SALONGA-LUKENIE-SANKURU LANDSCAPE
Land Use Plan
Submitted by Lisa Steel, Landscape Leader, Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape
WWF-DRC to CARPE/USAID, July 2008
and ECOFAC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LAND USE PLAN DESIGN SCHEDULE .....................................................................3
SALONGA-LUKENIE-SANKURU LAND USE PLAN......................................................4
1.
UNIQUE VALUE (see RFA)..........................................................................................4
2.
CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................................................................5
2.1
PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES ....................................................................................5
2.1.1
Landscape Limits ...............................................................................................5
2.1.2
Topography and Hydrology...............................................................................5
2.1.3
Administrative and Land Management Units ....................................................6
2.1.4
Human Infrastructure .........................................................................................7
2.2
ECOLOGICAL FEATURES..................................................................................8
2.2.1
Key Species........................................................................................................8
2.1.2
Other fauna.........................................................................................................9
2.1.3
Flora ...................................................................................................................9
2.1.4
Wildlife Migration Corridors...........................................................................11
2.1.5
Environmental Services ...................................................................................11
2.3
SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS......................................................12
2.3.1
Demographics ..................................................................................................12
2.3.2
Land Tenure: The de facto and the de jure .....................................................13
2.3.3
Natural Resource Use: Subsistence and Economic Activities (Colom 2006) 13
2.4
SOCIOECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL TRENDS ......................................16
2.4.1
Direct Threats...................................................................................................16
2.4.3
Future Trends ...................................................................................................19
2.5.
LEGAL STATUS OF THE SLS LANDSCAPE AND THE LU PLANNING .20
3.
DESIRED CONDITIONS ..........................................................................................21
4.
SALONGA-LUKENIE-SANKURU LANDSCAPE OBJECTIVES ...............23
5.
MACRO-ZONES .........................................................................................................23
5.1
PROVISIONAL ZONING ....................................................................................23
5.1.1
Existing and Proposed Land-use Units ............................................................23
5.1.1
High value conservation forests (isolation, intactness and size) (Target 1) ....24
5.1.3
Proposed Corridors ..........................................................................................24
5.1.4
Agricultural Growth (target 2) .........................................................................25
5.1.5
Economic growth areas (target 3) ....................................................................26
6.
GUIDELINES ...............................................................................................................26
7.
PLAN IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE ............................................................26
8.
MONITORING AND INFORMATION NEEDS ASSESSMENT ....................27
Appendix 1: Bibliography.......................................................................................................27
2
LAND USE PLAN DESIGN SCHEDULE
The CARPE annual benchmarks for the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape are as follows:
FY08: 30% of land use plan design completed
FY09: 60% of land use plan design completed
FY10: Land use plan 100% completed and adopted
The different processes and elements of the plan will be completed according to the following
schedule:
Task
Process
Planning Team
Information and Data Needs Elaborated
Public and Stakeholder Participation
Strategy
Strategy for Formal Recognition of Plan
Land Use Plan Element
Unique Value
Characteristics
Desired Conditions
Objectives
Macro-zones
Guidelines
Implementation Activities and Schedule
Monitoring & Info Needs Assessment
Plan Adoption
Percentage of design completed
FY08
FY09
FY10
FY11
X
X
X
X
% of land/mgmt
plan design
5
20
10
20
20
10
10
5
0
X
X (5)
X (10)
X (10)
X (5)
30%
X (15)
X (10)
X (5)
X (5)
X (5)
70%
X (5)
X (5)
X (5)
X (5)
X
100%
The draft land use plan will be submitted annually (or according to the directives of
CARPE/USAID) to demonstrate the completion of the various elements of the plan as
enumerated in the table. There is a discrepancy between the FY09 benchmark (60%) and the
schedule (70%). The 60% forecast allows for any changes in processes or land use plan
elements that may be recommended by the Ministry of Environment technical team in charge
of elaborating a strategy for land use planning.
3
SALONGA-LUKENIE-SANKURU LAND USE PLAN
1.
UNIQUE VALUE (see RFA)
The Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru (SLS) Landscape covers 104,140 km2 of the “Cuvette
Centrale” region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The landscape was first
identified as a priority conservation area in 2000 by over 160 experts in biological and social
science attending a WWF regional workshop (Kamdem et. al. 2006). The landscape is now
one of twelve focal landscapes of the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) and the Central
Africa Forest Commission (COMIFAC).
The centerpiece of the landscape is Salonga National Park (33,350 km2), Africa’s largest
national park and the world’s second largest tropical forest park. It is one of five World
Heritage Sites in DRC and until recently was the only protected area in DRC to shelter one of
the world’s four great apes, the endemic bonobo.
The landscape is globally and regionally outstanding encompassing one of the largest intact
blocks of lowland forest in the Congo Basin. Over 70,000 km2 or 70.8% of the landscape is
forested which amounts to 10% of the dense forests of DRC. Forest cover change was
estimated at less than 0.4% between circa 1990 and 2000, the lowest of all CBFP landscapes.
The same forests as well as freshwater ecosystems (23.6% of the landscape) play a significant
role in climate regulation through carbon sequestration and the stabilization of hydrological
systems. These systems also represent a significant future economic windfall for
communities and national government through payment of environment service (PES)
mechanisms such as REDD.
The size and intactness of forest and freshwater habitat allows for the persistence of
populations of aquatic and terrestrial fauna and flora, key habitats and connectivity, and
unimpeded continuation of the ecological processes characteristic of the Cuvette Central
region. Bonobos are distributed across the landscape. Globally significant populations reside
in SNP with an estimated 15,000 nest-builders (Grossman et. al. 2008). Salonga National
Park and the landscape also represent the (last viable stronghold/most important forest block)
in western DRC for the dwindling populations of forest elephant. Other noteworthy species
include bongo, giant pangolin, Congo peacock and eight additional diurnal primate species.
Freshwater fish diversity is predicted to be high and one probable new genus has already
been identified.
The landscape and its natural resources are critical to its 180,500 human inhabitants,
providing them with their sustenance, construction material, medicine and socio-cultural
inspiration. Although in decline, customary systems of natural resource management and
governance still persistence across the landscape. There traditional lifestyles and untapped
cultural knowledge may represent an important repository in the search for new medicines
and cultivars, and in designing more sustainable systems of land and resource use.
High value commercial timber species represent another source of wealth. If exploitation is
based on environmental (sustainable forest management, certification) and social best
practices it has the potential to provide government with income through taxes and to
contribute to the livelihoods of communities through improving social services and benefit
sharing.
4
2.
CHARACTERISTICS
2.1
PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES
2.1.1
Landscape Limits
The Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape 1 (figure 1) of the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC) has no official legal status; instead its limits are used to guide activities and land-use
planning processes. It encompasses 104,140 km2 of DRC which is equivalent to 10% of the
nation’s dense forests and 5% of its total national territory.
Figure 1: The Limit and Administrative Units of the SLS Landscape
2.1.2
Topography and Hydrology
Located in the Cuvette Centrale region of the DRC, the landscape’s relief is dominated by its
flat topography with altitude averaging 300 meters with a gradual increase to 700 meters in
the east. Average rainfall is 2100 mm; declining to 1700 mm in the far south (State of the
Forest 2006).
1
The original limits were redrawn in 2007 to better align with natural boundaries to the south such as the Sankuru and Kasai
Rivers and with logging concession and road limits to the west.
5
There are three important drainage basins. In the north, 5 rivers flow in a northwest
direction, empting into the Ruki which meets the Congo River at Mbandaka (Cuvette Central
Freshwater Ecoregion). In the south, the Lukenie and Sankuru are tributaries of the Kasai
River which empties into the Congo River at Kwamouth (Kasai Freshwater Ecoregion).
Lastly the Lokoro River flows in a westerly direction, draining into Lake Mai Ndombe (Mai
Ndombe Freshwater Ecoregion). Most of the Landscape is subject to major seasonal
flooding.
2.1.3
Administrative and Land Management Units
The landscape straddles four provinces (Equateur, Bandundu, Kasai Occidental and Kasai
Orientale), 10 territories and 18 sectors (figure 1). In 2009 as a part of the national process of
decentralization, four proposed provinces will overlap with the landscape - Kasai, Sankuru,
Tshuapa and Mai Ndombe.
The focal land use unit of the landscape is Salonga National Park (SNP) which covers 32%
(33,350 km2) of the landscape and is Africa’s largest national park and the second largest
tropical forest park in the world. The park was created in 1970 by presidential ordinance
n°70-318. It was declared a World Heritage Site in 1984 and reclassified as a Site in Danger
in 1999. The park is divided into south (17,130 km2) and north (16,220 km2) sectors
separated by a 40 km wide corridor. A second protected area, Mangai Faunal
(Hippopotamus) Reserve follows the Kasai River, a southern limit of the landscape (figure 2).
Twenty-one (21) logging concessions are registered entirely or partially within the landscape
(figure 2). They cover 26% (27,340 km2) of the landscape. The number of concessions is
expected to decrease upon completion of the legal review of old concessions and the
conversions to new legal title. In mid-2008, only 3 of these 21 concessions were declared as
active and exploiting timber (SODEFOR 030 and 028; ITB 002).
Eleven commercial plantations (palm oil, coffee, rubber) have been identified through
vegetative analysis of satellite imagery and field work. There are no known commercial
mining permits in the landscape although there are rumors of pending prospection for oil near
Dekese in the south of the landscape.
6
Figure 2: Land-use units – CBNRM zones, logging concessions and protected areas – of the
SLS Landscape
2.1.4
Human Infrastructure
Human settlements (715 villages, 5 towns) (figure 2) are concentrated on a small, internal
network of roads and footpaths, and navigable rivers and around several small commercial
centers (Dekese, Oshwe, Lokolama, Bongimba and Monkoto). The landscape is a virtual
island with internal and external transport networks severely degraded due to the general
collapse of the country’s infrastructure during the later portion of the Mobutu years and the
destruction or removal of bridges and ferries during the civil war. Most roads today are only
passable on foot, sometimes bike, and with difficulty, motorcycle. The provincial
government of Kasai Occidental plans to improve accessibility in the south with the
installation of two new ferries, presently under construction, at crossing points on the
Sankuru and Dekese Rivers.
There are several airfields in the landscape but their size and condition only allows for use by
small aircraft. Others require rehabilitation (figure 3)
Other infrastructure such as hospitals, schools and churches are either completely
dysfunctional or in a state of disrepair operating with insufficient financial and human
resources. Cellular telephone services have only recently reached the southern limits of the
landscape and expansion to the town of Oshwe is under consideration.
7
Figure 3: Ports, airfields, roads and past ferries in the SLS Landscape
2.2
ECOLOGICAL FEATURES
2.2.1
Key Species
The landscape is of global significance for the long term survival of the bonobo (Pan
paniscus), one of the world’s four great apes, and it represent the species’ largest expanse of
undisturbed habitat. Inventories covering 60% of the landscape have documented significant
bonobo populations across the landscape. Their distribution is often referred to as patchy
which is partially explained by the positive assocation of nesting habitat with lowland, terra
firma forest with Marantaceae under-story and the negative impact of hunting (Reinartz et. al.
2006;Reinartz et. al. 2008). The estimated mean population of nest-building bonobos in SNP
is 14,880 individuals (Grossman et. al. 2008).
The results of MIKE surveys (Blake 2005) in Salonga National Park portray a bleak picture
for the status of the forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) conservation. In SNP fewer
than 0.3 dung piles per km2 were recorded signifying only 2000 elephants: the lowest of 6
surveyed regional sites 2 . In comparison, although using a different methodology, 1989
researchers estimated populations of up to 8300 individuals. However, more intensive and
targeted surveys are ongoing, and they continue to document elephants in the park, the
occurrence of reproduction and congregations particularly in association with water habitats
and bais. If protected, elephant populations could rebound. Outside the park, forest elephant
presence has been documented in all major forest blocks to the west of SNP, including a
2
Salonga, Bangassou, Dzanga -Sangha, Nouabalé -Ndoki, Boumba Bek, and Minkebe.
8
potentially important population in an area of raffia swamp forest. Although population
figures are discouraging, the SLS Landscape and in particular SNP remain the most important
areas for forest elephant conservation in western DRC.
2.1.2
Other fauna
Other noteworthy species include bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros), giant pangolin (Smutsia
gigantea); and hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius). Nine diurnal primate species have
been recorded including several endemic species and subspecies: the golden-bellied
mangabey (Cercocebus chrysogaster), the black mangabey (Lophocebus aterrimus), and
Thollon’s red colobus (Procolobus tholloni). Other species of conservation concern occurring
in the landscape are the Angola black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis) and Allen’s
swamp monkey (Allenophithecus nigroviridis). Little is known of the conservation status of
these species although the persistence of heavily hunted species such as red colobus is
threatened.
Biodiversity in the savannah-forest mosaic region of the south of the landscape is of interest.
The Lukuru Wildlife Research Project (Lukuru Wildlife Research Project, 1999) recorded the
presence of Black-bellied Bustard (Eupodotic melangoaster), Grimm’s Duiker (Sylvicapra
grimmia), Serval (Felis serval), and Side-striped Jackal (Canis adustus). The present day
status of these species is unknown.
Avifauna inventories have been limited to SNP where at least 223 species have been recorded
(Maisels 2007). This list is incomplete and it is expected that additional inventories both in the
dense forest region and in savanna-forest mosaic of the south will reveal numerous other species.
At least one endemic species of international importance, the Congo Peacock (Afropavo
congensis), populates the landscape.
Inventories of freshwater fish diversity have been concentrated on boundary and internal
rivers of SNP and in the vicinity of the Max Planck Research Camp on the western border of
the park (Schliewen 2002). Systematic studies on the Luilaka, Salonga and Yenge rivers
have already documented 129 species, 67 genera, 22 families and 10 orders. Noteworthy
findings included the absence of representatives of the cyprinid genus, Labeo, and the
presence of one morphologically unique catfish (tentatively assigned to the Claroteidae)
(Monsembula 2008). This number is expected to increase after the completion of surveys of
small tributary streams where biodiversity is expected to be higher. Also there is a need to
consolidate this information with the species list from the Max Planck area.
Little information is available or has been compiled for other taxonomic groups such as
reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.
2.1.3
Flora
The Landscape forms part of the central Congolese forests ecoregion and 94% of it is covered
by diverse forest formations: 23.6% swamp or floodplain forests and 70.8% terra firma
forests. As illustrated by forest cover change (0.4%) between ca. 1990 and 2000 and the
analysis of satellite imagery (figure 4), fragmentation is minimal and there are still large
intact forest blocks (figure 5).
9
Figure 4: Fragmentation of forest blocks in the SLS Landscape 3
Intact
Fragmented
Forest formations constitute a mosaic of mostly evergreen formations (in the moist lowlands)
or caducifoliated formations (on plateau peaks and crests). The different formations include:
small expanses of forest with a monodominance of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, G. ogoouense
or Brachystegia laurentii; semi-caducifoliated forests of Staudtia stipitata,
Greenwayodendron suaveolens, Scorodophloeus zenkeri, Anonidium manni and Parinari
glabra; riparian forests of Uapaca heudelotii and Parinari congensis; floodplain forests of
Oubanguia africana, Scytopetalum pierreanum and Guibourtia demeusei; and swamp forests
of Entandrophragma palustre, Coelocaryon botryoides and Symphonia globulifera. The
forest flora is dominated by legumes of the Caesalpiniaceae subfamily and then by
Euphorbiaceae and Apocynaceae (State of the Forest 2006).
Species with a high commercial value include various African mahoganies
(Entandrophragma spp.), Wenge (Milletia laurentii), Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), and
Padouk (Pterocarpus casteelsii) and various species of ebony (Diospyros spp.). Other
information on the distribution and volume of commercial species resides with logging
companies (e.g. SODEFOR and its partner FRM) that have completed inventories.
The southern portion of the landscape is at the fringe of an important transition zone between
moist forests and the forests-savannahs mosiac ecoregion of southern Congolese and
manifests itself as islands of savannah (0.9%) surrounded by forests. Finally, a very
important habitat for fauna is formed by the swampy clearings rich in mineral salts and
elephant baths or ‘botoka njoku’.
3
Some red areas are savannah and open freshwater.
10
2.1.4
Wildlife Migration Corridors
Assuring connectivity between preferred habitat areas of wide-ranging species such as
elephant will be critical to their survival. Even in the context of the world’s second largest
tropical forest park, their habitat and vast ranging requirements may not be sufficiently
captured by the area of the landscape. Figure 5 shows intact and more remote forest blocks
of 6000 km2 or greater: the estimated area required to maintain viable elephant populations
(Blake 2005).
Potential corridors have been identified using spatial analysis and decision support systems
(e.g. Marxan) in the SLS Landscape and extend out to neighboring areas of high conservation
value including two CBFP landscapes (Maringa-Lopori-Wamba and Lac Tele-Lac Tumba).
Two potential corridors were identified at a November 2007 national biological assessment
workshop and another area is being considered as a potential corridor linking the two sectors
of SNP (see section 5 on macro-zones for map).
Figure 5: Intact forest blocks of 6000 km2 or greater
2.1.5
Environmental Services
The forests of the landscape play an important global role in carbon sequestration and the
maintenance of regional hydrological systems (flow patterns, water quality, water levels).
These values are not only important to climate regulation but they may have a significant
economic value if future payment for environmental service (PES) mechanisms are
implemented.
Baseline carbon quantification (and floristic) studies have commenced in the landscape with
plots in both primary forest (within SNP) and two age classes of secondary forest (within and
outside of SNP). Although the results of this work are not yet available, the above standing
11
stock is estimated to range between 33-63tC/ha. If landscape forest (excluding permanent or
seasonally freshwater habitat) covers 70% of the landscape this translates into 2.4-4.6 mn
tons of above-ground carbon (Laporte et. al. 2007)
2.3
SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
2.3.1
Demographics
There are an estimated 180,600 human inhabitants in the landscape, residing in 716 villages
and 4 towns. Outside of SNP, population density is estimated at 2.5 individuals/km2. The
population is largely homogenous, comprised of sub-groups of the nation’s second largest
ethnic group, the Mongo. There are also small populations of Batwa, Ngombe and Mbole.
Household size ranges from 6-9 members depending upon the sector or territory.
There are two localized populations located entirely or partially within Salonga National
Park: the Kitawala, a religious sect of Watchtower origin, and the Iyaelima, a Mongo subgroup. There are 9 Iyaelima villages in the southern block of the park 4 sheltering ca. 2450
inhabitants (Thompson et. al. 2008). Like their neighbors they are believed to have migrated
into their area in the 19th century. Unlike other villages, the Iyaelima were never forced to
relocate from their lands.
The history of the Kitawala is quite different. They moved into the park area - on the eastern
boundary of the north block - in the early 1960s. The land they occupied was the former
ancestral land of previously displaced villages. Because they have shunned the government
and societal trappings since the sect was formed in the 1920s, today as in the past, the
Kitawla are viewed as a threat to government authority.
It is also important to mention the history of forced relocations starting in the colonial period
when villages were moved closer to roads for a variety of reasons including road construction
and improved administrative oversight. These actions were perpetuated in the 1950s and into
the post-colonial period as part of the process of creating Salonga National Park.
Batwa pygmy settlements are located in three areas of the landscape. North of Oshwe there
is a series of 17 villages. Closer to the park there are 12 villages bordering the northwest and
northern edge of the southern sector and one village is located in the corridor area. In the 30
villages there are an estimated 6260 Batwa inhabitants representing 3% of the total landscape
population. Paralleling the history of their Mongo neighbors, the Batwa, fleeing tribal
warfare, moved into the landscape in the 18th century from the Mbandaka/Equateur region.
The low number of permanent immigrants, estimated at 1.7% of the total population, does not
reflect the impact of semi-permanent and seasonal residents on natural resources. During the
dry season, fisher families from as far away as Kinshasa and Mbandaka establish camps on
the banks of rivers bordering SNP. On average 47% of fishers on the Luilaka and Salonga
Rivers are seasonal migrants (Bene et. al. 2006). Poaching camps which litter the landscape
are often controlled, supplied or manned by hunters originating from outside of the
4
Biological survey teams have reported that at least 1 Iyaelima village is located outside the park, on the Lukenie River. This
information requires further confirmation.
12
landscape; camps in the northern sector of SNP can be occupied by poachers from as far
away as the Kasais.
Logging concession company workers comprise a new resident population. Concession
employee numbers may number up to 1200 within and in proximity to the landscape. This
number is expected to grow based on the number of legalized and active concessions.
2.3.2
Land Tenure: The de facto and the de jure
Although the State is legally the title holder of all the country’s land and resources, traditional
authorities continue to wield considerable control over the distribution of agricultural lands
and to a lesser extent the use of fishing and hunting areas. This system is still respected by the
majority of community members and their neighbors, although younger generations are
becoming less beholden to the rules and regulations of access and use. Many itinerant,
commercial hunters still request the chief’s authority before hunting on community lands,
while others disregard customary law.
Local households have, for the most part, open access to natural resources located within
their village’s territory. People from neighboring villages and foreigners wishing to access
land and resources must solicit permission from traditional authorities. Depending on the
village and resource, access may be granted with or without payment. Traditional authorities
also have the power to deny access to individuals.
Fishing zones for men are usually determined by affiliation to a clan or groups of clans
(groupement) but this varies across the landscape and on larger rivers access may be
considered open. Married women live in their husband’s villages (patri-focal) yet continue to
fish (damming of streams) in the community area of their natal village. Presently, it is unclear
whether Batwa land-use areas are separate, overlap or coincide with those of their Bantu
neighbors.
Isolation has contributed to the continued existence of customary systems of governance.
However the influence of external forces is growing across the landscape, particularly in
more accessible areas and zones closer to urban centers. Commercial enterprises such as
logging concessions, historically granted with little consultation with local communities 5 ,
may also jeopardize traditional systems or lead leaders to make unfavorable decisions for
their communities based on the promise of in-kind or cash remuneration.
2.3.3
Natural Resource Use: Subsistence and Economic Activities (Colom 2006)
Almost 100% of the population is dependent on the exploitation of natural resources.
Agriculture and the collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) represent the most
widely practiced subsistence activities with each activity engaging over 95% of landscape
households. Hunting and fishing are the third and fourth most practiced activities, being
reported by more than 75% of the population.
Although agricultural is reported as the most widely practiced economic and subsistence
activity less than 1% (56,339 ha) of the landscape is covered by clear land (villages and
agricultural fields but may not capture older fallow fields) (figure 6). The limited area of
5
Although this is changing
13
land under agriculture may be attributed to several interconnected factors: (1) the isolation of
the landscape; (2) the virtual disappearance of large scale agricultural commerce which
communities associate with the decline of production after independence and followed by the
collapse of agribusiness after Zairianization; (3) and the progressive deterioration of rural
roads and transportation services that worsened during the years of civil war; and (4)
population size.
Figure 6: Rural Complexes: Agricultural Land and Human Made Clearings
In terms of income, the population’s dependence on natural resources is again evident: 90%
of households identifying agriculture among their three principal sources of earnings.
Hunting (including trapping) represents the second most important income source. On
average, 70% of households cited it among their three principal sources of earnings. The
third most frequently mentioned activity was fishing although its importance varies greatly
across the landscape. On average, 57% of households reported it as being among their three
principal revenue sources.
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) constitute a supplementary source of income for
households. Their significance was particularly evident in the area of Dekese, where 40% of
households reported harvesting of NTFPs among their three principal income sources almost equal to fishing (41%).
Other activities (temporary or permanent employment, pension, NTFP collection, artisan
work) are reported by only 15-20% of the population. The Territory of Monkoto reported
more subsistence and economic activities per household than the rest of the landscape, with a
higher percentage of households engaged in artisanal work than fishing, and more households
practicing commerce.
14
Markets are mostly limited to larger towns (figure 7). Trade is hampered by transport and
difficult access. Paradoxically, the lack of economic opportunities elsewhere in the country,
as well as the high demand for bushmeat, fish and certain NTFPs in the expanding distant
urban and mining centers encourages people to travel long distances by foot, bicycle or canoe
to trade forest products for products of prime necessity (salt, soap, medicine, etc.). The
economies of scale of this type of transport favor less perishable products with a higher rate
of return per kilogram of weight, i.e. bushmeat versus crops such as maize.
Figure 7: Location of markets in the landscape
Sixty-five percent of households in the landscape acknowledge that they barter to obtain
products of prime necessity and manufactured goods. As opportunity for trade is limited,
merchants are able to dictate the terms of trade to the disadvantage of local producers (and
hunters and fishers).
15
2.4
SOCIOECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL TRENDS
2.4.1
Direct Threats
Wildlife Trade
The principal threat to landscape biodiversity is unsustainable exploitation of wildlife for
commercial gain. Demand for bushmeat from distant urban centers, coupled with a local
economy characterized by limited lucrative opportunities, has resulted in increasing reliance
on wildlife exploitation. Landscape socioeconomic studies (Colom 2006) revealed that:
ƒ 80% of landscape households hunt and 92% of hunting households sell or trade a
portion of their harvest
ƒ With the collapse of the agricultural sector, hunting has grown in importance as an
income-generating (or barter) activity.
ƒ Hunting is reported by villages as the most changed natural resource dependant activity
with the principal change cited as decreasing wildlife populations. Reasons given for
the negative trend included: (1) An increase in the numbers of hunting and trapping
equipment; (2) the introduction of new hunting and trapping techniques; (3) poaching
by heavily armed groups, including military, coming mostly from outside the
landscape; and (4) the shift from collective hunting (nets, spears), traditionally a
subsistence activity, to the use of more commercially-oriented and individualistic
methods, primarily by young men
ƒ The transport systems is severely degraded, often limited to foot, bike or dugout canoe
(typically without an outboard motor). Merchants may travel weeks to reach their
destinations often pushing bikes loaded with their products. The economies of scale of
this type of transport favor less perishable products with a higher rate of return per
weight, i.e. bushmeat instead of maize.
Actors in bushmeat trade include community hunters, merchants, and heavily armed bands of
poachers often originating from outside of the landscape. There are numerous pockets of
intensive poaching in the landscape and park from which groups of heavily armed poachers
operate. These include the Bisenge Batwa area extending to Bianga, Bongimba, hunting
camps between Oshwe and Yuki and along the Losoy River, Bofokumay village, Yafale and
Isanga in the Territory of Bokungu and Booke and Longolongo in the Territory of Kole, to
name but a few. Provincial governments have documented cases of murder, rape and general
lawlessness associated with these camps and poaching networks and are pro-actively seeking
to remove them from the landscape. (Tripartite Provincial Meeting : Kasai Occidental,
Equateur and Bandundu, ”Sécurisons et sauvegardons l’environnement de notre Parc
National de la Salonga, Patrimoine Universel menacé’’, Bandundu ville, 14-17 Avril 2008).
There is local collaboration with outside poachers, especially into SNP (guides, porters, camp
assistances).
Frequently active and decommissioned military personnel are involved – directly and
indirectly – often sent to hunt on the orders of superior officers. The pricing of automatic
weapon ammunition in the landscape and frontier towns such as Ilebo is a clear indication of
military involvement in poaching. In the landscape and frontier towns such as Ilebo,
cartridges for automatic rifles cost only 100 FC in comparison to 800 FC for a 12 caliber
shotgun cartridge. Yet legally, automatic ammunition is to be maintained under lock and key
only by the military and other authorized government personnel.
16
An on-going study 6 in the south and southwest portion of the landscape is revealing a wealth
of information on wildlife trade networks. Most bushmeat is transported out of the landscape
to distant markets in Kikwit, Tshikapa, Mweka, Kanaga, Kinshasa and Mbandaka. A equally
or potentially larger quantity of bushmeat is being sold in mining concessions in the two
Kasais.
The most frequent market species in Oshwe, Lokolama, Dekese, Bongimba and Ilebo (just
outside of the landscape) were red duikers (Cephalophus spp.), red colobus and other monkey
species, blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus).
Interestingly the results of these studies coincide with the results of socioeconomic studies
when communities living in the vicinity of the same towns reported selling (versus
consuming locally) the same species.
The results of 2003-2004 surveys (Blake 2005) in SNP serve as a good indicator of the
impact of hunting, for ivory and bushmeat, on the forest elephant. The once abundant
elephant populations of the 1960s and earlier had plummeted with as few as 2000 remaining
(Blake 2005). Local communities also refer to the decline of forest elephant populations in
the last 20 years. More recently and in the span of 4 months between December 2007 and
March 2008, researchers collected information on the killing of at least 8 elephants in the
Bandundu and Kasai Occidental portion of the landscape outside of SNP.
Similar information was obtained on the killing of bonobos and their live trade. In the same
four month period, over 10 bonobo were killed by one hunting party. Trade in young live
bonobo has been observed (and photographed) on numerous occasions across the landscape
and appears to be common place. In 2005, a landscape-based agent of the Ministry of
Forests, following the directives of his provincial supervisor, reported issuing $10 permits for
live bonobo transport according to the directives of his provincial supervisor.
The disappearance of elephants, a keystone species, is likely to have a cascade effect leading
to further local extinction of associated species and the disruption of forest ecosystems
processes. In the case of easily hunted species such as red colobus and the bonobo, there is a
looming risk of localized extirpation Decreasing wildlife populations in SNP, particularly
large mammals such as forest elephants, will severely impede the development of future
tourist activities. Presently ICCN and its partners employ or contribute to the income of
several hundred local community members and this figure is expected to increase in the
short-term. However, if the park’s biological value declines further, it may, in the long-term
lead to a net decline in employment figures.
Although no data exists on the contributions of bushmeat to local diets, the SLS Landscape is
characteristic of forest regions. Bushmeat and sometimes fish represent principal protein
sources. The continued decline in wildlife will impact both local livelihoods, further
marginalizing communities already struggling to meet their basic necessities, as well as the
health of community members, in particularly children.
Commercial Fishing
6
Information on the value and volume of trade, the network and actors will be made available later in 2008 when the study
analysis and write-up is complete.
17
Less information is available on the impact of fishing on the resource base, but this activity
may pose an existing threat on heavily fished rivers (Lomela, Salonga) and a growing threat
on others. Villagers relate declining fish stocks to changing technologies (e.g., decreased
mesh size, poison including DDT) and the extension of the traditional fishing season.
Another observable change is the increasing numbers of commercial fishermen entering the
region from as far away as Kinshasa. As fishing stocks continue to be depleted in
neighboring areas such as Lac Tumba there numbers are likely to continue to grow.
SNP: Poaching and land-use
Wildlife exploitation extends into Salonga National Park (SNP) where illegal hunting is
conducted by poachers from both outside and inside the landscape as well as by two resident
park populations who rely on park land and resources for their livelihood activities (hunting,
fishing, agriculture, NTFP collection). The situation is made more complex by the presence
of buffer zone communities with ancestral claims to park land and resources.
2.4.2
Indirect Threats
Government Capacity
ICCN lacks the capacity to effectively manage Salonga National Park. There are insufficient
guard numbers to patrol the park, the existing staff are poorly trained and equipped and over
50% are either in poor health or past the age of retirement. There is a serious and continued
shortage of arms and ammunition (promised by the military) to adequately mount an effective
defense against poachers. More seriously, internal accountability is weak and in the case of
poaching by ICCN staff there is often no clear repercussion. As a consequence the authority
of ICCN has been periodically ignored or threatened by local authorities, politicians and
communities.
There have been some positive changes thanks to growing investments by the donor
community and international partners but still not at a level where ICCN can secure any
significant portion of the park against heavily armed groups of poachers.
Outside the national park, the government agents responsible for management of the natural
resources have suffered considerably from growing isolation following the war. They do have
the tools, the knowledge or the authority to enforce laws and to educate the population on
environmental legislation and best land and resource practices.
Civil society capacity
The organizational capacity of civil society is weak throughout the landscape. CBOs lacked
information on the differences between NGOs and associations and did not have the
understanding or organizational capacity to design and implement economically and socially
viable activities. This capacity is not only important from a livelihood perspective, but is
critical if local civil society is to take a greater role in environmental protection; advocating
for community rights and concerns; and monitoring the implementation of CBNRM
activities.
18
Many existing social networks rely strongly on clan or kinship connections. They are often
highly hierarchical and male dominated although there is a noted emergence of women
NGOs and associations.
Lack of information
Community members, local government and customary authorities and others lack access to
information on environmental legislation, best land use practices and evolving national
discussions on land-use planning and management. In many areas remote from large towns,
schools have not operated for a decade or more, and the adult literacy rate is estimated to be
80% or higher. Farmers, fishers and hunters also lack information on market prices and
periods of demand and surplus in larger towns.
2.4.3
Future Trends
Logging
Although forest cover change has been calculated at less than 0.5% between circa 1990 and
2000, an estimated 25% of the landscape is presently designated as logging concessions.
Commercial logging may bring to the landscape not only increased threats to wildlife from
hunting by employees but negative impacts on forest ecology, the regeneration capacity of
commercial timber species; freshwater ecology (sedimentation, changes in water temperature,
declining productivity level, watershed degradation), and potentially the landscape’s globally
important ecologically services.
Infrastructure Development and Rehabilitation
Improved infrastructure is both an opportunity and a potential threat to the vision and desired
conditions for the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape. Well planned investments in
transport infrastructure should facilitate the re-growth of agriculture but at the same time may
lead to an increase in bushmeat trafficking and immigration into the area and the expansion
of urban centers (e.g. Ilebo where the Chinese are to reinvest in the rehabilitation of the train
system and potentially extend the line all the way to Bas Congo).
PES
Payment of Environmental Services (PES) through carbon markets and others has the
potential to provide important income to both national governments and local communities
and to ensure the long-term preservation of large blocks of intact forest. These must be
carefully implemented to ensure that local people who require the incentives actually benefit.
A similar system targeting areas of rich biodiversity and contingent on wildlife protection
should also be considered.
Future demographic growth and potential immigration
It is striking to view the distribution of villages within the landscape in comparison to outside
the landscape (figure 8). In most areas, village density increases significantly outside of its
borders. If land and resources become scare in these areas, people may opt to move into the
uninhabited forest of the SLS Landscape as already is the case with hunters and to some
degree fishermen.
19
Figure 8: Human settlements inside and outside of the landscape
2.5.
LEGAL STATUS OF THE SLS LANDSCAPE AND THE LU PLANNING
The landscape has no legal status. However, both the government and multilateral and
bilateral donors such as the World Bank and USAID have now designated the DRC
landscapes, including Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru, as pilot sites for large scale land use
planning. Furthermore the DRC government intends to elaborate a forest land plan so while
the landscape may have become a legal entity per se, the process of zoning (and
management) in the landscape will guide and become an integral part of the national plan.
Existing legislation and legal processes that pertain to the status of existing and future macrozones in the landscape includes:
1. The Forest Code of 2002 and more specifically clauses pertaining to: (a) the system of
classification of forests (classes, protégées, production permanent) (chapter II); (b)
provincial forestry classification and plans (article 6 and 15); (c) zoning by the Ministries
of Forest and Agriculture (article 42); (d) the division of the forest domain into forest
management units (article 72 and 73); (e) customary rights of land and resource use by
local communities (Title 3); (f) forestry concessions including conservation concessions
(articles 82-95 and 119); and (g) protected areas representing 15% of national territory
(article 14).
2. Forest concession and the process of title conversion. The 2002 Forest Code guides the
creation and management of logging concessions in DRC. There is an on-going review
20
3.
4.
5.
6.
of existing titles to determine their eligibility for conversion into legal title. The results of
this process will determine which of the 21 logging concessions presently in the SLS
Landscape will be maintained.
Salonga National Park. Created in 1970 by Presidential Ordinance no 70-318, the park
was also nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984.
The new Nature Conservation Law, once ratified, will allow for a more participatory
approach to protected area management which may have zoning implications in and
around SNP.
Community forests. The Forest Code of 2002 makes reference to (1) local community
forests (des forêts des communautés locales) (article 111) and (2) local community
concessions (concessions aux communautés locales) (article 22). There is an on-going
debate over the definition of these two terms with some advocating for a more expansive
definition, inclusive of community lands while other actors insist that they only include
forests where timber will be harvested.
The draft law on the co-management of fisheries.
3.
DESIRED CONDITIONS
3.1
Draft Landscape Vision
The following draft versions of the vision for the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape are to
be reviewed by the Planning Team to consolidate into one vision which will then be shared
with a larger group of partners and stakeholder groups.
Version 1 : SLS Landscape Planning Team
Larges étendues des forets intactes, couvrant une superficie de plus de 100.000 km²,
connaissant un faible taux de déforestation, et susceptible d’assurer la conservation à
perpétuité les ressources naturelles et les populations viables des espèces caractéristiques
ou endémiques de la Cuvette Centrale.
Large intact forests, covering an area of more than 100,000 km2 and experiencing a low rate
of deforestation, with the capacity to ensure in perpetuity the conservation of natural
resources and of viable populations of characteristic or endemic species of the Cuvette
Central
Version 2: Modified version of Planning Team proposal
Larges étendues des forets intactes, connaissant un faible taux de déforestation et
susceptibles d'assurer la conservation à perpétuité des ressources naturelles indispensables
au bien-être de la vie humaine et des populations viables des espèces caractéristiques ou
endémiques de la Cuvette Centrale.
Large intact forests, subject to low rates of deforestation and with the capacity to ensure in
perpetuity the conservation of natural resources, of viable populations of characteristic or
endemic species of the Cuvette Central, while contributing to the livelihoods of local
communities.
Version 3: Excerpt from the Forest Code of 2002
Le régime forestier vise a promouvoir une gestion rationnelle et durable des ressources
forestières de nature a accroitre leur contribution au développement économique, social et
21
culturel des générations présentes, tout en préservant les écosystèmes forestières et la
biodiversité forestière au profit des générations futures.
The forest law aims to promote the rational and sustainable management of forest resources
aimed a increasing their contribution to the economic, social and cultural development of
present generations as well as preserving for the forest ecosystems and biodiversity for the
benefit of future generations.
3.2
Desired conditions
The following desired conditions for the SLS Landscape were elaborated by the SLS
Planning Team. They are to be considered draft proposals to be further refined through
consultation and input from different stakeholder groups and other partners.
1. Maintain the long-term persistence of ecological processes, key habitat, natural
communities, and viable populations of terrestrial and aquatic species characteristic of the
Cuvette Central region of DRC.
Maintenir la persistance à long terme des processus écologiques, des habitats clés, de
communautés naturelles et des populations de faune et flore aquatiques viables
caractéristiques de la région de la cuvette centrale de la RDC
2. Guarantee the sustainable use of natural resources with benefits contributing to local
community livelihoods and to the nation.
Garantir l’utilisation durable de ressources naturelles dont les bénéfices contribuent au
bien-être des communautés locale et de toute la nation.
3. Maintain and promote local knowledge, the us and customs compatible with the
sustainable management of resources and integrate them into conservation strategies
Maintenir et promouvoir le savoir local, les us et coutumes compatibles avec la gestion
durable des ressources et les intégrer dans les stratégies de conservation
4. Promote a system of natural resource good governance based on principals of
transparency, responsible management, and social justice and inclusive of the different
stakeholder groups living and working in the landscape.
Promouvoir un système de bonne gouvernance des ressources naturelles basé sur les
principes de transparence, de responsabilité dans la gestion, de justice sociale et
impliquant les différentes parties prenantes vivant et travaillant dans le paysage
22
4.
SALONGA-LUKENIE-SANKURU LANDSCAPE OBJECTIVES
Objectives exist in a preliminary draft form but further reflection and revisions are required
and the guidance of USFS will be solicited as well.
5.
MACRO-ZONES
Zoning is an iterative process. Together with the planning team and GIS experts, a variety of
analyses are being run using spatial analysis and decision support system tools such as
Marxan. The results will be used to complete a land use plan zone proposal as well as to aid
in the zoning of micro-zones. The following does not present a final option for the land use
plan of the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape but instead demonstrates progress made and
the different assumptions and criteria being used to reach a final plan.
5.1
PROVISIONAL ZONING
5.1.1
Existing and Proposed Land-use Units
The portion of the landscape not yet “zoned” falls under the category of forêt protégée of the
2002 Forest Code. Analysis is ongoing to complete recommendations on which of these
areas may be high value forests (see below), agricultural zones, or areas were commercial
activities are most likely to be promoted (links to accessibility, market dynamics and
population size among other criteria).
23
5.1.2
High value conservation forests (isolation, intactness and size) (Target 1)
Targets were selected by the landscape planning team. The objective of this target was to
identify forest blocks, outside of SNP, of high potential conservation value. This information
will be used to guide the selection of potential conservation concessions, CBNRM zones, and
corridors where more sustainable management practices will be promoted. The same
information may be used to guide the selection of in which logging concessions to work.
As more information on the distribution of key species (bonobo and forest elephant) is made
available this analysis will be re-run.
5.1.3
Proposed Corridors
24
The legend of the corridor map and section 2.1.4 of this document explain the origin of the
information presented in this map. One area of potential land use conflict is brought to light.
The most western of corridors extending in the direction of Lac Tumba overlaps with both a
proposed CBNRM zone and two logging concessions (see figure 2). If these logging
concessions are converted to legal title through the conversion process it may be necessary to
commence negotiations with the concerned companies through the intermediary of the
Ministry of Environment.
5.1.4
Agricultural Growth (target 2)
The criteria used to forecast for agricultural growth over 25 years included present population
numbers (only available for about 50% of villages) population growth rate (3% or 367,000 in
2032 which is almost double the number in 2008) and land requirements for agriculture (1
hectare per person which is equivalent to 6 times the present amount). The assumption is that
increased transport will lead to increased land under agriculture even for small-holder
farmers.
(This map will be represented in the future to better highlight areas of predicted growth and
the analysis will have to be re-run when population figures are available for all villages.)
25
5.1.5
Economic growth areas (target 3)
This analysis is in development. The objective is to identify area most likely to experience
exponential population growth and land-cover change in the next 25 years due to their
existing size, proximity to transport in and out of the landscape (ports, roads, railways, larger
airports), and the existing size of markets.
6.
GUIDELINES
7.
PLAN IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
8.
MONITORING AND INFORMATION NEEDS ASSESSMENT
26
Appendix 1: Bibliography
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rivières bordant le Parc National de la Salonga, République Démocratique du Congo
et Recommandations sur la mise en place d’une gestion collaborative du Parc par les
communautés riveraines et l’ICCN. WorldFish Center Bureau Régional pour
l’Afrique Le Caire et Bureau National du WWF en RDC, Kinshasa. 51 pages
Blake, S. 2005. Central African Forests: Final Report on Population Surveys (2003- 2004).
Prepared by WCS for the CITES/MIKE (Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants)
program. WCS, New York, USA.
République Démocratique du Congo. Code Forestier: Loi n°011/2002 du 23 aout 2002.
Colom, A. 2006. The Socioeconomic Aspects of Natural Resource Use and Management by
Local Communities in the Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape: Guidelines for
Conservation and Livelihood Improvement. Unpublished report prepared for WWFDemocratic Republic of Congo.
Congo Basin Forest Partnership. The Forests of the Congo Basin: State of the Forest 2006.
Grossman, Falk, John Hart, Ashley Vosper and Omari Ilambu. 2008. “Range Occupation
and Population Estimates of Bonobos in the Salonga National Park: Application to
Large-scale Surveys of Bonobos in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In: Furuichi
T. and Thompson J (eds) The Bonobos: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation.
Springer, New York, pp. 189-216.
Kamdem-Toham, A., J. D’Amico, D. Olson, A. Blom, L. Trowbridge, N. Burgess, M.
Thieme, R. Abell, R.W. Caroll, S. Gartlan, O. Langrand, R.M. Mussavu, D.O’Hara
and H. Strand, 2006. A vision for Biodiversity Conservation in Central Africa:
Biological Priorities for Conservation in the Guinean-Congolian Forest and
Freshwater Region. WWF, Washington.
Laporte, Nadine et. al. 2007. Reducing Co2 Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation
in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A First Look. Produced by the Woods Hole
Research Center for the Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation, and
Tourism of the Democratic Republic of Congo for presentation at the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Conference of the Parties
(COP), Thirteenth session, 3-14 December 2007, Bali, Indonesia.
Lukuru Wildlife Research Project, 1999. http://members.aol.com/jat434/index.
Maisels, Fiona. 2007. Compilation of Available Biological Information on Salonga National
Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Wildlife Conservation Society. Unpublished
report submitted to CARPE/USAID.
Monsembula Iyaba, Raoul. 2008. Rapport final des études ichtyologiques dans les rivières
limitrophes du Parc National de la Salonga. Unpublished report prepared for WWF-
27
DRC with the assistance of Robert Shelley and Melanie Stiassny of the American
Museum of Natural History.
Reinartz, GE, Guislain P. Mboyo, B., Isomana, E., Inogwabini, BI, Ndouzo, B, Maftua, N.
and WL Wema. 2008. Ecological factors influencing bonobo density and distribution
in the Salonga National Park: applications for population assessment. In: Furuichi T.
and Thompson J (eds) The Bonobos: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation.
Springer, New York, pp. 167-188.
Reinartz , GE, Inogwabini, BI, Ngamakosi, M, Wema Wema, L (2006) Effects of forest type
and human presence on bonobo (Pan paniscus) density in the Salonga National Park.
Int J Primatology 27:603-634.
Schliewen UK (2002) Evaluierung des Potentials zur nachhaltigen Nutzung von Zierfischen
als alternative Erwerbsquelle in der südwestlichen Region des Salonga-Nationalparks
(Demokratische Republik Kongo). "Bericht für die Gesellschaft für technische
Zusammenarbeit (gtz)", 62 pages.
Thompson, J. Myers, Lubuta, N. and Kabunda RB. 2008. Traditional land-use practices for
bonobo conservation. In: Furuichi T. and Thompson J (eds) The Bonobos: Behavior,
Ecology, and Conservation. Springer, New York, pp. 227-244.
28