r i s o n s , we f i n d m e t a p h o r i c a l
in
literature,
love
i s often
f o r instance
L y r i c poetry
them i n n a r r a t i v e w o r k s .
analogy
between
relationship
the lover
between
tenor
and
is full
This
ones
In pictorial
s y m b o l i z e d by t h e f i g u r e o f t h e p r i s o n e r
away i n a t o w e r . ^
find
the P r i s o n o f L o v e . ^
of prisoners
treated
a r t courtly
locked^
or wasting
o f l o v e , b u t we
also
i s e v i d e n t l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
the prisoner
and v e h i c l e
was
a
felicitous
o f t h e metaphor
must
one; t h e
have
seemed
perfectly natural.
O f t e n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r e a l and t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l
very
explicitly.
Thus,
i n Kyng
Alisaunder,
i s stated
C a n d a c e makes i t c l e a r
to the
g r e a t A l e x a n d e r t h a t she h a s t a k e n h i m c a p t i v e t h r o u g h h e r w i l e s , a n d t h a t he
is
now h e r p r i s o n e r :
0, A l i s a u n d e r , o f g r e t e r e n o u n !
£>ou a r t y t a k e i n my p r i s o u n !
126
A I \>i s t r e n g t e ne gayne]) ])e n a u z t h ,
F o r a womman £>ee ha]> y c a u z t h ,
A womman £>ee ha£> i n h e r l ä a s ! ^
But
Candace h a s n o t o n l y
locked Alexander
a l s o m e t a p h o r i c a l l y i n h e r bonds.
he
has been conquered
agrees,
but consoles
suffered similar
r a t h e r "solas'*.
has
i n mind,
a n d made
t h a t Adam, Samson, D a v i d
I n o r d e r t o l e a v e no d o u b t s a s t o t h e k i n d o f c o n s o l a t i o n s h e
t h e poem c l e a r l y
s t a t e s t h a t i t i s t o be a d m i n i s t e r e d
t h e example
(V.
"To
269)^
o f Kyng
Alisaunder,
used i n t e n t i o n a l l y t o invoke
i n i t i a l step i s often missing.
death
i n bed
W i t h g r e a t c a n d o u r , Dame C a n d a c e e n c o u r a g e s A l e x a n d e r :
there
t r a n s f e r from t h e genuine t o t h e symbolic;
and
Candace
a n d Salomon
A n d b e s i d e s , h i s l o t was n o t t o b e m i s f o r t u n e , b u t
my b a u n d o u n , l e u e s i r e ! " ,
and
i n a g e n u i n e p r i s o n ; he i s
himself r e a l i z e s with a sigh that
c a p t i v e b y t h e w i l e s o f a woman.
him with the fact
fates.
under t h e covers.
In
Alexander
i s a
clear
metaphorical
the concept o f p r i s o n i s r e t a i n e d
certain associations.
I n love poetry
this
Frequently capture and condemnation t o p r i s o n
a r e t a k e n up a t t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l
level:
t o de\>e \>ou h a u e s t me d i g h t ^
Heo
me w o l t o dejje b r y n g l o n g e r my d a y . ^
But
generally
authors
speak
o f the Prison
o f Love
without
deeper
reflection.
The l o v e r i s b o u n d b y c h a i n s , r e f e r s t o h i m s e l f a s a c a p t i v e o r
slave,
f o r t h e l o v e d one a s a p r i s o n e r does f o r f r e e d o m , s u f f e r s l i k e
longs
someone w i t h
agonizes
a deadly
and sighs
disease,
c a n h a r d l y move h i s l i m b s ,
f o r h i s l o v e d one:
and c o n t i n u a l l y
"Ore s u e n p r i s u n " ^ - a t p r e s e n t
I
am i n p r i s o n .
The
direction
taken
i n the abstract
process
o f metaphorisation i s
e v i d e n t i n e x a m p l e s , w h i c h , l i k e t h e Consolatio,
take the s i t u a t i o n o f genuine
imprisonment
A
translation
as t h e i r
called
point
o f departure.
"A P r i s o n e r ' s
Prayer"
c o n s i s t s o f t h e m o n o l o g u e o f a man who, a l t h o u g h
thrown
into
mesprisun",
prison.
'because
I n t h e French
of the faults
s i t u a t i o n seems r e a l i s t i c .
the
speaker:
French
i s a good
text
innocent
he s t a t e s :
of others'.
poem
with
example.^
7
English
The poem
(V. 1 2 - 1 4 ) , h a s been
"Tout
pour
autrui
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
F u r t h e r companions have a l s o been i m p r i s o n e d
" I o e mi a u t r e
compaignun,
with
I c h a n d m i n e f e r e n sume" (V.
11).
The p r i s o n e r p r a y s t o God f o r d e l i v e r a n c e ( " d e l i v e r e z " ) . B u t w h i l e t h e F r e n c h
original
s p e a k s more a b s t r a c t l y
version
r e t a i n s the i n i t i a l
woning"
(= t h i s
The
request
o f r e l e a s e from
situation
and speaks
"ceste peine",
of deliverance
the English
form
"this
who h a v e b r o u g h t
about
'habitation').
o f t h e p o e t t h a t God f o r g i v e t h o s e
127
such e v i l
f o r h i m and h i s f r i e n d s i s r e m a r k a b l e ,
but e v i d e n t l y a topos.
a l s o m a r k s t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e poem.
before l a s t
life.
s t a t e s t h a t he
i s a f o o l , who
I n the French v e r s i o n Fortuna
s t i g h e , Ded
him
plural
i n place
prison
setting
realm
of
the
felled
of
the
i s m e n t i o n e d by name as t h e m i s t r e s s o f
to g e n e r a l
poem.
The
the
less
allegorical
i s the
of
the
sensus
29-30).
Use
well
t e r m s o f human f a t e ,
fall:
of
as
the
draw t h e
"Heghe t h e g h
the
first
audience
of the p r i s o n e r i s thus
of
the
into
the
g i v e n the
than
the
opposite
I n t h i s case
a l l e g o r i c u s and
transcendence
o f the h i s t o r i c a l
the
literary,
metaphorical
for
describing a historical
for
t h i s complex procedure
be
s u r e , t h i s was
status
view p o i n t , which
i s taken
level
l o o k back
from
this
vantage
p r i s o n t h a t becomes t h e
point
instrument
s i t u a t i o n , s u c h as i m p r i s o n m e n t .
c a n h a r d l y be r e d u c e d
by
i n many w o r k s
the authors have a l r e a d y a c h i e v e d the
level
upon
i n d i v i d u a l , s u b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e and i n t e r p r e t .
is
person
extension
life.
significant
written i n prison.
(V.
s i n g u l a r as
situation
o f a m e t a p h o r f o r human
No
t o gründe"
previous
stanza
places his trust i n this transient
d e s t i n y , w h e r e a s t h e E n g l i s h poem s p e a k s o n l y o f r i s e and
he
This
The
the
Here i t
or v e h i c l e
The
motivation
t o a common d e n o m i n a t o r .
o f t e n an a p t d i s g u i s e f o r p o l i t i c a l l y
dangerous
w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e p r e s s e d , h a d t h e y b e e n p r e s e n t e d o p e n l y and
To
complaints
directly.
A t t h e same t i m e , h o w e v e r , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e o n l y r e a s o n f o r
such
poems as
The
Kingis
Quair
or
the b a l l a d s o f C h a r l e s
a u t h o r s a r e f a r more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e s s e n c e b e h i n d
d'Orleans.
the m a t e r i a l w o r l d ,
t h e r e w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f w h a t t h e y see
as random e v e n t s ,
in
above a l l ,
their
personal
lives.
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of l i f e
the
the world;
including
provides
i t represents the
a key
and
those
to
the
o b j e c t i v e aspect
of
mystery.
The
century
vie
Thus a l l e g o r y ,
and
Such
m e a n i n g o f The
Kingis
w i t h one
another,^
adequately
taken
Quair
manner.
poem.
w r i t t e n b y James I . i n t h e e a r l y
above a l l b e c a u s e t h e
o f n a r r a t i v e comment and
Kingis
Quair^
i s , up t o t h e p r e s e n t , n o t c o m p l e t e l y c l e a r ; v a r i o u s
The
One
authors:
as
the
complexity
into consideration.
a
presentation
Consolatio
of
of
t e n s i o n between the
naiveness
i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s have not
been
Today t h e m a j o r i t y o f o p i n i o n s e e s
personal
experience
in
a
the
metaphorical
of B o e t h i u s p r o v i d e s a k i n d o f m a t r i x f o r the
entire
reason f o r t h i s i s , o f course, the shared b a s i c e x p e r i e n c e o f
t h e i r w o r k s were w r i t t e n i n p r i s o n and
15th
interpretations
contain reflections
both
on
the
of bread
and
on
problems a r i s i n g
Naturally
from t h i s s i t u a t i o n .
James d i d n o t
u
w a s t e away i n p r i s o n on
a diet
128
water.
was
On
a
the
contrary,
prisoner,
consideration,
Instead,
the
takes
continued to enjoy h i s r o y a l p r i v i l e g e s .
is
a
For
dozen l i t e r a r y
describe
him.
sublimated
according
to
directly.
his
point
of
t h e dream v i s i o n a r e d r a w n f r o m t h e Consolatio,
and
the
love,
of
t a k e n f r o m C h a u c e r ' s Knight's
topoi,
and
He
a l l u s i o n s are
the
virtue,
and,
a
several
in prison:
as
prisoner,
a
as
a r e p e t i t i o n or
famous p o e t s
is earthly
higher
of
t a k e n f r o m a good
by
to
love
by
the
royal
the
English
house of
s u c h as t h e W h i t e Tower.
"Car
prisonnier
situation in
which at
love,
Frequently
that
in
the
('For
English
t i m e meant s o m e t h i n g l i k e
i t s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s , and
poems use
related
"deliverance",
written
poems he
word
prison
as
fields:
its deprivation.^
a m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h o u t , and
"bond",
"hostage",
the
3
"recovery",
this
i s found i n "Ballade
78".
nobles,
Charles pleads
f o r delyuerment
r e m o v e d f r o m h i s bosom and y i e l d e d up in hostage
always remain a true
presents
It is in
true
"quittance",
L o v e , as
a personified
of
and
nearly
etc.
example of
"Ye,
but
noted. ^
same i s
summoned a p a r l i a m e n t a t t h e b e h e s t o f t h e p r i s o n e r .
loudly:
calls
t o i m p r i s o n m e n t a r e most e x p l i c i t .
f i g u r e , has
will
an
I made them
"prisoner",
convocation
he
a
0
confess').
caitiff,
English
he h a s
a
he
H e r e he w r o t e
his
les f i s , je l e confesse"
t h e F r e n c h poems, h o w e v e r , t h a t r e f e r e n c e s
One
in
i n 1415,
p a s s a g e s , C h a r l e s r e m a r k s t h a t h i s poems h a v e b e e n
I
a l w a y s r e f e r to
the
God,
F r a n c e , was
i n Agincourt
C o m p l a i n t s o f t h i s t y p e a r e a d d r e s s e d t o F o r t u n a o r t o t h e b e l o v e d , and
of
is
of
a l s o " w r e t c h " , as R o b e r t S t e e l , t h e e d i t o r o f t h e E n g l i s h poems, has
The
an
long
i n character,
level,
E n g l i s h which d e a l t w i t h
O
himself
a
Most
nature,
o r m e t a p h o r i c a l manner.
while
a
been p o r t r a y e d
on
member o f
Taken p r i s o n e r
number o f poems i n F r e n c h and
In
compositum
beginning
Tale.
literary
w e l l - k n o w n p a t r i s t i c - e x e g e t i c a l scheme. ^
s p e n t 25 y e a r s i n E n g l i s h p r i s o n s ,
allegorical
of
r e g a r d s h i s s i t u a t i o n as
which at
d'Orleans,
situation.
he
into
life
t o the u s u a l
Charles
similar
But
taken
as
James' F o r t u n a i s a mixtum
love
be
his
antecedents.
His
fate
must
and
a n a l o g u e o f a r c h e t y p i c a l e v e n t s w h i c h had
before
his
which
level
themes,
instance,
fact
allegorical-metaphorical
of h i s confinement are
motifs,
historical
does n o t
the
E x i l e and
other
well.
he
this
t h o u g h he
he
departure.
details
and
ye,
ye!"
i t to
happy to r e c e i v e
the
follower
Love t a k e s the
prisoner
shown " g u y t a u n c e " , and
"made my
- an o u t w a r d s i g n
that
Parliament agrees,
calling
h e a r t up,
wraps i t i n a b l a c k
cloth,
replaces
b o n d be
the
which
of Love.
through h i s messenger Comfort.
h i s h e a r t b a c k and
Before
for his heart,
i t where i t b e l o n g s .
rent".-^
Charles
Love
is
has
129
One
w o u l d h a v e t o be most u n f e e l i n g n o t t o r e c o g n i z e what C h a r l e s means,
when he
speaks
reference
of
the
"prison of
i s always l o v e :
allegory
" M a r t i r am
involved i s often only
tenor.
Biographical fact
course,
through
disappointment,
c o l o r s b l a c k and
number
grief,
the
grey.
a spiritual
°
of
figure
A t any
of
t r u t h s h i n i n g through
time
a
for
distinctive
the
the
mark
of
autumnal
of p o l i t i c a l
But
the
The
metaphor o f
and was
and
and
complaint;
to author.
level.^9
of
the
body,
or
of
F o r l y r i c p o e t r y , one
easily
find
love
i n manuscript
the
to trace
would
look
But
such
them.
Concepts of C o u r t l y
of Marxism are
have o n l y r a r e l y r e a d a l i n e o f the
of
the
type of imagery d e r i v e from
E u r o p e as c l i c h e s
g o l d e n c h a i n s and
same i n t e r c h a n g e
good e x a m p l e o f t h i s
"Ain anefangk."^
Prison
became a k i n d o f
illustrations
of Love.
of
among
original
stereotype
in
and p a i n t i n g s , ^
sometimes even a p r i s o n e r ' s
levels
i s a poem by
The
of r e a l i t y
can
be
Once t h e arms o f h i s b e l o v e d h e l d h i m ;
t r a n s i t i o n d e r i v e s from the concept
is
punished
by
the
counterpart
He
who
through
of that wherein
now
iron.^
literature.
(1375/8-1445),
is basically
The
sins
seen i n
Oswald von W o l k e n s t e i n
situation portrayed
iron fetters.
he
that of
instruments
dungeon.
He
l e f t arm.
o r w h e r e w i t h he
l o v e must s u f f e r t h e P r i s o n o f L o v e as
torture
with
i s chained with f i v e
I n a d d i t i o n he
points
c a r e s s e d me
of
about
his
which
the
iron bars,
prisoner
two
is
i s bound
has
neck.
In
this
manner,
complains
have r e t u r n e d t o the l e v e l o f the P r i s o n o f Love.
by
man
sinned.
punishment.^
tormented
on e a c h l e g and
i s made t o b e a r a t h u m b s c r e w a n d
w i t h many a s t r o n g embrace o f h e r w h i t e
the
o f contrapasso:
The m e t a p h o r i c a l s h a c k l e s a r e r e t r a n s f o r m e d , h o w e v e r , i n t o i r o n
sharp
the
i t i s rather
a u t h o r s , i t w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t
t h e prison
visualized
called
and
of
exile,
o f t e n t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o r e a l i t y a t pageants or tournaments, by k n i g h t s
l a d i e s wearing
The
One
I t was
l o v e , and,
images,
human c o n d i t i o n , o f
for this
commonplace i n m e d i e v a l
literature.
the
basic
the metaphor o f the p r i s o n i s a t
i n t h e p o e t r y o f P r o v e n c e - and
t o d a y ' s u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s - who
texts.
certain
loneliness,
p a r a l l e l s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o v e a d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n .
L o v e w e r e as
a
theme o f
themes:
hermit,
of
p r i s o n e r e " ; ^ but
the bare bones o f the l i t e r a l
Since the sources
of i n f l u e n c e from author
antecedents
through
point
t h e P r i s o n o f L o v e a r e t h u s a medium o r i n s t r u m e n t
B i b l e a n d f r o m c l a s s i c a l and m e d i e v a l
a line
and
His
r a t e , t h e a l l e g o r i c a l f r a m e w o r k i s f a r more
expression for biographical facts.
same
f o r loue
related
or coded statement
C o u r t l y L o v e and
congenital s i n .
y
displesaunce".^
a v e h i c l e meant t o c o n v e y
i s expressed
a
t h a n a mere c h i f f r e
grievous
fetters
in his
one
on h i s
an i r o n r i n g
Oswald,
my
with
Lady
arms - a n d w i t h t h a t
I n t h i s manner, e a c h
we
level
130
i s made t o s t a n d f o r t h e o t h e r , i n a k i n d o f r e c i p r o c a l and d o u b l e
The
l a s t strophe comprises
by him
i n h i s hour of
The
Cage
a t o p i c a l address
the
o f Love
t h e Consolatio,
r e t u r n to
is a
(Metre
which
the
movement.
i s asked
to stand
need.^
specific
type
numerous w o r k s o f t h e L a t e M i d d l e A g e s .
of
t o C h r i s t , who
views
striving
u l t i m a t e source,
as
of
The
the
Prison of
s o u r c e may
Love
found
in
be an a n a p e s t i c M e t r e
f o r the h i g h e s t good, and
a universally
valid
law
therewith
of
creation
2, Book I I I ) :
The B i r d s h u t up i n an u n p l e a s i n g c a g e ,
W h i c h on t h e l o f t y t r e e s d i d l a t e l y s i n g ,
T h o u g h men, h e r want o f f r e e d o m t o a s s u a g e ,
Should unto her w i t h c a r e f u l labour b r i n g
The s w e e t e s t meats w h i c h t h e y c a n b e s t d e v i s e
Y e t when w i t h i n h e r p r i s o n f l u t t e r i n g
The p l e a s i n g shadows o f t h e g r o v e s she s p i e s ,
H e r h a t e d f o o d she s c a t t e r s w i t h h e r f e e t ,
I n y e a r n i n g s p i r i t t o t h e woods she f l i e s ,
The woods' d e l i g h t s do t u n e h e r a c c e n t s s w e e t . ^
The e s s e n t i a l m e a n i n g i s t h a t e v e r y b e i n g s t r i v e s t o r e t u r n t o i t s b e g i n n i n g s ,
to
a u n i t y o f o r i g i n and e n d i n g :
is
t h e "Law
" I n my b e g i n n i n g i s my
o f K y n d " so w i d e l y c i t e d
C h a u c e r ' s h u m o u r i s t i c and
perhaps,
i n C h a u c e r and
ironic
e v e n b e t t e r known t h a n
the
inversion
end."^
other
T h i s , then,
authors.
i n t h e Squire's
corresponding
passage
Tale^
B o e t h i u s t h e b i r d l o n g i n g t o r e t u r n t o t h e wood f o l l o w s t h e "Law
therefore
God's p l a n .
I n the
Chaucerian
tale,
e s c a p e as b l a t a n t i n g r a t i t u d e and f i c k l e n e s s .
irony
of
Chaucer's
estrangement from
essence
use
of
passages
from
their o r i g i n a l context.
the
Squire
As i n Troilus
Boethius
however,
sees
the
bird's
Criseyde,
arises
from
the
their
B o e t h i u s l e a v e s no d o u b t t h a t t h e
No w o r l d l y t h i n g
Can a c o n t i n u a n c e h a v e
Unless l o v e back a g a i n i t b r i n g
Unto the cause which f i r s t the essence
falcon,
In
o f K y n d " , and
and
o f l o v e i s the l o n g i n g t o r e t u r n t o the F a t h e r o f
Chaucer's
is,
i n Boethius.
Life:
gave.^
o f men
is
t h e i r n e w f a n g l e d n e s s and t h e i r l o v e o f n o v e l t y , s i m i l a r t o t h e b i r d s t h a t
i s convinced
t h a t the
only
law
men
f e e d i n cages:
Y e t on t h e i n s t a n t when t h e d o o r i s up,
T h e y ... t o t h e wood w i l l f l y a n d worms w i l l
So a r e t h e y a l l n e w f a n g l e d
There
Renaissance
English
are
many more poems a l o n g
poetry.
Henry Surrey
eat
o f t h e i r meat . . . ^
the
same l i n e s
i n late-medieval
I n German l i t e r a t u r e M a r t i n O p i t z may
and
w h i l e s e r v i n g a sentence
Walter
Raleigh.
of imprisonment
Both
of
be
and
mentioned,in
them w r o t e p r i s o n poems
or w a i t i n g f o r c a p i t a l
punishment.
131
5.
From t h e a l l e g o r i c a l
l e v e l t o t h e t r o p o l o g i c a l o r m o r a l one
A l l e g o r y u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s an a p t a p p l i c a t i o n t o human l i f e .
The
moral
c o r r e l a t i v e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e B i b l e a n d i n l i t e r a t u r e were g e n e r a l l y s u b s u m e d
u n d e r t h e t e r m tropological
not
is
t h e facta
mystica,
level
o r moralis
expositio.
The m a i n c o n c e r n was
b u t r a t h e r t h e faciendaThe
a p p l i c a b l e t o each
and every
human b e i n g ,
moral
r e f l e c t e d i n the m i r r o r - l i k e r e a l i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l .
is
ad interiorem
relate
hominem.^
i t to the Divine
interpretation
since a l l h i s t o r i c a l
Man l e a r n s t o u n d e r s t a n d
fact i s
Thus t h e e n t i r e
h i s own n a t u r e
focus
and to
Order.
N e a r l y a l l the t e x t s mentioned demonstrate t h a t i t i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e
to
d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n s e c u l a r a n d r e l i g i o u s a l l e g o r y as p o s t u l a t e d b y C. S.
Lewis
i n h i s Allegory
of Love.^
E v e n when D a n t e draws u p o n c l a s s i c
and e v e n i f t h e r e i s a k i n d o f a l l e g o r i c a l nisus
no means d i m i n i s h e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
course,
allegorical
exegesis
classical,
i . e . pagan,
audience.
Thus
Bible.
of the C h r i s t i a n exegetical t r a d i t i o n .
had i t s beginnings
literature
exegesis
authors
among p a g a n a u t h o r s , t h i s b y
t o make
i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
i t suitable
i s b y no means r e s t r i c t e d
On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s p a r t o f a w i d e s p r e a d
for a
Of
of
Christian
to explication
o f the
model o f thought,
and
t h u s , a t t h e same t i m e , a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e k i n d o f t a s t e d e s c r i b e d b y L e w i s .
T h i s may n o t a p p l y t o a l l a l l e g o r i c a l
of
t h e P r i s o n o f Love i s c o n c e r n e d ,
p a r t o f the metaphorical concept.
to
such
p o e t r y , b u t as f a r as t h e topos
models o f thought
a r e an
integral
The image o f t h e P r i s o n i n e v i t a b l y
leads
t h e q u e s t i o n o f g u i l t a n d p u n i s h m e n t , a n d , i n a l a r g e number o f c a s e s , t o
the
concept
that
o f Theodicy.
Many p r i s o n e r s f e e l
they have been u n j u s t l y
Boethius,
them.
t o lament t h e i r
admissions
i n prison literature.
bitterly
against
the hard
like
o f God's t r e a t m e n t o f
And y e t , a s t o u n d i n g l y l u c i d ,
o f p e r s o n a l f a i l i n g s and mistakes
One
fate
a r e i n n o c e n t , and
Thus i t i s n a t u r a l f o r them,
and even t o complain
I t i s human n a t u r e t o b l a m e o t h e r s f i r s t .
i f sometimes t r i v i a l ,
found
condemned.
fates,
t h a t they
anonymous p o e t
(Shirley
t h a t has c a s t him i n t o
MS)-^
prison.
are often
complains
B u t he i s
answered by Fortuna:
You may be i n n o c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c r i m e y o u h a v e b e e n a c c u s e d o f .
And y e t y o u h a v e b e e n r i g h t f u l l y i m p r i s o n e d - b e c a u s e o f y o u r many o t h e r
sins.^5
T h i s i s a n a r g u m e n t v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r a d i c t , a s Howard P a t c h s a y s .
The
prayer
internment
f o r f o r g i v e n e s s o f those
enemies r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r i s o n e r ' s
appears
I t i s the behavior
t o be a t o p o s .
C h r i s t i a n and worthy o f a s a i n t .
expected
o f a good
S i r Thomas M o r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , composed a
132
p r a y e r between the t r i a l
a t w h i c h he was
s e n t e n c e d t o d e a t h and h i s e x e c u t i o n ,
i n w h i c h he i n t e r c e d e d f o r b o t h h i s a c c u s e r s and h i s e n e m i e s i n g e n e r a l :
May
God s a v e them, t o g e t h e r w i t h h i m s e l f , so t h a t t h e y m i g h t be r e c o n c i l e d i n l i f e
after
death.
Another
life
and
5 6
f r e q u e n t topos
i s the s o - c a l l e d
contemptus
t h i s w o r l d i s o f t e n e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e ubi
mundi:
sunt
disdain
formula.
of
Often,
t h o u g h t s o f t h i s k i n d a r e p r e s e n t e d as an a d m o n i s h m e n t , a s a m o r a l c h a l l e n g e
to
be f u l f i l l e d ,
been
drawn
moralisatio,
n o t o n l y by t h e n a r r a t o r , b u t a l s o b y t h e a u d i e n c e w h i c h
into
the
poem.
as,
when
the
Sometimes
world
the
topos
i s r e p r e s e n t e d as
i n m a t e s a r e f o o l i s h enough t o f e e l happy.
is
only
a prison
an
has
implicit
i n which
the
W h i l e i n t h e T o w e r , S i r Thomas More
composed a L a t i n e p i g r a m d e s c r i b i n g t h e w o r l d a s a p r i s o n :
We a r e a l l s h u t up i n t h e p r i s o n o f t h i s w o r l d u n d e r s e n t e n c e o f d e a t h .
I n t h i s p r i s o n none e s c a p e s d e a t h .
The l a n d w i t h i n t h e p r i s o n i s
d i v i d e d i n t o many s e c t i o n s , a n d men b u i l d t h e i r d w e l l i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t
sections.
As i f t h e p r i s o n w e r e a k i n g d o m , t h e i n m a t e s s t r u g g l e f o r
position.
The a v a r i c i o u s man h o a r d s up w e a l t h w i t h i n t h e d a r k p r i s o n .
One man w a n d e r s f r e e l y i n t h e p r i s o n , a n o t h e r l i e s s h a c k l e d i n h i s c a v e .
T h i s man s e r v e s , t h a t one r u l e s ; t h i s one s i n g s , t h a t one g r o a n s .
And
t h e n , w h i l e we a r e s t i l l i n l o v e w i t h t h e p r i s o n as i f i t were no
p r i s o n , we a r e e s c o r t e d o u t o f i t , one way o r a n o t h e r , b y d e a t h .
5 7
T h i s p r i s o n e p i g r a m was
one
o f t h e b e s t known w o r k s o f More d u r i n g t h e
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and i s the o n l y work o f t h a t a u t h o r f o u n d i n a m a n u s c r i p t
of
5
the B i b l i o t h e c a R i c a r d i a n a i n Florence. **
it
i s f a r from
probably
original.
Seneca's
liberator
of
Ad
the
A
Harciam
de
prisoner
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two
major
from
his
works,
one.
I f he
level
d i d compose
chains
poem
of
inspiration,
death
and
from
his
can
the
t h e new
r e a l m o f f r e e d o m open t o man
prison of this
In
C h r i s t ' s L o v e " i n MS H a r l e y 2253 p r o v e how
whether
settled.
s a c r e d or
t h e Song
of
i n the
t h a t he
had
looking forward
vitae,
life.
a s i m i l a r manner, t h e i d e a o f C o u r t l y L o v e ,
the
term
historical
once he h a d o v e r c o m e t h e career
o f t e n l e a d s t o t h o u g h t s o f D i v i n e Love.
version,
o f the
conclude
a l r e a d y t r a n s c e n d e d h i s e a r t h l y c o n f i n e m e n t i n s p i r i t , and was
to
6
i n M o r e ' s use
we
the
prison. ^
than i n the l i t e r a l ,
i n prison,
was
i s s e e n as
Thus More i s f a r more i n t e r e s t e d
o f the concept
this
source
however, r e s t s
i n a metaphorical sense. ^
allegorical-anagogical
of c o u r s e , t h e c o n c e p t b e h i n d
or
ConsolaCionewhere
6
career
model,
the
Songs
secular,
was
and
t h e P r i s o n o f Love
C o n t r a f a c t u r e s s u c h as
"The
Way
d i f f i c u l t i t i s to determine
the
original.
i s sacred or s e c u l a r
The
of
which
controversy of
i n n a t u r e has
not yet
been
A number o f " e n l i g h t e n e d " modern J e w i s h s c h o l a r s r e g a r d i t a s p u r e l y
secular erotic lyric.
M e d i e v a l a u t h o r s , o f c o u r s e , h a d no p r o b l e m s
whatsoever
13 3
in
and
this
direction.
F o r them w o r l d l y
t h e y moved e f f o r t l e s s l y
exajTiple o f O s w a l d v o n
Divine
forms
L o v e was
the
and s e c u l a r
i n thought
from
W o l k e n s t e i n , one
one
to
the o t h e r .
This h i e r a r c h i c a l
ConsolaCio
of
Boethius.
i n the
sense
of B o e t h i u s , imprisonment
s a l v a t i o n o f one's s o u l i s c o n c e r n e d .
an
a i d to t h a t
punishment
end,
f o r imprisonment
for transgression,
and
As
i n the
has
Indeed,
no
remained
further
a
For the person o f
m e a n i n g as
i t might
curtails
concept a l r e a d y
I t has
t r a d i t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t o f p r i s o n p o e t r y up t o t h e p r e s e n t .
faith
related,
o f t e n stood f o r the o t h e r , although
always g i v e n precedence.
f o u n d a t i o n f o r the
l o v e were c l o s e l y
e v e n be
f a r as
s i n , i s an
leads to pious r e f l e c t i o n
the
regarded
as
effective
and m e d i t a t i o n .
O n c e , when S i r Thomas More r e c e i v e d h i s d a u g h t e r M a r g a r e t f o r a v i s i t d u r i n g
his
my
imprisonment
children,
i n t h e Tower he s a i d :
f o r whom i t i s my
sought
the q u i e t
always
been t a k e n as
monk.
I f this
ascetic.
o f such
a cell,
a sign
i s true,
" I f i t were n o t f o r y o u , my w i f e ,
first
one
duty
o z
even
and
t o p r o v i d e , I s~hould l o n g h a v e
smaller." -
o f More' s s e c r e t d e s i r e
This statement
to l i v e
t h e n More e q u a t e s h i s p r i s o n c e l l
I s o l a t i o n from the o u t s i d e w o r l d and a l i f e
has
the l i f e
with
of
that of
o f the s p i r i t
a
the
oriented
t o w a r d a h i g h e r p l a n e o f e x i s t e n c e a r e common t o b o t h .
6.
The m e t a p h o r o f p r i s o n and human d e s t i n y :
the a n a g o g i c a l l e v e l
The h i g h e s t l e v e l o f a l l e g o r y i s c a l l e d anagogy o r " a s c e n t " .
of
ascent
corresponds
interpretation
of
to
Neoplatonic
l e a d s from e a r t h l y
thought.
things
The
The
anagogical
idea
way
to c o n t e m p l a t i o n of the f i n a l
m a n k i n d , "sensum a d s u p e r i o r a d u c e n t e m " , ^ "quod p e r t i n e t ad s t a t u m
futurae".^
realms
of
individual
goal
vitae
A l l t e m p o r a l and h i s t o r i c a l t h i n g s w i l l be s u p e r s e d e d o u t s i d e t h e
time
and
space,
but
not because
they
e s c a p e them by " f l i g h t and t i m e l e s s n e s s " . ^
world.
i n the
realm
are
inferior
and
man
things are i r r e l e v a n t .
t o come d e p e n d s u p o n h i s c o n d u c t
Concepts
must
On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e f a t e o f e a c h
in this
temporal
Thus he m u s t n e v e r l o s e s i g h t o f t h e e t e r n a l , b e s i d e w h i c h a l l
s u c h as t h e " H e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m " ,
earthly
"eternal
l i f e " and " P a r a d i s e " a r e e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e t r u e ( e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) r e a l i t y ,
t h u s more t h a n m e r e l y
The
concept
medieval poetry.
life,
practically
Metaphysicals.^
a c c o r d i n g l y a r e no
is
of
of
The
and
i d e a s i n the P l a t o n i c sense o f t h e word.
a heavenly
home
of
i d e a t h a t human l i f e
becomes
Admonitions
a
cliche
the
in
on man's f i n a l
less frequent.
Hell
b l e s s e d i s found
throughout
means d e a t h , and d e a t h , i n t u r n ,
the
stock
g o a l and
of
the
the n e c e s s i t y
to a c t
a p r i s o n , and
indeed
i t s effectiveness
i n the
i s o f t e n termed
a k i n d o f a r c h e t y p e o f t h e image, w h i c h r e t a i n s
imagery
134
present
day.
Jerusalem,
Because
I n the anagogical view, Babylon
the heavenly
city
i s seen as t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f
o f t h e b l e s s e d and f i n a l
home a f t e r
o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e , B a b y l o n was s e e n a s b o t h c i t y
as t h e s e a t o f t h e e n e m i e s o f f a i t h .
death.
6 7
and r e a l m o f S a t a n ,
I t was a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e
c o n c e p t o f t h e B a b y l o n i a n c a p t i v i t y a n d was,
i n t h i s sense, t h e p r i s o n o f t h e
faithful.
Rome was a l s o
Pagan and hence
anti-Christian
seen
ft
0 0
Charlemagne, f o r i n s t a n c e , both used and admired t h e a n a l o g y .
as B a b y l o n .
Q
In a kind of
counter-movement, i n t h e s o - c a l l e d saga o f t h e l a s t emperor, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
image was i n v e r t e d a n d J e r u s a l e m s e e n a s t h e s e a t o f t h e A n t i - C h r i s t , i . e .
S a t a n ; b u t s i m i l a r a c c u s a t i o n s were l e v e l l e d a g a i n s t Rome, f o r e x a m p l e a t t h e
S y n o d o f R e i m s , w h e r e Pope J o h n XV was c a l l e d a n A n t i - C h r i s t .
In the mystery p l a y s , h e l l
i s o f t e n termed
and h i s f o l l o w e r s h a v e b e e n c a s t .
a dungeon i n w h i c h
Lucifer
I n one o f t h e Y o r k p l a y s , L u c i f e r h i m s e l f
says:
Owte, o w t e ! H a r r o w ! H e l p l e s s , s l y k e h a t e a t e s h e r e
T h i s e s a d u n g e o n o f d o l e t h a t I am t o d y g h t e
6
Now am I l a y t h e s t e , a l i a s !
The
poetry.
image o f t h e e x i l e
In a
manuscript
T h a t a r e was l o g h t e . ^
i n prison
dated
i s particularly
1493 f r o m
frequent i n l y r i c
the B e n e d i c t i n e monastery
in
N i e d e r a l t e i c h , we f i n d t h e image o f t h e e x i l e c o m b i n e d w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e arms o f C h r i s t , who i s p o r t r a y e d h e r e a s a k n i g h t :
Haec s u n t arma q u i b u s m i l e s
C h r i s t u s s o l v i t nos e x i l e s
Ab i n f e r n i f a u c i b u s . ^
7
Hell
i s d e s c r i b e d a g a i n a n d a g a i n i n l y r i c p o e t r y a s a career
i n which
s i n n e r s a r e h e l d p r i s o n e r - t o g e t h e r w i t h demons - u n t i l t h e F i n a l J u d g e m e n t :
Sic clauduntur tenebroso
Peccatores carcere
Et ardebunt u t damnati
cum S t r i d o r e d e n t i u m . . . ^
7
The
same
imagery
purgatory.
Seelenkerker
fire.
i s used
f o r the realms
One c o n c e p t v e r y w i d e s p r e a d
or "Prison
of Souls"
related
to hell,
to limbo
and t o
i s that
of the
i n German t r a d i t i o n
i n which
sinners
suffer
p u r i f i c a t i o n by
7 2
And, f i n a l l y , t h e i m a g e r y o f p r i s o n a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t h a s r e m a i n e d
7
c o n s t a n t i n L a t i n hymnology t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r i e s . - ^
g n a s h i n g o f t e e t h m e n t i o n e d i n Matthew
from
God
through
description
s i n or satanic
almost
Thus t h e g r o a n s a n d
25:31-46 a r e o f t e n a s i g n o f s e p a r a t i o n
rebellion;
f o r t h e p l a c e o f t h e damned r e m a i n s
and t h e word
t h e same.
tartara
as a
The l o c a t i o n i n
t i m e i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e H o l y Week a n d i t s c u l m i n a t i o n i n E a s t e r , a c e l e b r a t i o n
135
particularly rich
o f d e a t h , and
i n l i t u r g i c a l hymns and
f r e e s the dead from t h e i r
sequences.
Jesus
b r e a k s the
bands
chains:
Cum r e x i l l e f o r t i s s i m u s
Mortis confractis viribus
Pede c o n c u l c a n s t a r t a r a
S o l v i t catena miseros. ^
7
But h e l l
i s n o t man's f i r s t p r i s o n ; he
i s a l r e a d y a p r i s o n e r upon t h i s
earth:
I n t e r nos b e l l u m g e r i t u r
Quod v i x a u t nunquam v i n c i t u r
Dum c a r o v i r e s e x s e r i t
S i mens i n q u i d , quod s u g g e r i t
Consenterit
Statim captiva t r a h i t u r .
7 5
7.
F a c t and
fiction:
Ultimately,
fiction,
of
the
the
the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e a l i t y and
problem of the m e t a p h o r i c a l
r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between
l i t e r a t u r e which i s i t s counterpart.
material
world
t r u t h was
be
t o be
expressed?
external
I n what way
Matthew A r n o l d
literature
p r i s o n i s one
can
once
the
of f a c t
reality
and
and
the
t r u t h behind
the
s a i d o f Wordsworth
that
sought i n h i s p o e t i c a l works, r a t h e r than h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
m u s i n g s , w h i c h w e r e no more t h a n i l l u s i o n .
no s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n "image" and
For most m e d i e v a l p o e t s t h e r e
"reality".
was
On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y
saw
l i t e r a t u r e as a p o s s i b i l i t y t o r e p r e s e n t , by means o f l i t e r a r y m o d e l s , t r u t h s
often
c l o s e d to c o l d , r a t i o n a l
language
were
c o n c e p t s and
shaped
small
analysis.
religious
Medieval
tradition;
patterns
man
lived
images o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s t o a f a r g r e a t e r
a c t u a l l y aware o f .
a
by
part
of
c o m p r e h e n s i o n by
Herein
M o s t saw
an
extent
and
ordered
universe,
which
the
explanation
objects
for
traditional,
the
I t a l s o e x p l a i n s the
expressed i t ,
of
t h a n he
was
escaped
as
total
and
7 6
original,
tendency of medieval authors
images.
As
C.
yet,
such
themselves.
t r u t h s are
If
that
not
were
contained
so,
they
i n the
could
to
Day
words o n l y become images when t h e y a r e r e l a t e d t o
And
reference
yet
- a f e a t u r e t h a t i s so d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e
e x p r e s s c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l t r u t h s i n terms of s t o c k p o e t i c
truth.
and
ideas,
t h e human m i n d .
lies
w i t h modern m e n t a l i t y .
abstract
the
t h e m s e l v e s , and w r o t e a c c o r d i n g l y o f m a n k i n d ,
immense
character of medieval l i t e r a t u r e
L e w i s has
of thought
with
an
material
simply
be
reproduced mimetically.
Recent research
r e a l i t y , and
has
often claimed
that l i t e r a t u r e
o f t h e o r d i n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f a c t and f i c t i o n may
But
takes
that p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y often imitates l i t e r a t u r e .
i n general
be
i t c a n be s a i d t h a t t h e w r i t t e n w o r d g i v e s u s
priority
over
This r e v e r s a l
f a r from t y p i c a l .
a c e r t a i n access
136
to
the
real
world
not
possible
in
any
other
manner.
Poetry
i m i t a t i o n of r e a l i t y , but r a t h e r a key to the understanding
o f an
object which would otherwise
remain speechless.
and
The
is
not
w o r d becomes
i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h m a n i f e s t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n b o d y a n d s p i r i t , man
the w o r l d ,
and man
and h i s
key
to
the
s c h o l a r s who
medieval
view
of
the
world.
I t opens
doors
have been l o c k e d i n the p r i s o n o f l i t e r a l i s m
I t p r o v i d e s c l u e s f o r a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g
contexts.
S i r Thomas M a l o r y
Agnes o r e v e n e l s e w h e r e
IV and p r a y s
in
But
the
associations
almost
- c a l l s h i m s e l f a " k n i g h t p r i s o n e r " a t t h e e n d o f Book
Le
horte
Darthure
compulsorily
I am n o t
of
a metaphorical
s i m i l a r t o t h e one
known
to
p r i s o n of
s i n or
h e l d by
He
surprisingly
terras
the
late-medieval
and
and h i s " p r y d e " .
i t is
with
of
be
demonstrates
the
i n w h i c h L a n c e l o t was
Malory;
very well
"prison"
d e f e a t i n the "tokenynge" t o u r n a m e n t . ^
well
T h i s may
l i k e l y t h a t M a l o r y saw h i m s e l f b e h i n d
p r i s o n , the
because of h i s "vayneglory"
i n view
going
imprisoned,
s t o r i e s w h i c h he
and
connected
"deliverance", I t h i n k i t extremely
bars
long.
o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t e x t s and
wrote p a r t or a l l o f h i s work i n p r i s o n .
of
provide
- w h e t h e r he be f r o m N e w b o l d R e v e l , P a p w o r t h S t .
i n view of h i s mastery i n symbolic
Grail-part
and
literary
f o r f a r too
f o r " g o o d d e l i v e r a n c e " a t t h e end o f h i s w o r k . ^
t h a t he
true.
to
for
t o c o n t e n d w i t h t h e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d h y p o t h e s i s t h a t M a l o r y was
and
an
God.
Thus t h e m e t a p h o r o f p r i s o n c a n be u s e d i n an e x e m p l a r y way
the
an
interpretation
like
of
this
world
- very
the w h i t e k n i g h t s a f t e r h i s
i s t o l d t h a t he
i s held i n prison
Even the " p r i s o n o f s o u l s "
represented
by
the
Castell
was
of
Maidens.^
I n c o n c l u s i o n I s h o u l d l i k e t o s a y t h a t l i t e r a t u r e was
a key
to a b e t t e r understanding
o f the body cannot see.
of r e a l i t y .
T h a t i s why
poets
and i s e v e n t o d a y
I t opens up v i s t a s w h i c h t h e
are convinced
that l i f e
does
eye
and
should imitate a r t .
U n i v e r s i t y of Regensburg
137
NOTES
The
paper presented
v e r s i o n o f an e s s a y
Themen
in
here i n honour o f E d e l g a r d DuBruck i s a r e v i s e d E n g l i s h
p u b l i s h e d i n German i n a c o l l e c t i o n e n t i t l e d Motive
eng l i s c h s p r a c h i g e r
Literatur
als
und
Indikatoren
l i t e r a t u r g e s c h i c h t l i c h e r Prozesse,
H a n s - J o a c h i m Müllenbrock and A l f o n s K l e i n
(eds.),
contribution is
(Tübingen,
gratitude
medieval
1990).
f o r many y e a r s
This
of
friendship
and
intended
rewarding
a
token
of
work i n the
as
field
of
literature.
1
A n c i u s M a n l i u s S e v e r i n u s B o e t h i u s , Philosophiae
Consolatio,
ed.
L u d w i g B i e l e r , C o r p u s C h r i s t i a n o r u m , S e r i e s L a t i n a , 94:
Ancii Manlii
S e v e r i n i B o e t h i i O p e r a I ( T u r n h o l t , 1 9 5 7 ) ; f o r t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , see
B o e t h i u s , The Theological
Tractates,
w i h an E n g l i s h T r a n s l a t i o n b y H. F.
S t e w a r t and E. K. Rand and The Consolation
of Philosophy
w i t h the E n g l i s h
T r a n s l a t i o n o f " I . T." ( 1 6 0 9 ) , r e v i s e d by H. F. S t e w a r t , t h e Loeb C l a s s i c a l
L i b r a r y , 74 ( o . p . , 1918; r p t . L o n d o n , 1 9 6 8 ) .
... w h e r e f o r e t h o u h a s t no c a u s e t o m a r v e l , i f i n t h e s e a o f t h i s
l i f e we be t o s s e d w i t h b o i s t e r o u s s t o r m s , whose c h i e f e s t p u r p o s e i s t o
d i s p l e a s e t h e w i c k e d ; o f w h i c h t h o u g h t h e r e be an huge army, y e t i t i s t o
be d e s p i s e d . . . And i f a t any t i m e t h e y a s s a i l us w i t h g r e a t f o r c e , o u r
c a p t a i n r e t i r e t h her band i n t o a c a s t l e , . . . s a f e from a l l t h e i r f u r i o u s
a s s a u l t . . . (Boethius, I , Prose 3).
J
Cf.
ibid.,
I , Metre
4.
^ " S t o l i d a m t e r r a i n " ; "nunc i a c e t e f f e t o l u m i n e m e n t i s / e t p r e s s u s
g r a u i b u s c o l l a c a t e n i s / decliuemque g e r e n s pondere u u l t u m / c o g i t u r , heu,
s t o l i d a m cernere terram" (Boethius, I , Metre 2).
5
Cf. B o e t h i u s ,
I Prose
2.
6
On t h e B o e t h i a n t r a d i t i o n , see Howard R o l l i n P a t c h , The Tradition
of
Boethius
(New Y o r k , 1 9 3 5 ) , e s p . pp. 105-113.
The f a c t t h a t p r i s o n
l i t e r a t u r e o f t e n f e a t u r e s the concept o f t h e o d i c y i s emphasized by Edward
K e n n a r d Rand i n h i s Founders
of the Middle
Ages (New Y o r k , 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 159160.
7
C.
S. L e w i s ,
The
Allegory
of Love
( O x f o r d , 1 9 5 3 ) , p.
48.
^ A mnemonic c o u p l e t p o p u l a r d u r i n g t h e M i d d l e A g e s c a n a c t as
guideline:
L i t t e r a gesta docet:
quid credas,
allegoria
our
138
M o r a l i s q u i d ames; q u i d s p e r e s ,
anagogia.
Source:
" A d d i t i o n s f r o m MS A r u n d e l 507," i n Yorkshire
Writers:
Richard
Rolle
of Hampole:
An English
Father
of the Church and his Followers,
ed.
C a r l H o r s t m a n n , L i b r a r y o f E a r l y E n g l i s h W r i t e r s , ( L o n d o n , 1 8 9 5 ) , I , 435.
On t h e w i d e - s p r e a d d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o u p l e t , see Hans W a l t h e r , ed.
Carmina Medii Aevi P o s t e r i o r i s Latina,
I I . 2;
Proverbia
Sententiaeque
L a t i n i t a t i s Medii Aevi:
L a t e i n i s c h e Sprichwörter und S e n t e n z e n des
M i t t e l a l t e r s i n a l p h a b e t i s c h e r A n o r d n u n g (Göttingen, 1 9 6 4 ) , p. 749, N r . 13
899.
F o r t h e m e d i e v a l a r t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e sensus l i t t e r a l i s was o n l y
a k i n d o f s h e l l w h i c h c o n c e a l e d t h e n o u r i s h i n g c o r e , and t h e r e w i t h t h e
e s s e n c e ; t h u s i t h a d t o be c r a c k e d ( T i t u s M a r c i u s L a u t u s , Curculio,
in
Comoediae,
Volumen I, ed. W a l l a c e M a r t i n L i n d s a y , S c r i p t u u m
Classicorum
B i b l i o t h e c a O x o n i e n s i s , ( O x f o r d , 1 9 0 3 ) , I , 155:
" q u i / e nuce nuculeum esse
u o l t , f r a n g i t nucem").
The o l d r e a l i t y o f t h e l e t t e r (Romans 7, 6) was
meant t o be o v e r c o m e on a h i g h e r l e v e l , f o r " t h e l e t t e r k i l l s , b u t i n t h e
s p i r i t i s l i f e " ( I I Corinthians
3,6).
The t e r m " l e t t e r " r e f e r r e d t o
h i s t o r i a and the h i s t o r i c a l meaning i . e . the l i t e r a l l e v e l .
T h i s was
r e g a r d e d as t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t u a l s t r u c t u r e o f a t e x t ; b u t t h e
c r o w n i n g s p i r e was t h e a l l e g o r i c a l l e v e l .
Thus t h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g
was t o g r a s p t h e m y s t i c a l ( a l l e g o r i c a l ) m e a n i n g o f t h e r e a l i t y r e p r e s e n t e d .
C f . H r a b a n u s M a u r u s , Commentariorum
in Exodum l i b r i quatuor:
"Neque e n i m
solummodo s u f f i c i t l e c t o r i b u s d i v i n o r u m l i b r o r u m s e n s u s h i s t o r i c u s , s e d
etiam d i l i g e n t e r e i s est considerandum q u i d per a l l e g o r i a m e i s propheticus
sermo i n n u e r e v e l i t " ('The h i s t o r i c a l s e n s e i s , n a m e l y , n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r
t h e r e a d e r s o f H o l y W r i t , f o r t h e y must f u r t h e r m o r e g i v e c a r e f u l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n to what the p r o p h e t i c a c c o u n t s convey t h r o u g h a l l e g o r y ' . )
L a t i n t a k e n f r o m U t e H e t t l i n g , Die beiden altenglischen
St.
GuthlacGedichte
im Lichte
p a t r i s t i s c h e r und m i t t e l a l t e r l i c h e r Theologie
(Diss:
U n i v . R e g e n s b u r g , 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 32.
V e r y e a r l y , however, a counter-movement began to r i s e a g a i n s t the
t y p e o f t h e o l o g y w h i c h d i s d a i n e d t h e l e t t e r , o r e v e n i g n o r e d i t , and whose
c o n v o l u t i o n s o f t e n had o n l y tenuous c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h the t e x t s i n q u e s t i o n .
C f . B o n a v e n t u r a , Breviloquium:
"... q u i l i t t e r a m s a c r a e S c r i p t u r a e s p e r n i t
ad s p i r i t u a l e s e i u s i n t e l l i g e n t i a s numquam a s s u r g e t . . . I n S c r i p t u r a n i h i l
contemnendum tanquam i n u t i l e , n i h i l r e s p u e n d u m tanquam f a l s u m , n i h i l
r e p u d i a n d u m tanquam i n i q u u m , p r o eo, quod S p i r i t u s S a n c t u s , e i u s a u c t o r
p e r f e c t i s s i m u s , n i h i l p o t u i t d i c e r e falsum, n i h i l superfluum,
nihil
d i m m i n u t u m . . . " ('He who d i s r e g a r d s t h e l e t t e r o f t h e H o l y B i b l e n e v e r comes
to a s p i r i t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s meaning.
I n t h e B i b l e n o t h i n g c a n be
d i s r e g a r d e d as u s e l e s s , n o t h i n g d i s c a r d e d as f a l s e , n o t h i n g r e j e c t e d as
unsuitable.
The r e a s o n i s t h a t t h e H o l y S p i r i t , i t s o r i g i n a t o r , i s p e r f e c t
and c o u l d n o t h a v e s a i d a n y t h i n g t h a t was f a l s e , o r s u p e r f l u o u s , o r l e s s
t h a n p e r f e c t . ' ) ( L a t i n f r o m H e t t l i n g , p. 5 8 ) .
T h i s r e j e c t i o n o f the system of l e v e l s o f meaning i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
e v i d e n t i n the works of N i c h o l a s of L y r a .
A g a i n and a g a i n he s t r e s s e s t h e
p r i m a c y o f t h e sensus l i t t e r a l i s and c o m p l a i n s o f t h e g a r r u l o u s n e s s ,
a b s t r u s e n e s s , and a b o v e a l l p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s u c h m y s t i c a l and m y s t i f y i n g
exegetics.
Cf. N i k o l a u s von L y r a , P o s t i l l a l i t t e r a l i s :
"Haec i g i t u r e t
s i r a i l i a v i t a r e p r o p o n e n s cum D e i a d j u t o r i o i n t e n d o c i r c a l i t t e r a l e m sensum
insistere:
e t paucas v a l d e , e t breves e x p o s i t i o n e s m y s t i c a s
aliquando
i n t e r p o n e r e , l i c e t r a r o . . . " ('I t h e r e f o r e r e s o l v e t o a v o i d t h i s and s i m i l a r
t h i n g s , a n d w i t h God's h e l p I i n t e n d t o r e m a i n c l o s e t o t h e
sensus
litteralis:
o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y t o i n s e r t a r a r e and b r i e f m y s t i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and t h a t b u t s e l d o m . . . ' )
( L a t i n f r o m H e t t l i n g , p.
64.)
I n s t e a d , N i c h o l a s a d v o c a t e s s o b e r and o b j e c t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e
139
l i t e r a l meaning o f t h e B i b l e , and thus r e p r e s e n t s a l i n k t o modern
interpretation.
A l a t e r proverb says o f him:
" S i L y r a non l y r a s s e t ,
L u t h e r u s non s a l t a s s e t . " ( ' I f L y r a h a d n o t s u n g , L u t h e r h a d n o t d a n c e d ' )
( C f . H e t t l i n g , p. 64.)
p.
^ A. T o s t a t , Comment aria,
84.
in quartam
partem
Matthaei
(Venice,
1615),
10 C f . R i c h a r d R. G r i f f i t h , "The A u t h o r s h i p Q u e s t i o n R e c o n s i d e r e d , "
T o s h i y u k i T a k a m i y a a n d D e r e k B r e w e r , e d s . Aspects
of Malory
(Cambridge,
1981) , p. 169.
H
the
in
F o r example, K i n g s Henry V I and Edward IV.
12 T h e r e i s a n e x c e l l e n t r e p r o d u c t i o n i n O l w e n H e d l e y ,
Tower ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 ) , f r o n t c o v e r .
Prisoners
in
13 C f . J o h n G i l l i n g h a m , Richard
the Lionhearted
( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8 ) ; German
trans.
Düsseldorf, 1981. A German t r a n s l a t i o n o f R i c h a r d ' s F r e n c h s o n g i s
f o u n d on pp. 259-60.
Princes
1^ S a l l y P u r c e l l ( e d . ) Monarchs
and the Muse:
Poems by Monarchs
of England,
Scotland
and Wales ( O x f o r d , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 1 1 .
MLR,
15 P a u l S t u d e r , "An A n g l o - N o r m a n Poem b y E d w a r d I I K i n g o f
16 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , 34-6.
and
England,"
16 I b i d . , p. 4 0 .
1^ I n S t a n z a X I , Edward c o m p l a i n s t h a t h i s e n e m i e s h a v e s e l e c t e d t h r e e
k i n g s , a n d t h a t t h e y o u n g e s t o f them h a s j u s t b e e n c r o w n e d .
E d w a r d was
m u r d e r e d i n m i d - S e p t e m b e r o f 1327 a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f M o r t i m e r .
The
c o r o n a t i o n o f t h e f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d L o r d Edward t o o k p l a c e o n F e b r u a r y 1,
1327.
Edward's r e f e r e n c e t o two o t h e r r u l e r s p r o b a b l y i m p l i e s M o r t i m e r a n d
Queen I s a b e l l a .
1® The p e r s o n t o whom t h e poem i s a d d r e s s e d i s s t i l l unknown.
The
s t a g was t h e f a v o u r i t e badge o f R i c h a r d I I , who d e r i v e d i t f r o m t h e w h i t e
doe o f h i s m o t h e r . Thus i t i s p r o b a b l y f a r o l d e r . The b a d g e o f E d w a r d I I
was a t o w e r .
The p r e s e n t badge o f I r e l a n d , a t o w e r w i t h a w h i t e s t a g , i s
s a i d t o be a remembrance o f R i c h a r d ' s I r i s h e x p e d i t i o n . The D e r b y c o a t o f
arms a l s o c o n t a i n s a w h i t e s t a g . C f . W i l f r i d S c o t t - G i l e s , The Romance of
Heraldry
( L o n d o n , 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 121-22. B a d g e s , u n l i k e c o a t s o f arms, w e r e
not the e x c l u s i v e p r o p e r t y o f the wearer.
They w e r e w o r n b y t h e members o f
a l o r d ' s r e t i n u e as a s i g n o f t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e .
Edward's r e f e r e n c e t o a
badge p r o b a b l y r e f e r s t o h i s d e s i g n a t e d s u c c e s s o r .
140
1^ C f . E l i z a b e t h Lawn, "Gefangenschaft":
Aspekt
und Symbol s o z i a l e r
Bindung
im M i t t e l a l t e r , d a r g e s t e l l t an chronikalischen
und
poetischen
Quellen,
Europäische H o c h s c h u l s c h r i f t e n , R e i h e 1: D e u t s c h e L i t e r a t u r u n d
G e r m a n i s t i k , 214, ( F r a n k f u r t , 1 9 7 7 ) ; c f . a l s o D i e g o de S a n P e d r o , Cärcel de
amor, 1492, The Castle
of Love, t r a n s . J o h n B o u r c h i e r , L o r d B e r n e r s
(Reprod.:
G a i n e s v i l l e , F l a . , 1950).
2
^ Cf. I l l u s t r a t i o n ,
or
Willehalm.
Bible,
21 C f . I l l u s t r a t i o n
( ? ) , p. l x v .
s c r i p t o r i u m o f K i n g Wenzel
I V o f Bohemia,
from t h e Manesse M a n u s c r i p t .
Holy
Benno o f H o r n b e r g
2 2
Kyng Alisaunder,
e d . G. V. S m i t h e r s , EETS OS 227 ( L o n d o n , 1952 f o r
r p t . 1 9 6 1 ) , I I , 4 1 9 , 1 1 . 7688-7692 (MS. L a u d M i s c . 6 2 2 ) .
1947;
2
3
2
4
Ibid.,
I I , 4 1 9 , 1. 7714.
The Harley
Lyrics:
The Middle
English
L y r i c s of MS, Harley
2253,
ed. G. L. B r o o k , O l d a n d M i d d l e E n g l i s h T e x t s ( M a n c h e s t e r , 4 t h , e d . 1 9 6 8 ) ,
p. 3 4 1 , 1. 25.
2 5
I b i d . , p. 4 4 , 11.
2 6
I b i d . , p. 67.
2 7
21-22.
Published i n Rolf Kaiser
N r . 99, p. 216.
( e d . ) , Medieval
English
(Berlin,
1961),
O Q
c o
Edition cited:
James I o f S c o t l a n d , The Kingis
Norton-Smith (Leiden, 1981).
Quair,
A good o v e r v i e w o f modern r e s e a r c h i s f o u n d i n U l r i c k e
The Kingis
Quair als Humoristisch-Ironische
Traumvision
(Diss:
R e g e n s b u r g , 1 9 7 0 ) , e s p . pp. 1-18.
3
0
ed. J o h n
Hirschberg,
Universität
The i m p r i s o n m e n t o f James I ( 1 3 9 4 - 1 4 3 7 ) :
1406
James i s t a k e n p r i s o n e r on t h e D a n z i g s h i p " M a r y k n i g h t . "
I m p r i s o n m e n t i n Tower, l a t e r i n N o t t i n g h a m .
1407
James i s d e c l a r e d k i n g o f S c o t l a n d .
A l b a n y i s made
governor.
1409-13 James i s e d u c a t e d a t t h e E n g l i s h C o u r t .
1413-16
I m p r i s o n m e n t i n t h e Tower ( w i t h i n t e r r u p t i o n s due t o t h e
plague).
1421
James i s d u b b e d k n i g h t i n W i n d s o r .
1424
James i s wed t o J o a n B e a u f o r t .
141
1424
1437
James i s s e t f r e e and d e p a r t s f o r S c o t l a n d .
James i s m u r d e r e d i n J o a n ' s p r e s e n c e .
31 The M i n e r v a e p i s o d e and t h e Dream o f F o r t u n e a r e p o o r l y i n t e g r a t e d
i n t o t h e poem, b u t t h e p o e t ' s humourous u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r t h e f o i b l e s o f
human e x i s t e n c e h e l p s smooth t h e gap b e t w e e n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
Indeed,
t h e s t r u c t u r a l f l a w s may be no more t h a n a r e f l e x o f t h e m e d i e v a l
d i f f i c u l t y o f i n t e g r a t i n g the concept o f F o r t u n a i n t o the t h e o l o g i c a l
system.
A t any r a t e , t h e Kingis
Quair,
j u s t l i k e Chaucer's book, had e v e r y
r e a s o n [ t o ] " k i s t h e s t e p p e s , w h e r e as thow s e e s t p a c e V i r g i l e , O v i d e ,
Omer, L u c a n and S t a c e " (Troylus
and Criseyde,
Book V, 11.
1791-92 i n : The
Complete
Poetry
and Prose
of Geoffrey
Chaucer,
ed. J.H. F i s h e r [New Y o r k ,
1 9 7 7 ] , p. 5 3 8 . ) .
32 S a l l y P u r c e l l ( e d . ) , The Poems of Charles
de Orleans,
Selection
( C h e a d l e , 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 94-95.
P u r c e l l ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f the passage reads:
" F o r I made them w h i l e i n p r i s o n , " p. 95.
3 3
R o b e r t S t e e l e ( e d . ) , The English
Poems of Charles
of Orleans,
EETS
OS 215 ( L o n d o n , 1 9 4 1 ) .
C f . J a c q u e s C h a r p i e r , Charles
D'Orleans
(Paris,
1 9 5 8 ) , f o r a c r i t i c a l s t u d y o f t h e man and s e l e c t e d poems; c f . a l s o J e a n
T a r d i e u , Charles
D'Orleans
( P a r i s , 1 9 4 7 ) , f o r a s e l e c t i o n o f t h e poems.
N a d i a M a r g o l i s , "The Human P r i s o n :
The M e t a m o r p h o s i s o f M i s e r y i n
t h e P o e t r y o f C h r i s t i n e de P i z a n , C h a r l e s d ' O r l e a n s and F r a n c o i s V i l l o n , "
Fifteenth-Century
Studies,
1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , pp. 185-92.
35 I b i d . ,
B a l l a d 78, p.
36 I b i d . ,
1. 1012,
p.
34.
37 I b i d . ,
1. 1442,
p.
49.
97.
38
A l l t h i s may be c o n n e c t e d w i t h a k i n d o f m e n t a l a t t i t u d e w h i c h h a s
b e e n d e s i g n a t e d as " s p i r i t u a l e v a s i v e n e s s " ( c f . P u r c e l l , Poems, p. 1 0 ) .
B u t t h e poems o f C h a r l e s d ' O r l e a n s seem f a r f r o m " e v a s i v e " t o my way o f
thinking.
Most o f the a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s are d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the s t a t e of
h i s own s o u l ; p e r h a p s i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n t o o r i s k y t o e n t r u s t h i s t r u e
f e e l i n g s to paper w h i l e i n p r i s o n .
S t e e l e i n h i s t r e a t m e n t o f d a t e and
a u t h o r s h i p s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e E a r l o f S u f f o l k , who w r o t e p o e t r y o f h i s own
w h i l e i n p r i s o n and has o f t e n b e e n v i e w e d as t h e a u t h o r o r a t l e a s t
t r a n s l a t o r o f D ' O r l e a n ' s poems, may h a v e a d v i s e d C h a r l e s t o make s i m i l a r
use o f h i s t i m e o f i m p r i s o n m e n t ( C f . pp. x x i - x x i i ) .
" I t a t e n e a t u r r e i g e s t a e V e r i t a s , u t non e v a c u e t u r r e i g e r e n d a e
p r o p h e t i a " ( G r e g o r , In expos itionem
berati
Job moralia,
seu moralium
libri
XXXV, PL, LXXV, c o l . 5 0 9 - L X X V I , p. 782; h e r e PL, L X X V I , c o l s . 7 7 9 - 8 0 ) .
142
4
^ C f . t h e two i l l u s t r a t i o n s t a k e n f r o m R e i n e r D i e c k h o f f ,
"antigui
moderni.
Zeitbewußtsein u n d N a t u r e r f a h r u n g i m 14. J a h r h u n d e r t , " Die
Parier
und der schöne S t i l :
Europäische Kunst unter den Luxemburgern.
Ein
Handbuch z u r A u s s t e l l u n g d e s Schnütgen-Museums i n d e r K u n s t h a l l e Köln, e d .
A n t o n L e g n e r (Köln, 1 9 7 8 ) , I I I , 67-93.
4
1
4
2
M a u r i c e K e a n , Chivalry
(New H a v e n , 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 212.
From " A i n A n e f a n g k , " Die Lieder
Oswalds von
Wolkenstein,
A l t d e u t s c h e T e x t b i b l i o t h e k , 55 (Tübingen, 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 1-6. The poems o p e n s
w i t h a s e l f - a c c u s a t i o n o f t h e l y r i c a l f i r s t p e r s o n , who d e s i g n a t e s
himself
a s i n n e r moved b y t h e f e a r o f d e a t h t o r e p e n t a n d amend h i s ways. The
i n s t r u m e n t o f h i s penance i s the i n s t r u m e n t o f h i s s i n - an e n i g m a t i c
s t a t e m e n t u n l e s s one knows t h a t t h e poem i s b a s e d u p o n t h e p o e t ' s
e x p e r i e n c e as a p r i s o n e r i n Burg F o r s t i n O c t o b e r , 1421. Oswald h a d r e a s o n
t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e woman h e o n c e l o v e d , t h e L a d y o f t h e C a s t l e , h a d h e l p e d
i n i t i a t e a f e u d a g a i n s t h i m a n d was i n l e a g u e w i t h h i s m a i n enemy, Duke
Friedrich.
F o r l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e poem " A i n a n e f a n g k "
and t h e p o e t ' s b i o g r a p h y , s e e D i e t e r Kühn, Ich Wolkenstein
(Frankfurt,
1 9 7 7 ) , pp. 322-327; A n t o n Schwöb, Historische
Realität und l i t e r a r i s c h e
Umsetzung:
Beobachtungen
zur S t i l i s i e r u n g der Gefangenschaft
in den
Liedern
Oswalds von Wolkenstein,
I n n s b r u c k e r Beiträge z u r
K u l t u r w i s s e n s c h a f t , G e r m a n i s c h e R e i h e , 9 ( I n n s b r u c k , 1 9 7 9 ) , pp. 6 6 - 1 4 0 ;
S i e g l i n d e H a r t m a n n , Altersdichtung
und Selbstdarstellung
bei Oswald von
Wolkenstein:
Die Lieder
Kl 1 bis 7 im spätmittelalterlichen
Kontext,
Göppinger A r b e i t e n z u r G e r m a n i s t i k , N r . 288 (Göppingen, 1 9 8 0 ) , pp. 45-85").
B u t t h e s e f a c t s c a n n o t b e c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e poem a l o n e .
C f . Schwöb, p p .
112-14, who s t a t e s t h a t t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l p e r i o d o f t h e f i r s t h a l f o f
O c t o b e r , 1421 i s f a r f r o m s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n c l u d e t h e d a t e o f t h e poem K l 1.
He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e poem p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d i n a r o u g h o r a l v e r s i o n i n
B u r g F o r s t , a n d was o n l y c o m p l e t e d a f t e r O s w a l d was r e l e a s e d t h r o u g h Duke
F r i e d r i c h i n M a r c h 1422 a n d h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d t h e s u b s e q u e n t n e c e s s a r y l e g a l
procedures.
The s p r i n g a n d summer o f 1 4 2 2 , t h a t i s t h e months b e f o r e
O s w a l d was f o r c e d t o f l e e t h e Duke t o a v o i d h a v i n g t o s u r r e n d e r h i m s e l f i n
T y r o l (on August 4 t h ) , would have been a p o s s i b l e time f o r r e l i g i o u s
c o n v e r s a t i o n s and r e f l e c t i o n , as w e l l as f o r p o e t i c e n d e a v o u r s .
4
3
4
4
W o l k e n s t e i n f i n d s c o n s o l a t i o n i n t h e c e r t a i n t y t h a t God knows t h e
ways o f t h e s i n f u l .
L i k e L o v e , he d e v i s e s w i l e s t o t a k e man c a p t i v e a n d t o
bind him to Himself.
Thus t h e o n l y c o r r e c t r e a c t i o n i s t o y i e l d t o t h e
i n e v i t a b l e , a n d t o l o v e o n e ' s c a p t o r w i t h a l l one's h e a r t .
Only e a r t h l y
l o v e b a r s t h e way:
"0 w e l t l i c h l i e b , w i e swer s i n d d e i n e pünt [ ' f e t t e r s ' ]
The p o e t p r a y s t h a t a l l who c o n s p i r e a g a i n s t h i s l i f e may b e g i v e n
t h e g r a c e t o do p e n a n c e u p o n t h i s e a r t h .
The poem c l o s e s w i t h a p r a y e r f o r
the B e l o v e d .
( I am i n d e b t e d t o P r i v a t d o z e n t i n D r . Hedda R a g o t z k y f o r
c a l l i n g my a t t e n t i o n t o O s w a l d v o n W o l k e n s t e i n a n d h i s poem " A i n A n e f a n g k . "
She was a l s o k i n d enough t o s e n d me i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e P r i s o n o f L o v e . )
4
^
Consolatio,
p. 63.
143
6
^
"East Coker,"
h e r e f r o m The Complete
177.
t h e s e c o n d o f t h e F o u r Quartets,
Poems and Plays
of T. S. E l i o t
^
The Canterbury
Tales by Geoffrey
Chaucer,
b y N. F. B l a k e ( L o n d o n , 1 9 8 0 ) , pp. 289-309.
4
J.U.
8
( 1 9 4 0 ) , 1.1; c i t e d
( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 9 ) , p.
e d . f r o m t h e H e n g w r t MS
B o e t h i u s , t r a n s . S t e w a r t , p. 357.
^ G e o f f r e y C h a u c e r , Canterbury
Tales,
r e n d e r e d i n t o Modern E n g l i s h by
N i c h o l s o n ( G a r d e n C i t y , New Y o r k , 1 9 3 4 ) , p. 459.
50 " i s t ' s w o h l d e r Rede w e r t , g e f a n g e n müssen l e b e n ? E i n V o g e l
wünschet s i c h i n f r e i e r L u f t z u s e i n , Und s p e r r e t man i h n g l e i c h i n G o l d
u n d S i l b e r e i n . " From:
" F r e i h e i t d e r L i e b e , " Lyrik
des Abendlandes,
ed.
G e o r g B r i t t i n g , e t a l . (München, 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 259.
5
PL,
1 Hugo v o n S. V i c t o r , De sacramentis
C L X X V I , c o l . 185 D.
5
2
5
3
5
^ C i t e d f r o m P a t c h , Tradition,
5 5
G r e g o r , Homiliae
XL in Ezechielem,
fidei
christianae, prologus, VI,
PL, L X X V I ,
c o l . 1029 C.
( O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ) , p. 48.
Ibid.,
p. 110, " C o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t F o r t u n e . "
p. 111.
H u b e r t u s S c h u l t e Herbrüggen, Thomas Morus:
(München, 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 96.
Gebete
und
Meditationen
C l a r e n c e H. M i l l e r , L e i c e s t e r B r a d n e r , C h a r l e s A. L y n c h a n d R e v i l o
P. O l i v e r ( e d s . ) , The Complete
Works of St. Thomas More (New Haven, 1 9 8 4 ) ,
V o l . I I I , P a r t 2, pp. 166-69.
5 8
Ibid.,
p. 59.
F o r t h e r e f e r e n c e t o S e n e c a , I am i n d e b t e d t o Uwe Baumann, Die
Antike
in den Epigrammen und Briefen
S i r Thomas Mores, Beiträge z u r
E n g l i s c h e n u n d A m e r i k a n i s c h e n L i t e r a t u r , 1 ( P a d e r b o r n , 1 9 8 4 ) , p. 58.
144
60 C f . C h r i s t i n e de P i s a n , L'Epistre
de la prison
de vie humaine et
d'avoir
reconfort
de mort d'amis et pacience
en adversite
(1416-1418);
c i t e d i n : E d i t h Y e n n a l , C h r i s t i n e de Pisan,
A Bibliography
of Writings
by
Her and about Her ( L o n d o n , 1 9 8 2 ) :
"A c o n s o l a t o r y l e t t e r i n s p i r e d b y t h e
men who f o u g h t a n d d i e d i n t h e B a t t l e o f A g i n c o u r t ( 1 4 1 5 ) . The t i t l e f o r
t h i s p h i l o s o p h i c o - r e l i g i o u s w o r k comes f r o m a t e x t o f S t . B e r n a r d , who
l i k e n e d human e x i s t e n c e t o a p r i s o n f r o m w h i c h m o r t a l s e s c a p e d o n l y t h r o u g h
death."
61 Baumann, Antike,
6
2
p. 5 8 , f n . 6.
S c h u l t e Herbrüggen, Thomas Morus,
6 3
B e d a , Hexameron,
6 4
A. T o s t a t , Commentaria,
6 5
H e t t l i n g , Guthlac,
p. 4 4 .
PL, X C I , c o l . i v .
p. 1 8 5 .
p. 4 0 .
6 6
C f . R i c h a r d C r a s h a w , "A Song," i n : D.H.S. N i c h o l s o n a n d A.H.E.
L e e , The Oxford
Book of English
Mystical
Verse
( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 2 ) , p. 4 9 .
7
6 R o b e r t K o n r a d , "Das h i m m l i s c h e u n d d a s i r d i s c h e J e r u s a l e m i m
m i t t e l a l t e r l i c h e n Denken," Speculum H i s t o r i a l e :
Geschichte
im Spiegel
von
Geschichtsschreibung
und Geschichtsdeutung,
e d . Clemens B a u e r , L a e t i t i a
Boehm, Max Müller (München, 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 523-40; h e r e , p. 524.
6 8
I b i d . , p.
527.
69 A l f r e d W. P o l l a r d , English
( O x f o r d , 1 8 9 5 ) , p. 4 9 .
7
^ Guido M a r i a Dreves
l a t e i n i s c h e r Hymnendichtung
7 1
Ibid.,
Miracle
Plays,
M o r a l i t i e s and
( e d . ) , r e v . Clemens B l u m e , Ein
( L e i p z i g , 1 9 0 9 ) , I I , p. 98.
Interludes
Jahrtausend
I I 440.
7 2
C f . W. H a r t i n g e r , ... denen Gott genad:
Totenbrauchtum
und ArmeSeelen-Glaube
in der Oberpfalz
( R e g e n s b u r g , 1 9 7 9 ) , p. 1 6 2 : P r i s o n o f L o s t
S o u l s i n Günching n e a r V e l b u r g .
7 3
The BBC Hymn Book, No. 490, b a s e d o n L u c a s 4:
hymn, a p p a r e n t l y s t i l l v e r y p o p u l a r t o d a y .
18-19, a w o n d e r f u l
145
7 4
D r e v e s / B l u m e , I I , 98;
7 5
Ibid.,
II
7 6
C. Day
L e w i s , The
c f . 97 and
100.
426.
Poetic
Image
(London,
1947),
p.
139.
7 7
R i c h a r d R. G r i f f i t h , "The A u t h o r s h i p Q u e s t i o n R e c o n s i d e r e d , " i n :
T a k a m i y a / B r e w e r , Malory,
pp. 158-77; i n r e g a r d t o t h e m e a n i n g o f ' r e c o v e r '
i t may be w o r t h y o f n o t e t h a t M a l o r y i n s e r t s a p a s s a g e i n Book I X , p. 333,
on " t h e g r e t t y s t p a y n e a p r e s o n e r may h a v e , " n a m e l y when a p r i s o n e r f a l l s
ill.
M a l o r y may p o s s i b l y h a v e b e e n s p e a k i n g f r o m h i s own e x p e r i e n c e .
78
XV,
S i r
xhomas M a l o r y , Works,
" S i r L a u n c e l o t , " p.
7 9
Ibid.,
e d . Eugene V i n a v e r ( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 2 ) ,
556.
Book X I I I ,
"The
M i r a c l e s , " p.
535.
Book