He Toki Huna: New Zealand in
Afghanistan
History Guide
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Table of Contents
About the Guide ............................................. 3
New Zealand Curriculum Objectives ................................... 4
History of Afghanistan ..................................... 5
The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan ..................................... 5
The Afghan Civil War ..................................................... 7
September 11th 2001…………………………………..11
Afghanistan Today……………………………………13
New Zealand’s Involvement in Afghanistan……….14
Why NZ Became Involved .............................................. 14
The NZ Provincial Reconstruction Team ............................ 16
The NZ Special Air Service ............................................. 18
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The free DVD copies of the documentary, distributed to
secondary schools in early 2014, have both versions of the film
on them. If your school requires additional copies, they will need
to be purchased through emailing [email protected]. To benefit
fully from this guide, we recommend watching the feature
version. However, the broadcast version will be useful for
teachers wishing to show the documentary within a one-hour
classroom period.
He Toki Huna: New Zealand
in Afghanistan
Teachers are free to use the guides however they wish: they can
be used in entirety or partially. Most questions will lead to indepth discussion and are therefore well suited to group work
activities if the teacher should so wish. The guides also contain a
series of extension questions intended for History students with
high potential and scholarship candidates.
About the Study Guide
The following study guide provides information on the history of
Afghanistan from 1979 – present and a history of New Zealand’s
involvement in the War in Afghanistan.
This study guide should be used as a supplementary resource to
the 2013 documentary film He Toki Huna: New Zealand in
Afghanistan, directed by Annie Goldson and Kay Ellmers. It is
not intended as a sole text for a course on the Middle East, the
War in Afghanistan or recent New Zealand history.
Although designed for the New Zealand secondary school
curriculum, this educational resource is also suitable for a more
general (and international) audience.
THE MATERIAL IN THE FILM AND IN THE STUDY
GUIDES IS FOR MATURE STUDENTS.
Some of the issues dealt with in He Toki Huna: New Zealand in
Afghanistan and in this study guide could be upsetting. It is
therefore recommended as a text for senior students (Years 1113).
The questions and exercises in this study guide will provide a
time code for both the feature version of He Toki Huna: New
Zealand in Afghanistan (78 minutes) and the broadcast/TV version
(52 minutes). The codes will be given in this format: (feature
version / broadcast version). This will allow teachers to isolate
the relevant clips that relate to the questions.
Contact us:
[email protected]
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AS 91231: Examine sources of an historical event that is of significance to
New Zealanders. 4 credits. (External)
New Zealand Curriculum Objectives
for History
AS 91232: Interpret different perspectives of people in an historical event that
is of significance to New Zealanders. 5 credits. (Internal)
The documentary He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan and
this study guide are suited to the following NCEA standards.
AS 91233: Examine cause and consequences of a significant historical event. 5
credits. (External)
NCEA HISTORY
AS 91234: Examine how a significant historical event affected New Zealand
society. 5 credits. (External)
Level 1
Level 3
AS 91001: Carry out an investigation of an historical event, or place, of
significance to New Zealanders. 4 credits. (Internal)
AS 91434: Research an historical event or place of significance to New
Zealanders, using primary and secondary sources. 5 credits. (Internal)
AS 91002: Demonstrate an understanding of an historical event, or place, of
significance to New Zealanders. 4 credits. (Internal)
AS 91435: Analyse an historical event, or place, of significance to New
Zealanders. 5 credits. (Internal)
AS 91003: Interpret sources of an historical event of significance to New
Zealanders. 4 credits. (External)
AS 91436: Analyse evidence relating to an historical event of significance to
New Zealanders. 4 credits. (External)
AS 91004: Demonstrate understanding of different perspectives of people in
an historical event of significance to New Zealanders. 4 credits. (Internal)
AS 91437: Analyse different perspectives of a contested event of significance
to New Zealanders. 5 credits. (Internal)
AS 91005: Describe the cause and consequences of an historical event. 4
credits. (External)
AS 91438: Analyse the causes and consequences of a significant historical
event. 6 credits. (External)
AS 91006: Describe how a significant historical event affected New Zealand
society. 4 credits. (External)
Level 2
AS 91229: Carry out an inquiry of an historical event or place that is of
significance to New Zealanders. 4 credits. (Internal)
AS 91230: Examine an historical event or place that is of significance to New
Zealanders. 5 credits. (Internal)
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1. History of Afghanistan
government office buildings. The damage to infrastructure during
the anti-Soviet war greatly damaged the Afghan economy and
meant that Afghanistan was left war-torn and struggling when
the Soviets withdrew.
1A. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
(1979-1989)
The Soviet invasion resulted in a defeat for the Soviets and
withdrawal from 1989-1992. It is common to see the remains of
deserted Soviet tanks scattered across the Afghanistan landscape
today – as you can see in several shots in He Toki Huna: New
Zealand in Afghanistan.
On December 25th 1979, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
began when the 40th Army was deployed into Kabul airport. The
invasion would continue until the Soviets began withdrawing
troops in 1989. The Soviet mission was to provide support to the
Marxist-based People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan by
helping them fight against the rebel forces of the mujahideen. As
author James Fergusson points out in He Toki Huna: New Zealand
in Afghanistan, the mujahideen ‘contained a great many factions’
and one of those factions was the Taliban.
Definitions:
Soviet Union: The Soviet Union or USSR (Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics) was a Eurasian state led by the Communist
Party between the years of 1922 and 1991. It was made up of
Russia and a number of surrounding Eastern European/Asian
countries and after it fell, it fragmented back into these nations,
the most prominent of which is Russia.
The mujahideen received funding and arms from a number of
countries, including the United States and Great Britain. By the
mid 1980s, Historian Meredith Runion writes, ‘the Afghan
fighters had been trained extensively by the United States and
Pakistan as part of the Cold War struggle’. The CIA was
responsible for providing training and arms to the mujahideen
rebel forces in Pakistan and then sending them over the border
back into Afghanistan to fight the Soviets. Osama bin Laden,
who was a wealthy Saudi Arabian businessman at the time, also
provided training, money and weapons to the mujahideen.
Mujahideen: ‘Mujahideen’ is a term with the loose meaning of
‘strugglers’, Muslims who struggle in the path of Allah, or
‘people doing jihad’. In Afghanistan, the mujahideen refers to a
wide group of rebel forces containing many ‘subgroups’, one of
which was the Taliban.
One of the mujahideen tactics for defeating the Soviet forces was
destroying the infrastructure that the Soviets relied on. This
meant that the mujahideen rebels purposefully targeted bridges,
major roadways, power lines, pipelines and sometimes
CIA: CIA stands for ‘Central Intelligence Agency’ and is the
United States of America’s principal intelligence gathering
agency.
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Interesting facts:
b. What natural resources are rich in this area of the world
that would be of interest to the US and the Soviets?
c. Can you think of other examples where countries outside
of Russia and the US were tied up in the ideological war
between the capitalist West and the communist East?
d. Using your prior knowledge or research on the Vietnam
War, compare and contrast the Vietnam War and the
anti-Soviet War in Afghanistan. How do they differ and
how are they similar?
⇒ Over 620,000 Soviet troops served in Afghanistan over
the 9-year occupation.
⇒ The total number of Soviet casualties was 14,453.
⇒ The majority of Afghan people hated the Soviet
occupation, and resisted it. Between 850,000 and 1.5
million Afghan civilians were killed during the
occupation.
⇒ The occupation lasted through three US presidencies,
starting with Jimmy Carter and ending in the early days
of George H. W. Bush’s presidency.
⇒ In 1985, US president at the time, Ronald Reagan,
famously praised the mujahideen rebels as ‘freedom
fighters’.
Extension exercises
a. Discuss the ideological/political differences between
the West and the East during the Cold War, giving
definitions for the terms ‘capitalism’, ‘communism’ and
‘liberal democracy’.
b. The documentary filmmakers decided not to use the
events of 9/11 as the starting point of their film about
the War in Afghanistan. Why is it important to consider
historical events prior to 9/11 when looking at the War
in Afghanistan?
c. Although the claim that the CIA funded the
mujahideen (and therefore the Taliban) during the antiSoviet War has been verified many times, we rarely
hear about this in media reports of the War in
Afghanistan. Why do you think we hear so little about
the support they gave?
Exercises
In the documentary, university student and Afghan native,
Orzala Ashraf Nemat, is interviewed saying that [as an Afghan]
she felt that she ‘owned the anti-Soviet war’. Only in her adult
life having ‘zoomed out from Afghanistan’s internal politics’ had
she realised that Afghanistan during the Anti-Soviet war was just
a player in a ‘much larger and greater game’. (00:11:40 / 00:09:44)
Using your research or prior knowledge of the Cold War, explain
what Orzala means by Afghanistan being just one small player in
a ‘much larger and greater game’?
a. In the context of the Cold War, why do you think the
United States and Great Britain were providing funds to
the mujahideen rebel forces?
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1B. The Afghan Civil War (1989-2001)
adherents had returned to their mosques. The country
meanwhile descended into chaos for the next two years.
The Afghan Civil War can be broken down into three different
periods:
In addition to the damage to infrastructure, many of the refugees
who had fled to neighbouring Pakistan during the Soviet
occupation returned to Afghanistan. The massive influx of 1.2
million people across the border put substantial pressure on
Afghanistan when it was already struggling to support its
population. Historian Meredith Runion writes that: ‘with the
influx of people came the overarching sentiment of lawlessness,
poverty, and the destruction of cities, particularly in Kabul.’
1989 – 1992: The collapse of the communist government
1992 – 1996: The Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan,
with the exception of northern Afghanistan, which was
controlled by the Northern Alliance.
1996 – 2001: The Taliban period: the Taliban controlled almost
all of Afghanistan until US occupation in 2001.
President Najibullah, The People’s Democratic Party of
Afghanistan leader, was able to protect the government from
mujahideen attacks until he was defeated in 1992. On April 18
1992, Afghanistan was declared the Islamic State of Afghanistan.
1989 – 1992:
1992- 1996:
After being defeated, the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in
February 1989. The country’s infrastructure was hugely damaged
from the war and their economy was stagnant, bolstered only by
illegal harvesting of opium. The majority of Afghans resented the
Soviet presence, which, along with the US support of the
mujahideen, ensured the Soviets were unsuccessful in their
occupation. Soon after the Soviets withdrew, the US withdrew
their support too. This left the country war-torn, lacking
government infrastructure and without the money to rebuild. In
this context, the mujahideen forces took to fighting among
themselves and against the communist government that
remained in place after the Soviets left, for control of
Afghanistan. The Taliban withdrew from the fighting, as its
purpose had been to challenge the Soviet occupation. Its
After the collapse of the communist government in 1992, the
factions of the mujahideen rebel forces fought against each other,
seeking control over the country. This resulted in a period of
‘warlordism’ in Afghanistan whereby different mujahideen
factions controlled separate villages. These mujahideen and their
men also set up checkpoints on the roads between the villages
and charged road tolls in an effort to exploit money from roadusers. In addition to this, they intercepted much-needed aid
packages coming across the border from Pakistan and sold these
goods on the black market for a profit.
The Afghan local population became sick of the corruption and
poverty under the mujahideen. It was in this climate that the
Taliban, growing in popularity, promised to end corruption in
Afghanistan and move the country towards a more ‘Islamic-
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centred way of life’. The Taliban were able to win the favour of
the war-weary villagers and in doing so, took over many
mujadiheen governed spots in Afghanistan with little violence.
The relatively bloodless way in which the Taliban took control of
Afghanistan increased their popularity.
education past the age of 8. In addition, they were only allowed
to leave home if accompanied by a male blood relative and had
to wear a burqa covering every centimetre of skin; including the
hands, eyes and face. Brutal punishments existed for women
who disobeyed. For example, women who exposed parts of their
hands in front of Taliban members could have their hands cut
off. Men were also subject to strict laws: they had to grow full
beards (the exact length of a fist) and wear trousers of a specific
length, if not they would face punishment. Homosexuality was
also brutally punished (often by death) by the Taliban.
1996 – 2001
In the period between 1996 and 2001, the Taliban introduced
harsh rule and its fundamentalist ideology became much stricter.
Brutal penalties were imposed on Afghan locals who disobeyed
the laws the Taliban established. This shocked and upset many
Afghans who had expressed support for the Taliban precisely
because they thought it was a non-violent group who would
finally provide the country with non-corrupt governance. When
the Taliban entered Kabul in 1996, they located the ex-President
Najibullah and murdered him, leaving his dead body hanging
from a traffic light in the street to signal that the country was
about to experience immense political change under the Taliban
regime. The Taliban now controlled most areas of Afghanistan,
but the Northern Alliance forces (led by mujahideen leader
Ahmad Shah Massoud) still tightly defended a few areas.
On September 9th, 2011 (two days prior to the 9/11 attacks) the
Taliban killed the Northern Alliance leader, Ahmad Shah
Massoud. Two al-Qaeda supporters and suicide bombers posed
as interviewers and set their explosives off.
Osama bin Laden
In 1996, Osama bin Laden arrived in Afghanistan with the
intention of joining his al-Qaeda organisation with the Taliban.
The Taliban and al-Qaeda were equally fundamentalist and held
similar views of the West. Osama bin Laden was given free reign
by the Taliban to set up terrorist training camps in Afghanistan,
and in return for their support he gave them millions of dollars in
payments. When Osama bin Laden orchestrated the terrorist
attack on the US embassy in Nairobi, Kenya on August 7th
1998, the Taliban protected bin Laden from extradition to the US
merely claiming that he had ‘gone missing’. James Fergusson, a
historian of Afghanistan who appears in the film, claims the
Taliban were torn: some members wanted to hand bin Laden
over, others wanted to continue to shelter him from arrest. The
latter group succeeded.
In 1997, Ahmad Shah Massoud took over the previously Taliban
controlled city of Mazar-i-Sharif, killing approximately 3000
Taliban fighters. A year later, the Taliban returned and sought
vengeance by ruthlessly slaughtering approximately 2000 Hazara
civilians over the course of 6 days.
This was not the only suffering experienced by civilians under
the Taliban. Many people had their independence and human
rights diminished by the fundamentalist Islamic rule of law the
Taliban enforced. Women lost the ability to work or receive an
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‘It was clear that they came because America was attacked and
there was international terrorism.’ (00:18:37 / 00:16:20)
Definitions:
Warlordism: Warlordism is where there is no ‘official’ or central
authority governing an area, a democratic representative or
council – for example, but a person who has gained political
power through the use or threat of violence.
a. What point is Dr Ali Safi making here?
Burqa: A burqa is a long garment worn by women in
Afghanistan whereby the whole body is covered from head to
feet. The difference between the burqa and other garments and
headgear worn by women in other Muslim countries (the niqab,
hijab and chador, for example) is that there is a fabric grill that
hides the eyes and the hands are also covered.
Exercises
a. The film, and the guide above, states the Afghanistan
soon descended into civil war once the Soviets were
expelled. (00:11:18 / 00:09:20). Who was fighting who, and
why was this conflict called a ‘civil war’?
b. Using the film and other readings as resources, describe
how the Taliban came to power in Afghanistan.
c. Why were Afghans initially prepared to accept the
Taliban and what turned the population against it?
In He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan, Dr Ali Safi states
that if the Americans really wanted to liberate Afghanistan, they
would have come long ago during the Civil War when 65,000
innocent people in Kabul were killed in factional fighting.
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Extension exercises
‘What if’ moments in history: Author James Fergusson
describes the possibility of Taliban spiritual leader Mullah Omar
handing over Osama bin Laden to the US government as a
‘fascinating what if moment in history.’ (00:14:07 / 00:12:15)
In doing so, he is taking a microhistorical approach to looking at
the causes of 9/11 attacks.
Microhistory: Microhistory is an approach of ‘doing History’
that looks intensively at individuals and how the decisions they
make can be pivotal moments in a society. Microhistory
developed in response to the traditional macrohistorical
approach, which microhistorians believe ‘distorts reality at the
individual level’.
Macrohistory: Macrohistory looks at the ways historical forces
or broad ideological patterns influence history. Macrohistory
tends to be less interested in the actions of individuals, instead
looking at the prevalent ideological movements in the society.
a. When deciding on the causes of the 9/11 attacks, do you
support a microhistorical or a macrohistorical approach?
b. What are the advantages and disadvantages of both
microhistorical and macrohistorical approaches?
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2. September 11th, 2001
The September 11 attacks are widely considered to have
drastically changed the political landscape in most areas of the
world, particularly the ‘Western world’ and the Middle East. In
the United States, many were mourning the deaths of the victims
and were fearful about another terrorist attack.
What Happened?
On September 11th 2001, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four US
passenger airlines. Two of the planes were flown into the World
Trade Centre: the first at 8.46am and the second at 9.03am. Both
towers had completely collapsed within two hours of the initial
impact. The third plane was flown into the Pentagon in Virginia,
causing significant damage to the west side of the building. The
target destination of the fourth plane was Washington DC.
However, passengers on-board the flight put up a struggle against
the hijackers and the plane never made it to its target, crashing
into a field in Pennsylvania instead. In total, 2977 victims died in
the attacks: 55 were military personnel at the Pentagon, the rest
were civilians, including all 246 people on the four planes. A
further 343 New York fire fighters lost their lives attempting to
rescue people in the World Trade Centre.
It was in this ‘atmosphere of fear’ that the United States
government created the Department of Homeland Security and
implemented the USA PATRIOT Act in October 2001. The
USA PATRIOT Act is an acronym for: Uniting and Strengthening
America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and
Obstruct Terrorism Act. The aim of this act was to bolster security,
and laws and regulations were introduced to further this
intention. In an attempt to increase security, many fundamental
civil liberties were curtailed. Other countries, including New
Zealand, followed suit, changing or introducing legislation in the
name of ‘anti-terrorism’. Whether these changes are effective,
whether they do protect us, or whether they are ‘anti-democratic’
processes that abuse our rights as citizens are questions that are
hotly debated to this day.
The Post- 9/11 World
In the wake of 9/11, many countries were called on to provide
the United States with military support in the ‘War on Terror’.
The soldiers of approximately 50 countries make up the NATO
and non-NATO countries of the International Security
Assistance Forces (ISAF). On September 20, 2001, George W.
Bush delivered an address to a joint session of Congress in which
he announced: ‘Every nation, in every region, now has a
decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the
terrorists.’ This speech, and many others like it, is often used as
an example of former President George W. Bush insisting other
countries join the ‘War on Terror’. Given the economic and
military power of the US, and the moral outrage that prevailed
Osama bin Laden did not claim responsibility for the September
11th attacks until 2004, however the US government strongly
suspected al-Qaeda were behind the attacks and thus launched
‘Operation Enduring Freedom’. This involved US forces uniting
with the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan in an attempt to
uproot both al-Qaeda -- and the Taliban regime that harboured
them. On the 7th of October 2001, United States military began
arriving in Afghanistan to fight in a war that still continues at the
time of writing this study guide (January 2014).
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after 9/11, many Western countries chose to support the
American intervention.
a. Why did Osama bin Laden choose Afghanistan to base
al-Qaeda operations?
b. Use additional resources to describe the similarities and
differences between Al-Qaeda and the Afghan Taliban.
Definitions:
Culture of fear: The term ‘culture of fear’ is used by social
scientists to describe a widespread feeling of fear, anxiety and
anticipation, amongst the civilian population. It is said that in a
‘culture of fear’, civilians are easily influenced by people in
power.
‘You’re either with us or against us’ is a famous phrase that has
been used by a number of historical figures (Jesus, Lenin,
Mussolini, Hillary Clinton and George W. Bush). It is designed
to present an issue as two-sided and to motivate bystanders into
choosing a side. (00:15:16 / 00:13:19)
War on Terror: The phrase ‘War on Terror’ was first used by
George W. Bush following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. It refers to
a military, political and conceptual struggle against those who
oppose Western ideals, with a particular focus on militant
Islamists such as al-Qaeda. The phrase has been criticised by
academics, such as Judith Butler, for being too vague. ‘Terror’ is
a broad and difficult-to-define term: a specific enemy force is not
mentioned in the phrase. Butler suggests that this ambiguity
means that politicians can use the phrase in a manipulative way.
US President Barack Obama no longer uses the phrase, calling it
the ‘Overseas Contingency Operation’ instead.
a. Discuss the implications of people in power using the
phrase ‘you’re either with us or against us’.
b. Does polarising the ‘War on Terror’ into two sides give us
an accurate history of events?
Many historians believe the causes of the events of 9/11 were
more complex that the ‘two sides’ argument put forward by the
US.
Did you know?: Public support for President George W. Bush
increased dramatically after the September 11 attacks. He
received an approval rating of 90% on September 20th - 21st, 2001.
This was up from a mid 50s percentile in the weeks prior to 9/11.
a. Using additional resources, explore the motivations
behind the attacks.
b. What other approaches, if any, could have been taken to
resolve the conflicts that were behind the terrorist attacks?
c. How did the ‘war on terror’ impact on domestic
legislation in New Zealand? How was this legislation used
in ‘Operation 8’ commonly known as the ‘Tuhoe Raids’?
Exercises
Causes and consequences of the 9/11 attacks and the ‘War on
Terror’
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3. Afghanistan Today
other insurgents. What kind of reputation does Karzai
and his Government have within Afghanistan? Does
supporting Karzai undermine Western success in
Afghanistan?
b. As the Wikileaks ‘Afghan war logs’ and other journalistic
sources have shown, the US-led forces have been known
to commit atrocities in Afghanistan. US officials claim
that individual ‘bad apples’ carry out such incidents.
What do they mean here? Do you agree with their
description?
c. Using additional research, outline the timeline proposed
by the US for a withdrawal.
d. Examine the final montage in the film, and outline what
predictions for the future are contained within it.
97,920 troops have fought in Afghanistan under ISAF, the
largest force being the US (68,000), and the second, the UK
(8,065). Initially, many Afghan people, exhausted by war and
fearful of the strict regime imposed by the Taliban, supported the
US-led presence. They also hoped that the international forces
would help them rebuild their war torn infrastructure. However,
as time passed, it became evident that the development process
was ineffectual despite the United States, alone, spending
between 100 – 240 million dollars per day over the course of the
ongoing War in Afghanistan. Corruption became rampant again,
and many of the same individuals who had committed human
rights abuses during the civil war again took power in the Karzai
Government. In addition, the US-led forces committed many
abuses, including torture and drone strikes, as well as multiple
instances of cultural insensitivity, including urinating on dead
‘insurgents’, repeated night raids into family compounds, and the
burning of the Koran. Offensive incidents like these created deep
anger amongst the civilian population. Popular sentiment turned
against the Western intervention, which was increasingly seen as
an occupation. This has led to more support for insurgents and
has assisted the Taliban in gaining recruits. As former soldier
Alpha Kennedy states in the film: ‘the future looks very grey’. He
notes that many people are leaving the more multicultural cities
and heading back to their tribal areas, which indicates they are
fearful of conflict. Civil war again seems like a possibility.
Exercises
a. The US-led war in Afghanistan openly supports the
government of President Karzai against the Taliban and
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4. New Zealand’s
Involvement in Afghanistan
The majority of New Zealand soldiers were deployed in March
2003 to Bamiyan province to work in the ‘Provincial
Reconstruction Team’. However, before this, in December 2001,
the New Zealand Special Air Service (NZSAS) had been
deployed to aid the United States in Afghanistan with its ‘War
on Terror’. The NZSAS was withdrawn from Afghanistan in
November 2005, only to be brought back for Operation WATEA
in Kabul in September 2009. New Zealand committed 191 troops
to the country. A total of 10 New Zealand Defence Force
personnel have died in Afghanistan. The NZSAS were officially
withdrawn from Afghanistan in March 2012 and the Provincial
Reconstruction Team soldiers were withdrawn in April 2013.
However, it is understood that some New Zealand soldiers
presently remain in various regions filling a variety of different
ISAF and NZSAS positions.
4A. Why New Zealand became involved
ANZUS
In 1987 New Zealand left ANZUS, a security treaty with the
United States, because of differences over our anti-nuclear
policy. The ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States)
treaty is a military alliance that binds each country to work
together when engaging in conflict in the Pacific Ocean area,
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although this now includes conflicts globally. The US suspended
its treaty obligations to New Zealand after the David Lange
Labour-led NZ government refused nuclear-armed or nuclearpowered vessels to dock in New Zealand ports in 1984. In 1987,
when the Labour government announced the country was
completely nuclear-free, US President Ronald Reagan stated that
‘New Zealand is a friend, but not an ally’. Although US-NZ
relations warmed somewhat over the period leading up to the
attacks, this political stalemate had continued. It is commonly
believed that NZ’s assistance in the US-led conflict in
Afghanistan was motivated in part to ‘heal the wounds of the
past’ caused by our country’s anti-nuclear stand and forge closer
relationship with a traditional ally. George Bush’s phrase that
‘countries were either with “us” or with the terrorists’ could have
made refusal to participate more difficult.
Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)
At the time of writing, New Zealand does not have a Free Trade
Agreement with the United States and there has been much
debate between citizens about whether it should (look up the
recent Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement negotiations to learn
more). However, the Helen Clark led Labour government of
1999 – 2008, and the John Key led National government of 2008
to present, have both expressed enthusiasm for a Free Trade
Agreement between New Zealand and the United States. The
United States until 2008 typically refused to engage in
negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement with New Zealand,
citing our anti-nuclear policy as one of the main deterrents. A
number of commentators suggest in the film that the
government’s hopes for free trade deals with the US may have
been one of the motivations behind committing New Zealand
troops to Afghanistan.
Humanitarian Factors
Like most of the world’s citizens, New Zealanders were critical
of the human rights abuses conducted under Taliban rule, and
were shocked at the brutality of the 9/11 attacks. The
commitment to ‘hunting down al-Qaeda’ and toppling the
Taliban did appear to some to be the right course of action, one
that had a moral justification. Many had been disturbed at the
sight of poverty, discrimination and despair in Afghanistan. It
was particularly well known for its discriminatory attitude
towards women, who were unable to receive an education after
the age of 8. It is important to remember that individual soldiers
can be motivated by humanitarian goals into joining the New
Zealand Army.
The New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF)
According to Nicky Hager in He Toki Huna: New Zealand in
Afghanistan, the New Zealand Defence Force responded to the
prospect of providing support to the United States with
‘excitement’ and ‘enthusiasm’. ‘What could have been seen as a
catastrophe, was being seen as an opportunity to be welcomed
back by the United States’ he says. In a similar fashion, the
Afghan journalist, Dr Ali Safi, shown in the documentary
working with Jon Stephenson, suggested that another motivation
for the NZDF might have been the possibility of gaining ‘war
experience’. Given New Zealand does not engage in war on
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home soil, overseas wars provide an opportunity for the New
Zealand Defence Force to put their training to practice.
wanting to fundamentally change the way in which Afghanistan
was governed and hence prevent Taliban and Al-Qaeda from
being re-established. Democratising a country is a complex
process: He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan questions
whether soldiers can successfully carry out a democratising
mission.
4B. New Zealand Provincial
Reconstruction Team in Bamiyan Province
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)
Bamiyan Provincial Reconstruction Team
New Zealand troops in Afghanistan have been under the control
of the International Security Assistance Force (or ISAF). ISAF is
made up of a number of NATO, and a handful of non-NATO,
countries that pledged allegiance to United States in the ‘War on
Terror’ in Afghanistan. Although it sounds like an international
organization, ISAF reports to the United States Central
Command and the majority of the participating Provincial
Reconstruction Teams are American. Since 2007, only US
military personnel have held the position of Commander of the
International Security Assistance Force, and the US makes up
over two thirds of the total ISAF troop count.
In March 2003, New Zealand troops were sent to Bamiyan
province in central Afghanistan before being withdrawn 10 years
later in April 2013. The New Zealanders took over from a US
team who were previously stationed there -- but who were being
moved to fight in the War in Iraq. Bamiyan is one of the poorest
provinces in Afghanistan: it has an agricultural economy, harsh
weather conditions and a lack of proper infrastructure. There is
no electricity in Bamiyan and there are people living in caves
because they do not have any other shelter. Its population is
predominantly made up of ethnic Hazara people who were badly
persecuted under the Taliban.
‘Mission Creep’
There is much debate about what the New Zealand Defence
Force’s PRT was doing in Bamiyan Province. The official
account, from NZDF public relations and from New Zealand
mainstream media, is that the Kiwi PRT was on a ‘humanitarian
aid’ mission in Bamiyan province. According to this version, the
New Zealand soldiers were not engaging in combat, they were
only helping to build infrastructure and keep the peace. He Toki
Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan shows evidence that contests
this ‘official’ version of events. Many of the interviewees in the
documentary state that security patrols were the primary duty of
Al-Qaeda had been dismantled within three months of the U.S
occupation, the Taliban were largely defeated, and many
insurgents had fled to Pakistan. Author James Fergusson
suggests that US and ISAF troops could have packed up their
bags and gone home by February 2002. However, he says, there
was ‘mission creep’: the goal to defeat al-Qaeda soon changed
into a goal to uproot the Taliban regime that had harboured
them. This meant the US and ISAF soldiers began to carry out a
‘democratisation’ mission: they began shifting their goals,
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the Kiwi PRT, not humanitarian aid projects as was often stated
in the media. Training the Afghan National Police, reinforcing
the checkpoints they had set up, and going out on security
patrols, are the activities that solider Alpha Kennedy describes in
He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan as taking up 75% of his
time in Bamiyan province.
h. Soldier Alpha Kennedy says that Afghanistan has
a long history of foreign intervention and that as a
result, many Afghans feel animosity towards
foreign soldiers. He says it can be likened to ‘the
activities of the Maori tribes against the European
forces’ in 19th century New Zealand. (00:43:34 /
00:32:30.) To what extent is the comparison
between the War in Afghanistan and the European
colonisation of New Zealand a useful one?
Exercises
a. Why did the NZPRT enter Bamiyan?
b. How would you interpret the name ‘Provincial
Reconstruction Team’ and what kind of activities would
you assume were being undertaken by a PRT?
c. What do the Afghans in the Bamiyan marketplace
(interviewed by Jon Stephenson) think of the NZPRT?
How did their views differ from the New Zealand public’s
understanding of what our troops were doing? (00:32:00 /
00:26:30.)
d. What is an army primarily for, and why would it be
difficult to democratise a country with an army?
e. What does James Fergusson mean by ‘mission creep’ and
how did he see this occurring in Afghanistan? (00:20:50
feature version only.)
f. The NZDF changed its description of the PRT’s role in
Bamiyan. Drawing on Nicky Hager’s comments, what
were the two reasons behind this change?
g. Mike McRoberts suggests that rather than protecting the
people of Bamiyan, our presence may have encouraged
insurgents to enter the province, making people more
vulnerable to insurgent attack. How does his position
differ from that of the Government and the NZDF?
(00:45:13 / 00:33:15.)
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4C. New Zealand Special Air Service
‘Eyes Wide Shut’: NZSAS night raids
The New Zealand Special Air Service (NZSAS) is a highly
trained combat regiment of the New Zealand Defence Force.
According to the NZ Army’s own website, they are an elite unit
‘capable of undertaking unconventional warfare’. The same
website states that they undergo extensive testing and training
because ‘difficult mental, physical and emotional challenges can
be encountered by NZSAS soldiers on real missions’. Their
duties include ‘overseas operational missions’ and counter
terrorism missions. Much of what the NZSAS does is secretive
and not open to public scrutiny. The most frequently cited reason
for their secrecy is security: to be open about the NZSAS’s
activities would allegedly endanger their security. For these
reasons, it is unknown whether NZSAS troops remain in
Afghanistan. The official record says they have been withdrawn,
but an unknown number may presently remain.
‘Eyes Wide Shut: The Government’s Guilty Secrets in
Afghanistan’ was an article written by independent journalist Jon
Stephenson and published by Metro magazine in May 2011. The
article reveals information about our military involvement in
Afghanistan previously unknown to the New Zealand public,
instances including the night raids on Band e Timur and Tiger
International in Kabul.
The NZDF spokespeople, the government and the mainstream
media often reported that the NZSAS were in a ‘support role’ in
Afghanistan. They provided ‘assistance’ to the Afghan Special
Forces (known as the Crisis Response Unit) and offered them
‘mentoring’. According to this official line, the NZSAS did not
lead raids because they were not at the forefront of fighting.
However, much of Jon Stephenson’s investigative work has
contested this.
On May 20th 2002, the New Zealand Special Air Service led a
night raid on Band e Timur with support from the US Army’s
101st Airborne Division and Canada’s premier Special Forces
unit, Joint Task Force 2. Band e Timur is a small village in the
southern Helmand Province of Afghanistan. Faulty and outdated
intelligence had linked the village to Taliban activities,
prompting the NZSAS attack. The raid involved using explosives
to blow down walls and gates so they could enter three large
housing compounds. The soldiers then used grenades that they
threw into rooms to ‘stun the occupants and discourage
resistance’. Fifty-five villagers were detained: the oldest was in
his 70s; the youngest was a 12-year-old boy. At least 3 people
In addition to Jon’s investigative work for the Metro article, He
Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan follows Jon on the ground
in Afghanistan as he uncovers more stories behind New
Zealand’s involvement in the war.
1. Night Raid on Band e Timur
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were killed, including the head of the village (sources differ on
how) and a 6-year-old girl who died after falling into a well when
fleeing in fright from the scene.
training the Afghan forces. Two of the guards at Tiger
International were shot dead by NZSAS forces and two others
were injured. When the Afghan Police arrived on the scene, they
were denied entry by the SAS. The Afghan intelligence agency
(the NDS) was granted permission by the NZSAS and they
quickly recognised the Tiger International employees and
vouched for their innocence. All of the detainees were freed at
3.30am the same morning.
The fifty-five detainees were handcuffed and blindfolded by the
NZSAS and handed over to American soldiers who took them to
the nearby detention centre known for torture. New Zealand is a
signatory of the Geneva Conventions and the Law of Armed
Conflict, which both prohibit the torture of Prisoners of War.
They require that any country transferring prisoners needs to be
satisfied that the country receiving the prisoners will be ‘willing
and able’ to abide by the conventions. Jon Stephenson argued
that New Zealand SAS might have broken these conventions
when they handed them over to US forces and Afghan security
forces known for torturing prisoners. Defence Minister Murray
McCulley offered a general rebuttal, suggesting that New
Zealand troops were following an agreement that New Zealand
has with the Karzai Government.
In He Toki Huna: New Zealand, Jon Stephenson interviews the
Vice President of Shah Industries, Lal Mohammed, for the first
time. Shah Industries is the umbrella corporation that controls
Tiger International. Lal Mohammed confirms that the Special
Forces troops who conducted the raid were definitely New
Zealand SAS because the New Zealand government
subsequently sent Shah Industries $10,000 to give to each of the
families who had lost their breadwinners. The Colonel who
delivered the money also read out an apology letter from the NZ
Chief of Command, but would not let the company keep a copy
of the letter. The documentary suggests that the New Zealand
government may not have wanted to allow Shah Industries to
keep a hard copy of the letter out of fear that it would be easily
leaked to the media.
2. Night Raid on Tiger International, Kabul
At 12.30am on the 24th December 2010, the NZSAS raided the
head office of Tiger International in Kabul. As He Toki Huna:
New Zealand in Afghanistan explains, Tiger International is an
Afghan company that supplies US-led forces, including the
NZPRT, with army equipment such as armoured vehicles. The
NZSAS acted alone and it would appear on the basis of faulty
intelligence. They were alone: hence not assisting the Afghan
Crisis Response Unit and were therefore not mentoring or
3. Night Raid on Maidan Shar: Wardak Province
On September 28th 2011, NZ SAS troops, followed by the
Afghan Crisis Response Unit, carried out a raid on a house in
Maidan Shar – the capital of Wardak Province. Intelligence had
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linked the household with terrorist activities: it was suspected
that the head of the household was a suicide bomber about to
carry out an attack in Kabul. It was this raid that led to the death
of NZSAS soldier Lance Corporal Leon Smith.
Investigative journalism, mainstream media and
historiography
Both of the night raids investigated by Jon Stephenson and the
documentary filmmakers in He Toki Huna: New Zealand in
Afghanistan show discrepancies between the ‘official’ version of
events given by the government and NZDF, and the ‘local’
version of events recounted by Afghan civilians and families
whose lives had been affected by the raids. These discrepancies
are problematic for Historians as it difficult to know the ‘true’
version of events when sources do not corroborate. However,
History students should be wary of simplistic narratives given in
mainstream media reports as these often ignore important (and
politically inconvenient) complexities. Independent journalism is
therefore very important for the practice of ‘doing History’ as it
allows alternative versions of events to be heard. Sometimes
journalism is called the ‘first draft of History’.
At a NZDF Press Conference, it was claimed that the Afghan
Crisis Response Unit were leading the raid and cordoning off the
compound, and New Zealand SAS were only there to provide
assistance. Lance Corporal Leon Smith allegedly climbed a
ladder at the compound to get a view of the placements of the
cordon team and was met with fire from ‘one of the persons of
interests’ inside the compound. He returned the fire and killed
the person who fired at him – Mr Younus Khan. At this point,
another ‘person of interest’ came around the corner and shot at
Lance Corporal Leon Smith, fatally injuring him.
He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan follows Jon Stephenson
into the compound where he speaks with a village elder and the
family of the deceased head of house, Mr Younus Khan. The
village elder claims that the family were in a dispute with another
village. He says that Mr Younus Khan thought the NZSAS and
Afghan CRU troops were from the enemy village and that is why
he fired at Lance Corporal Leon Smith. The widow of Mr
Younus Khan claims that her husband was not killed by bullets,
as was stated by the NZDF in their press conference, but by the
explosives the NZSAS used to blow down a wall of the
compound. No explosives or other evidence were found in the
compound, which also contests the NZDF version of events
whereby Mr Younus Khan was a suspected suicide bomber
about to carry out an attack in Kabul.
Definitions:
Corroboration: Corroboration is when two or more sources,
statements, or theories support one another and therefore verify
the truth of the original source.
Intelligence: Intelligence refers to the collection of information
of military or political value, often through espionage and
surveillance. Intelligence has always been used in warfare.
However, the capacity for one country, organisation or
individual to spy on another increases as technology advances.
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Compound: A compound refers to a community of houses that
are typically walled off. This housing is common in Afghanistan,
as people tend to live with their extended families.
a. The security of the defence forces and the general
public’s ‘right to know’ often come into conflict during
wartime. Which do you think is more important? Is it
possible or impossible to achieve a balance of the two?
Give reasons for your opinions.
b. Are there any people whose testimony you feel is
missing from the documentary? Who else would you
like to hear from?
Exercises
a. What does the NZDF claim the primary role of the
NZSAS is in Afghanistan?
b. Take one instance from the film where local interpretation
of instances of conflict involving the NZSAS seems to
contradict the NZDF’s position.
c. Why is it difficult to attribute blame to individual soldiers
fighting in wars?
d. Jon Stephenson and Mike McRoberts both state that NZ
SAS were often working on ‘faulty intelligence’ given to
them by Afghans. What does this term mean? What are
some of the difficulties stemming from cultural difference
in a war zone?
e. Jon Stephenson’s investigative work has been praised for
its use of eyewitness testimony, or ‘primary sources’.
Distinguish between primary and secondary sources and
describe which is seen as most reliable.
f. Journalism is often called the ‘first draft of history’. Why
do you think it has been called that?
Metro Editor Simon Wilson states that journalists are often told
that they cannot report on what our soldiers are up to because it
endangers their security. He states: ‘this will sometimes be true,
but very often won’t be true’.
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Extension exercises
a. Why do you think the celebration of the individual New
Zealand soldier makes it difficult to criticise military
policy?
b. What is celebrated on ANZAC day? Why are New
Zealanders attracted to this day in particular as a national
day?
c. Matheson uses the phrase ‘a sense of the New Zealand
male’. What characteristics define New Zealand
‘masculinity’ and how does the perception of a soldier
align with these characteristics? What is the consequence
of this alignment?
The transparency of the government and the military is
considered to be a fundamental principle of democracy.
He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan shows a number of
politicians calling the 9/11 attacks an ‘attack on the free world’
and therefore an attack on democracy.
a. In what ways does the ‘War on Terror’ support and/or
undermine democracy?
b. Why is transparency fundamental to democracy? Is it
possible to have a democracy without transparency?
Sacrosanct history
Some particularly sensitive historical events have gained a
‘sacrosanct’ status. Their value has become so intertwined with
our culture and understanding of our society that it is difficult to
challenge the ‘official’ version of the event without shocking or
offending others. The 9/11 attacks are often considered
‘sacrosanct’.
‘Looking back, immediately in front of us is dead ground. We
don’t see it, and because we don’t see it this means that there is
no period so remote as the recent past… One of the historian’s
jobs is to anticipate what our perspective of that period will be.’
Quote from the play The History Boys by Alan Bennett.
a. Why is sacrosanct history problematic for historians?
b. Should a historian offer differing versions of events even
when a historical event has become a fundamental part of
the nation’s identity? Why or why not?
c. He Toki Huna: New Zealand in Afghanistan was first
broadcast on Maori Television the night before ANZAC
day. Why is it significant that Maori Television scheduled
it to screen at this time?
a. Why is it difficult in 2014 to ‘do’ the history of the ‘War
on Terror’?
Donald Matheson: ‘I think New Zealanders cast in quite a heroic
frame the actions of the individual soldier because it connects
with a sense of the New Zealand male and with a particular
version of biculturalism -- how Maori and Pakeha stand side by
side.’ (01:03:50 feature version only.)
This quote by Donald Matheson in He Toki Huna: New Zealand in
Afghanistan is played over video footage of the ANZAC day
Dawn Service.
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