Change vs. Order: Shijie Meets Tianxia in China's Interactions with the World
Author(s): Elena Barabantseva
Source: Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Apr.-June 2009), pp. 129-155
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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Alternatives
34 (2009), 129-155
Changevs. Order:
ShijieMeets Tianxiain China's
withtheWorld
Interactions
Elena Barabantseva*
This articleexamineshow China, understoodas a construct
made up of multipleidentities,constantly
negotiatesits relathe
world.
The
with
oppositions betweentradition
tionships
thepastand thepresent,China and theWestand modernity,
thatare oftenpresumedor reproducedin our thinkingabout
China'splace in theworldare called intoquestion.China'srelationshipwiththeworldmustbe understoodthroughthe interand present,and thusthroughtheparticuplaybetweenhistory
lar uses of historyin practice.The articleespeciallyexplores
how theworldand China's place in it are seen in Chinesepopto promote
ularcultureand visualexpressionsofstateinitiatives
Chineseculture.It focuseson thewayimagesof theever-changa promotional
ing worldare depictedin twovisualnarratives:
video of the ConfuciusInstituteand thefilmTheWorld(Shijie).
Keywords: China, visual culture, modernity,Tianxi, Shijie
of how China
There have been numerousscholarlyexaminations
in
the
and
it
its
its
role
and
world
how
conceptualizes
perceives
place
consider
of
Chinese
and
Most
of
these
studies
politics
place.1
aspects
culture,or officialrhetoricas theyexaminethe
identity,
"strategic"
betweentraditional
and modernChinesepoliticalpracinterplay
and traditional
tices.Manylook at howChina'spremodernhistory
affectChina'sforeignpolicyand engagements
withthe
worldview
worldtoday.2Fairbank,in his classicaleditedvolume,TheChinese
WorldOrder: TraditionalChina's ForeignRelations,stated that the
. . . has someindeterminate
relevanceto the
"Chinesetribute
system
world'sChina problemof today."He added that"modernChina's
of Manchester.
E-mail:e.v.barabantseva®
*Centrefor ChineseStudies,University
manchester.ac.uk
129
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130
vs.Order
Change
ofadjustment
to theinternational
orderofnation-states
in
difficulty
the nineteenth
and twentieth
centurieshas come partlyfromthe
oftheChineseworldorder."3
and
greattradition
Similarly,
Kornberg
Faustarguethat"one can betterunderstand
China'sexternalrelations,even today,by turningback the pages of historyto ancient
times."4
Mostrecently,
Scottsuggests
that"China'spastis verymuch
at playin thepresent,concerning
Chineseattitudes
and worldview
on warand peace."5
These approacheseach utilizea particular
of the
interpretation
ofChinatoexplainChina'sbehaviortoday.Chinesehistory
is
history
neatlydivorcedfromthepresentand treatedas a naturalcourseof
thathasinformed
China'sinteractions
withtheoutside
development
world.It is truethatChina'sdistant
and recenthistory
influences
the
construction
and currentorientations
ofChina'snationalidentities.
Forinstance,
China'sexperiences
and memory
ofthe"century
ofhumiliation"informmuchof currentChinesestate-ledand popular
nationalism.6
Buttheconcreteusesofhistory
inChinaarepartofthe
Chinese
both
reflect
and
createthepresent.
condition;
present
they
Thesehistorical
references
are shapedbypresent-day
circumstances
and helpconstruct
a particular
of
the
picture
present.
Ratherthancontemplating
howthepastinfluences
China'sperof
in
its
role
the
world
this
article
examines
howChina
ception
today,
its
the
with
world.
China
hereis
constantly
negotiates relationships
treatednotas a unitary
actorbutas a construct
madeup ofmultifar- betweentradition
iousidentities
at different
levels.The oppositions
- that
and modernity,
thepastand thepresent,Chinaand theWest
are oftenpresumedor reproducedin our thinking
about China's
with
placein theworldare calledintoquestion.China'srelationship
theworldcannotbe graspedthroughsimply
Chinese
hisprojecting
onto
the
One
can
understand
the
between
tory
present.
only
interplay
and presentthroughexamining
usesofhistory
in
history
particular
practice.
The articleexploreshowtheworldand China'splace in it are
seenin Chinesepopularcultureandvisualexpressions
ofstateinitiativestopromoteChineseculture.
It emphasizes
theroleofvisualpoliticsinframing
China'srelationship
withtheworld.Visualexpressions
arean important
of
lifeand politicsin
aspect contemporary
everyday
Chinaandelsewhere.
Visuallanguageappealstowideraudiencesthan
thelanguageof textsbecauseit is attractive
and comprehensible
to
outside
and
circles.
Visual
people
policymaking scholarly
representationsare components
ofpoliticsand frameidentities
just likepolitical practices
and textsdo.
The articleanalyzeshowimagesof theever-changing
worldare
in
two
visual
narratives:
a
video
of
the
Confucius
depicted
promotional
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ElenaBarabantseva
131
Institute
and thefilmTheWorld
narratedworlds
(Shijie).The visually
of thefilmand the promotional
videocannotbe graspedthrough
historical
continuities
tothepresentor through
a line
tracing
drawing
betweenhistory
and thepresent.7
Norcan theybe explainedthrough
China'straditional
viewof theworldto theWestern
counterposing
of international
relationspremisedon statesoverinterpretation
The fictional
worldthatthe characters
of TheWorld
inhabit
eignty.
and the worldforwhichChina'sleadersattemptto gain support
throughpromotingChineselanguageand culturehave common
betweenthemodernand
Theyeach exhibitan interplay
properties:
theChineseand non-Chinese,
and thepersonaland unitraditional,
in thefilmand theworldwhereChina's
versal.The worldportrayed
official
are
and expeaspirations presentedare created,performed,
riencedthrough
a spontaneous
and relationflowofimages,practices,
withtheworldand itsinterpretations
ofit
ships.China'sengagements
takeplaceatmanylevelsinvolving
a multitude
ofactors.Mostnotably,
in thepromotional
thevisualnarratives
videoand thefilmreflect
perof
a
that
is
world
ceptions
alwayschangingand lacksfeatures
predetermined
or otherfactors.
byhistory
Bothofthevisualnarratives
discussedhereexhibitChina'suse of
informal
to
which
politics,
appeal commonpeople,to shapeperceptionsofChina(in thecaseoftheConfucius
and theoutside
Institute)
world(in the case of theWorldPark).These narratives
illuminate
howChinadesirestobe viewedbytheoutsideworldand howtheoutsideworldis represented
in China.Theyhighlight
theintricacies
and
of
such
which
often
attention
complexities
representations,
escape
thelensesofeitherChina's"traditional"
whenanalyzed
worldthrough
viewor thedominantworld-order
Rather
than
attributperspective.
ingChineseviewsoftheworld'smeaningand China'splaceinitsolely
toChina'shistory
and thecontemporary
international
order,theartithemto an interplay
cle attributes
ofinterrelated
factors.
Tianxiavs. Shijie
China'srelationship
withtheworld,itsimagesof theworld,and its
contributions
to theworldhavebecomematters
of concernamong
themedia,and policymakers.
scholars,
Manyacademicdebatesboth
in Chinaand theWesthavepaid particular
attention
to therolethat
China'spremodernimageoftheworldplaysin shapingChina'senwiththecontemporary
world.Amongthemanytraditional
gagements
Chinesenotions,theconceptof tianxiahas been invokedas theone
thatbestrepresents
China'straditional
In thisview,theterworldview.
the
ritorycoveredby the conquestsof ImperialChina constituted
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132
vs.Order
Change
wholeworld.It hasbecomecommonhistoric
thattianxia
knowledge
constituted
theChinesepremodern
of
view
theworld,
cosmological
whichwasstarkly
different
fromtheworldorderestablished
bythe
The
rationales
forevoking
thenotionof
Europeanempires.8 primary
tianxia
incontemporary
havebeentosuggest
thattheway
scholarship
Chinaoperatescannotbe solelyunderstood
Western
conbyapplying
inZhaoTingyang's
and,morerecently
ceptsandprinciples,9
writings,
thattianxia
can offer
an alternative
modeltothelargely
dysfunctional
of theworldtoday.10
is emTianxia,as an abstraction,
organization
ployedtounderlineChina'speculiarhistoric
positionand itsaspired
influencein theworldnot onlyeconomically
butas a generatorof
newideasand norms.These interpretations
of tianxiaendowChina
withqualitiesthatmakeita distinct
andspecialplaceintheworld,one
thatcannotbe graspedthrough
Western
concepts.Theseanalysesinand construct
China'spresentthroughappealingto certain
terpret
historical
worldview.
readingsofChina'straditional
the
of
Zhao's
threedifferent
meanbook,
Following publication
of
tianxia
were
identified.11
In
all
of
tianxia
does
not
them,
ings
preIndeed,thetianxia
supposedefinite
spatialor temporaldimensions.
orderdoes nothavespatiallimits;it can expandas faras Confucian
and theimperialconquests.Duringtheimperialperiodof
principles
China'shistory,
thetemporaldimensionof tianxiahad a cyclicalpattern:The ruleofa newdynasty
markedthebeginning
ofa newerain
theChinesecalendar,
whichChih-yu
Shihcallstheheavenly
order.12
The temporal
of
tianxia
dominated
was
an
aspect
by emphasison the
internal(thegreatest
and highest)orderand hierarchy,
and did not
- and eventually
- the changesbrought
welcome
could not survive
aboutbytheclasheswiththeWestern
imperialpowers.
In hiscritiqueofZhao'sthesis,CallahanobservesthatZhao'sinofChina'straditional
hasa top-down
worldview
terpretation
perspecis
which
with
the
orderandhiertive,
preoccupied maintaining internal
within
thetianxia
Zhao'sproposedadaptation
oftianxia
archy
system.13
forthetwenty-first
a
of
century
presupposes particular
organization
between
and
nations.
within
families, among
relationships
people,
tothisinterpretation
oftianxia,
shouldbe givento
According
priority
themembers
ofa family
andcommunity
overoutsiders.14
Tianxiahere
isconcerned
and
withorder,
heaven
hierarchy, stability,
whereby
grants
theexclusive
ofruletotheemperor.
Tianxiaisrepresented
as an
right
of
values
and
that
looked
to
Coninward-looking
system
governance
fucianism
and theemperoras thehighestauthority
in runningthe
internal
Thisvisionoftheworldisessentially
order.
as itprioritizes
static,
of the orderimposedfromaboveoverchange,sponmaintenance
and contingency,
and itignoresa multiplicity
offormulations
taneity,
oftheworldand China'splacein it.Whilechangewaspresentin the
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ElenaBarabantseva
133
ofancientChineserulers,as evidentin theChinese
strategic
thinking
classicYijing( TheBookofChanges)
ofchangewithin
, thepresumption
theChinesesystem
ofcosmology
wasbasedon theidealofpreserving
thereignoftheemperorand hisdomain,tianxia,
foras longas posand order
sible.15
Thispreoccupation
ofstability
withthepreservation
of tianxiais echoedin curimpliedbythedominantinterpretations
in China,whichstressthat
rentexpressions
of officialnationalism
theexisting
oftheChinesestate,one-party
rule,is
politicalstructure
thesocioeconomic
essentialforachieving
goalssetbytheleadership.
to thisstance,onlytherulingCommunist
Partycan guarAccording
of the
so no substantial
antee stability,
changein the organization
stateis welcome.16
to reconcileChina'straditional
viewof
Someacademicattempts
stress
that
the
territorialtheworldwithitsforeign
orientations
policy
modeoftheworldorderwasimposedon ChinabytheWest
sovereign
and thatChina has had
and Japanin the late nineteenth
century,
it.17Scholarshavealso
to
and
within
operating
problemssubscribing
that
China's
worldview
is
(shijieguan) one ofthemorestasuggested
on China'sforeignpolicyorientations.18
Thisline of
ble influences
is
in
is
which
found
manyscholarly
analyses, premisedon
argument,
its history.
China's distinctness
and unique characterthroughout
futileto
This postulation
leads to the assertionthatit is somewhat
China
Western
norms
and
and
understand
through
analyze
applying
to
the
Yet
China's
allegedinadaptability territorial-sovereign
concepts.
is beliedbytheChineseleadership'sown
modeoftheworldsystem
in foreignpolicy.Theyare consistently
formulations
ofitsstandards
within
the
state
framework.
sovereignty
positioned
Chinaremainsone ofthemostoutspokenadvocatesoftheprinin international
and territorial
integrity
ciplesof statesovereignty
relations.It has not onlyacceptedthesenorms,but become their
ardentadvocate.19
The Chineseleadershipregardstherealmofculandrequiring
tureas inseparable
fromChinesesovereignty
protection
harmful
effects
ofglobalization.
fromthepotentially
bytheparty-state
thispriority
toprotect
thenationalculturetransformed
Morerecently,
ofChineseculturearoundtheworld.Asfor
intotheactivepromotion
thethesisthatChina'svisionof theworldorderhas been relatively
stable,Chineseimagesoftheworldand China'srolein itare subject
to constant
and disputeat different
levels.The veryfashnegotiation
ion inwhichChinaattempts
to protectand promoteitscultureblurs
and
thedistinctions
betweentraditional
anduniversal
elements,
fusing
them.
these
China's
visions
of
the
world
blending
Through
practices
and engagement
and negotiated.
withitareconstructed,
contested,
ofgovernance
The conceptof tianxia,
as a system
valuingorder,
and hierarchy,
stability,
mightreflect(thoughnot withoutreserva-
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134
vs.Order
Change
takeon howChinashould
official
tions)theChinesegovernment's
be organizedand governeddomestically.
However,tianxiadoes not
accountforthetensions,
and
thattakeplace
inconsistencies, struggles
in Chinaat multiplelevelsas an integral
of
its
interactions
with
part
themodernworld.In fact,theChinesevocabulary
evincesrelational
anddynamic
viewsoftheworld,
as exemplified
which
bythewordshijie,
twocharacters:
shi- age,era,generate,
andjie- boundary,
comprises
circles.Originating
in Buddhistthought
and deriving
fromtheSanskrittermfoka-dhatu,
initsoriginal
useperceives
theworldas evershijie
It refersto bothspatialand temporal
changingand destroyable.20
dimensionsof the processestakingplace at a particulartimeand
within
certainphysical
confinements.
Whiletianxia
isgenerally
understoodas preoccupied
withmaintaining
andunity,
and
order,
hierarchy,
thecentralroleoftheConfucian
is toorganizethecivilized
principles
core of thesystem
and ameliorate
difference
throughacculturation,
not
the
does
have
same
connotations.
shijie
Shijiedoesnotpresuppose
a division
ofthesystem
intocivilizedand barbariancomponents
and
theacculturation
ofbarbariansubjects.It emphasizes
evertemporal,
changingprocesseswithinphysicalspaces,be theyconfinedto one
a socialgroup,a cityor a particular
person,a family,
partofit,or the
wholeplanet.As such,shijiepromotesa visionoftheworldfromthe
and
pointofviewofitscurrentaffairs,
developments,
relationships,
that
will
come
an
end.
It
to
stresses
the
interexperiences
unavoidably
actionsofpeopleand socialgroupswiththeworldsurrounding
them
and suggests
a dynamic
and relational
of
the
world.
understanding
It is notablethat"cosmopolitanism"
is normally
translated
into
Chineseas shijiezhuyi,
an
and
neveremphasizing outward-looking
finishedprocess,in oppositionto China'spurportedhistorical
pertianxia.Cosmopolitanceptionoftheworldas an order-preoccupied
ismherecouldbe understood
as "nolongermerely
an idealprojectbut
a variety
of actuallyexistingpracticalstances."21
The classicalinterofcosmopolitanism
pretation
byKantopposed
putforward
originally
not nationalism,
as oftenpresentedin academia,but theabsolutist
statism
of eighteenth-century
Europe.22The notionsof tianxiaand
could
also
be
seen
as complementary
shijie
perhaps
oppositesreprethe
of
and opennessto change,
values
senting opposing
stability
wheretianxiais represented
as hierarchical
and orderlyand shijie
standsforchangeinan ever-changing
world.Atthesametime,tianxia
and shijie
visionsoftheworldshouldnotbe seenas dichotomous,
as
coexist
and
each
other
in
they
complement
reflecting
particular
withtheworld.In otherwords,shijiedoes notreplace
engagements
tianxiabuthelpsshiftthefocusto processesand developments
that
wouldotherwise
remainconcealedand unaccountedfor.It offers
a
morenuancedperspective
on China'scomplexperceptions
and relawiththeworld.
tionships
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ElenaBarabantseva
135
and visualrepresentations
Nowlet us look at China'sinitiatives
a dynamic
viewoftheworldin relationto theetymology
expressing
withthe
ofChina'srelations
ofshijie.
Different
visualrepresentations
worldand a sitefordevelworldpresentChinaas partofan evolving
of
and inconclusiveness
opmentsengagingtheworld.The complexity
withtheworldcannotbe graspedthrough
China'srelations
opposing
to theWestern-dominated
thetraditional
Chineseworldview
organiendorsedvisualimagespresent
zationof the world.The officially
nationworthy
ofclosestudybythe
Chinaas a modernand dynamic
as a spacewhereinthe
world.At thesametime,Chinais portrayed
The order-preoccupied
is manifested.
worldin itsmanydimensions
thatChinacannotadapttothe
discourseoftianxia
and theargument
orderoverlookthatChina is partof the dynamically
West-imposed
changingshijie.
thatare characteristic
Contemporary
processesand relationships
oftheworldand concernitat multiplelevelsshapeChina'soutlook.
in themaking,
wherepeopleexpealways
Shijieis a worldofrelations
ofways.A certainplace withinChina,
riencetheworldin a variety
suchas theWorldPark,can be theultimate
placewherepeoplecome
intocontactand experiencetheworldin itsmanyexpressions
(albeit
. The ever-changfromthe authorities)
intervention
withsignificant
itssociallifeand influencing
ingworldembracesChina,reorganizing
withtheworld.China'soutlookis
and relationships
itsperceptions
in thevisualrepresentations
reflected
plannedforitsrecentinitiative
Institutes
aroundtheworld.
to setup a chainofConfucius
WithConfuciusOut intotheWorld
have called fora greaterculturalpresencefor
Chineseauthorities
to accompanyChina'sgrowingpoliticaland ecoChinaworldwide
thatChinaneedstomatchits
nomicpower,echoingZhao'sargument
withthe generationof new ideas for the
economicassertiveness
in
One ofthemosttellingexamplesofthismodeofthinking
world.23
ofa chainof
oftheestablishment
is the2004initiation
policymaking
aroundthe world.The missionof theseinstiConfuciusInstitutes
in theofficial
documentdisseminated
tutes,as formulated
bythegovwithothercountries
is to promote"friendly
ernment,
relationships
oftheChineselanguageand culture."24
and enhanceunderstanding
are coordinated
oftheinstitutes
The activities
bythecentralConfuto thecenin Beijing,whichis subordinate
ciusInstitute
headquarters
NationalOfficeforTeachingChineseas a Foreign
tralgovernment's
Language.
aroundtheworld,withthefirst
The institutes
havemushroomed
thatthere
itwasanticipated
inSeoulin 2004.Initially,
one established
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136
vs.Order
Change
wouldbe at leastone suchinstitute
on each continent,
and thatone
hundredConfucius
Institutes
set
the
wouldbe up around worldbefore
theinitiative
wasenthusiastically
2010.However,
supported
bygovernmentsand institutions
worldwide
so thatin 2009 therewerealready
Institutes
established
in81countries
andregionsaround
256Confucius
the world.25
While the idea of a networkof culturalinstitutions
abroadis notnew- Chinaherefollows
thelongstanding
of
traditions
othersimilarinitiatives,
such as theAllianceFrançoise,the British
and so forth,
Council,theJapanFoundation,the GoetheInstitute,
theformat
thatChinahasadoptedinpromoting
itslanguageand cultureabroadis verydistinct.
ConfuciusInstitutes
are establishedin
closeassociation
withlocal institutions
ofhighereducation,on their
is also a senior
premiseswherethehead of theConfuciusInstitute
memberof the university
an
official
As
faculty.
agentto promote
Chinesecultureand languageabroad,theConfucius
Institutes
takea
informal
structure.
are
embedded
into
the
strucvery
They
deeply
tureoftheuniversities
aroundtheworldrelying
on theiroutreachto
students
and thegeneralpublic.
ofManchester's
GiventheUniversity
recentstrategy
ofinvesting
morein researchand teachingon China,as wellas thecity'spopulous and vibrantChinesecommunity,
Manchester
became
naturally
one oftheproposedlocationsfora Confucius
Institute.
Atthecerein October
moniouslaunchof the Manchester
ConfuciusInstitute
the
audience
a
trailer
of
institutes
was
shown
the
2006,
promotional
in whichone of the characters
that
institute
students
proclaimed
wouldbe taughtin thespiritof Confuciusto knowand understand
Chinabetter.
The videowasverybrief,
butthenarrative
waseffective
in communicating
itscentralideas.
to thevideo,theinstitutes
notonlyserveas a basisfor
According
about
China
the
learning
throughteaching Chineselanguage.They
alsooffer
courseson different
aspectsofChineseculture:calligraphy,
Chinesecuisine,tai chi,kungfu,traditional
musicand singing,
fan
and
the
art
of
The
list
of
of
Chinese
dance,
papercutting. long
aspects
iscomplemented
traditional
culture
tothesuccess
bya shortreference
NBA basof Chinesesports,witha close-upimageof Chinese-born
ketballplayerYao Ming.The videoalso makesreferences
to China's
recentdevelopmental
withtheimageof a Chineseengiinitiatives,
neerengagingin a conversation
witha youngWesterner
againstthe
the
Three
Dam.
At
the
same
of
time,the video
backdrop
Gorges
China
is
not
that
homogeneous,
byzoomingin
emphasizes
ethnically
and theirinhabitants.
This
on imagesof the Mongoliangrasslands
of
of
the
concludes
with
video
snapshots the
introductory
portion
in
the
Confucius
Institute
and
of
Beijing variousoffices
headquarters
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ElenaBarabantseva
137
aroundtheworld.Whitedovesflyoutfromtheheadquarters
around
the world,one of whichis capturedin the officiallogo of the
Institute.
This introduction
focuseson China's development
path
and itsmostimportant
characteristics.
It is followedbythreeshort
visualnarratives
themodernnatureofChineselanguage
illuminating
learning.
First,learningMandarinis presentedas a practicaland valuable
thatcouldcreatemorecareeropportunities
and success.The
activity
Chineselanguageitselfis presentedas thefuturemediumforbusiness.The firstshortvideo presentsa youngwhiteWesternman at
fora corporate
scenehe is chosenfrom
an interview
job. In thefirst
He was theonly
thenumerouscandidateswaitingforan interview.
one readinga Chinesenewspaper,
whilethe restwereabsorbedin
whosefacewe don't see
papers.The interviewer,
English-language
buton whosedeska sheetofpaperexplicitly
says"tobe hired,"indithat
the
selected
candidate
is
his
man,
cating
posesa question:"Who
is yourteacher?"The interviewee
with
a certainamountof
replies
confidenceand pride and a winningsmile:"Myteacheris Confucius!"Thisepisodesuggests
thatknowing
Chineseis an unbeatable
The
is
left
with
no
doubt
thatthiscandidatewas
viewer
advantage.
hired.
The nextshortsceneofthevideotakesplaceat thebottomofthe
EiffelTowerin Paris.A youngwhiteman spotsa girlon a bikeand
way,knockingher offthe
approachesher in a ratherdetermined
ofChinese.The
bike.A bookfallsoutofherbagwhichis a textbook
looks
of
and
next
we
see
themstudying
interest,
couple exchange
on
and
hands
their
to
the
Chinese
classin the
together holding
way
in Paris.The messageofthisepisodeis thatlearnConfucius
Institute
ing Chinesecan not onlybringpeople togetherthroughbusiness
butserveas a mediumoffriendship
relations
and romance.
The lastsequenceofthevideostarts
at 9 a.m.in a classroom
with
film
music
from
the
French
Amelie.
It
then
background
progresses
in timetoshowthestudent
backward
leavinghome,havingbreakfast,
and in bed withthealarmgoingoffat 8:30 a.m.and a femalevoice
thecentralmescalling:'Jack,itis timeforChinese!"Thatisprobably
of
the
entire
video.
Chinese
is
sage
promotional
presentedas a pragand
to
learn.
has comeand it
Its
time
matic,useful, timely
language
is prudentto masterChinese.Doing so is a guaranteeof successin
businessand a waytoimpressand earnadmirers.
The videoalso conthat
China
is
more
in
the
world,and that
veys
becoming
important
Chinese
is
desirable
if
want
to
learning
you
keep pace withworld
developments.
The promotional
China'sefforts
topopularize
a parvideoreflects
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138
vs.Order
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Itpresents
an image
ticular
anditsculture
internationally.
imageofitself
ofa modern,
but
romantic
culture
rational,
businessoriented,
dynamic,
and
culthatpromotes
and
informal
education
peace
politicsthrough
here
turalexchange.Languageteaching
and culturepromotion
serve
oflanguageinstruction,
as toolsofpublicdiplomacy.
Withthisinitiative
ofChinese
Chinaproducesan alternative
toprevious
sporadic
attempts
communities
worldwide
to provideChineselanguagetrainingpreofthediaspora.The initiative
can alsobe
to themembers
dominately
regardedas China'sresponsetotheconcernsvoicedbymanyChinese
inin theearly1990sabouttheincreasing
and potentially
destructive
fluenceofWestern
"global"cultureand theEnglishlanguageon Chinese cultureand society.26
The initiative
reflects
theearlierdesireto
immunize
Chineseculture
fromtheunfavorable
influences
ofWesternorchestrated
Now it has developedinto a proactive
globalization.
of Chinesecultureand languagearoundtheworld.
popularization
ConfuciusInstitutes
are orientedtowarda foreign,predominately
thepresence
non-Chinese,
audience,witha viewtowardreinforcing
ofChineseculturearoundtheworld.Bypromoting
Chineselanguage
andculture,
theChinesestateisattempting
toprojecta certainimage
ofChinatoa foreign
audience.Thisimageisofa peace-loving,
peaceChinathatengageswiththeworldthroughinseeking,harmonious
formalmeansand culture.
Therehasbeenat leastone clearexampleofthediplomatic
purIn Japan,a traditional
ofChinain
pose oftheinitiative.
competitor
theregionofEastAsia,thefirst
Confucius
Institute
wassymbolically
Memorial
Hall forPeace.
established
insideRitsumeikan
University's
raisesa hostofquestionsabout
The Confucius
Institute
initiative
China'smotivesand interests.
How does thispromotionof Chinese
economicand politicultureand languagerelateto China'sgrowing
to playa
cal relevancein theworld?Is itdrivenbyChina'saspiration
moreimportant
role in theglobalarenaor byitsdesireto further
increaseitseconomicpresence?Or is italsomotivated
byitspolitical
and
its
desire
to
have
the
exclusive
with
Taiwan
rightsto reprivalry
theprecisecombiresentChinesecultureinternationally?
Whatever
Chinais attemptnationofmotives,
theConfucius
Institutes
through
a
to
tell
around
the
world
about
changingand dynamic
ing
people
China.
China's global promotionof Chinese cultureand language
callsintoquestionthe tianxiaoutthroughtheConfuciusInstitutes
lookon theworld.The tianxia
orderis usuallynotseenas welcoming
teroraccommodating
change,and cannotfully
adapttotheWestern
world
China's
with
the
world
order.
engagement
ritorial-sovereign
is an alternative
wayforChina to
throughthe ConfuciusInstitutes
Rather
thanacting
audiences.
advanceitsinitiatives
amongforeign
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ElenaBarabantseva
139
China directly
stateorganizations,
appealsin an
throughexplicitly
almostinformal
and personalwaytopeopleon theground.Itreaches
out to individuals,
ofnon-Chinese
origin,overseasto
predominately
of China.The initiative
is in parta reinfluencetheirperceptions
- withChina
and changingnatureoftheworld
sponsetothedynamic
theshijie
outlook.The Confucius
at theforefrontand thusitreflects
and engagewith
Institutes
hold up a mirrorto newdevelopments
themin an upbeatway.Chinais presentedas an important
partofa
changingworld.
MultifacetedConfucius
an ideoofitselfas a Confuciannationinvolves
China'spresentation
massacre
in
there
has
the
Tiananmen
shift.
Since
1989,
Square
logical
been a noticeabledeparturefromMarxistideologyin favorof the
discoursein
valuesin publicand official
ofConfucian
popularization
as orthodox
China.27Guo suggeststhattherevivalof Confucianism
ideologyis one of themaintasksfortheChineseleadershipin the
and strengthen
thenationalspirit
Itwillnurture
century:
twenty-first
has been revivedat different
Confucianism
and unitethe nation.28
toas a newmoralcode,
and is oftenreferred
levelsin Chinesesociety
one thathas even been used to evaluatepartyofficials'performance.29Confucianethicsare vigorously
popularizedon Chinese
The acceptanceof thesenew
television
and in popularliterature.30
to theincreased
culturalproductsbytheChineseis oftenattributed
"demandfororder,socialvaluesand ethics"in a rapidlychanging
society.31
thereturnto Confucianvalueshas been characUntilrecently,
its
domestic
terizedby
objectives:It was proposedas a remedyfor
of commuChinesesociety'sproblemsand the decliningauthority
Chinaseemsto increasingly
nism.However,
presentConfucianprinforforeigners'
ofChina,as evidenced
perceptions
ciplesas guidelines
Institute.
In 2006theChinaConfucius
FounbythenameConfucius
ofConfucius"togivehima sindationpublisheda standardportrait
aroundtheworld."32
identity
Bymakingthecentral
gle,recognisable
and virtue,
includingpeace, harmony,
principlesof Confucianism,
a
essentialto itsinternational
image,Chinahas started newglobal
itselfas an influential
culturalauthority
publiccampaignto establish
Chinahas notyetshowna
and a peaceful,benignpower.However,
ofitsrulas theguidingprinciple
toabandoncommunism
willingness
China
the
Confucius
Institutes
andleadership.
With
initiative,
ingparty
its
culture
with
and
of
fusestraditional particular
aspects
ingeniously
and
modernand universally
styles images.
recognizable
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140
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Whileconflating
someaspectsofConfucian
withcommuthought
nistideology,33
Chinacautiously
other
ignores
important
components
ofConfucianism
in promoting
itsConfucianimage.It is remarkable
howtherecentmoveof Chineseauthorities
to promoteConfucian
ideasis mixedwiththepromotion
ofothermodernideassuchas moand so forth.
Theseattributes
seemnot
affluence,
bility,
adaptability,
withclassicalConfucianthought,
butto go
onlyto be incompatible
againstitsverygrain.WhenChinaclaimedto be ruledaccordingto
Confucianprinciples,
and tradewereperceivedby the
emigration
Chineserulersas undermining
thestability
of theConfucianorder.
Confucianism
andregardedcommerce
as a disagriculture
prioritized
honorableactivity:
It associatedthoseengagedin commercewithexand parasitism.34
Tradewasseen as corrupting
ofhuman
ploitation
wassuppressedand condemnedas againstthe
morality.
Emigration
valueoffilialpietytowardparentsand ancestors,
as emigrants
could
notdutifully
their
to
older
members.35
pay
respects
family
China'smoveto promoteitslanguageand culturethroughthe
networkof officially
sponsoredConfuciusInstitutes
expandsand
transforms
itsstrategy
topopularizea particular
versionofitsnational
cultureoutsideChina.In early2000Chineseintellectuals
urgedyouth
inChinanottorenouncetheirlanguageinfavor
ofEnglish,
as "English,
afterall,is onlya tooltoknowtheworld."36
Chineseis
Now,however,
in
as
a
line
In
with
world
presented language
developments. itspopChinacombinesverymodernobjectives
withelementsof
ularization,
whatis claimedtobe traditional
Chinese.Mosttelling,
perhaps,is the
non-Confucian
look
of
the
official
of
the
InstiConfucius
very
logo
tute:a whitedovewithwingsspreadoutto embracetheworld,while
theworldextendsan armto embracethedove.
Chinadidnotchooseanysupposedly
Chineseimagesormythical
characters
forthelogo,suchas thepanda,thedragon,or eventhe
sacredbird,thephoenix,whichishighly
regardedinChinesemytholOne
for
choiceof an internationChina's
ogy.
possibleexplanation
is
that
it
to
allyrecognizedimage
sought emphasizethatChinaseeks
toengagewiththeoutsideworldinan informal,
manpeople-oriented
rather
than
state-centric
interner,
throughhighlyinstitutionalized,
nationalorganizations.
The choiceof imageryto accompanythese
initiatives
seemstoexpressa desiretogettheworldtopeacefully
welcomeChina'sgrowing
in
It
is
and
influence
it.
presence
emphasized
thatChinagoesoutintotheworldtoeducatethepeopleoftheworld
without
themhavingtoenterChina.The promotional
videosaysthat
Confuciuswaspreoccupiedwithmaking"educationavailableto all
men"(in premodern
ConfuChina),and now,throughestablishing
ciusInstitutes,
Chinais givingalmosteverybody
in theworldan opto learnaboutChinawithout
portunity
leavingtheircountries.
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141
ElenaBarabantseva
The promotional
videoof theConfuciusInstitute
and thestateillustrate
and imagery
thisinitiative
endorseddiscourses
popularizing
howofficial
BeijingwantsChinato be perceivedbyaudiencesworldwide.Theyframea particular
imageofChinaand can be seenas exis that
oftheChinesestate's"soft"
power.Whatis important
pressions
associated
and theinternational
efforts
theinitiative
publicrelations
to eithertheallegedly
withit cannotbe graspedsolelybyreference
tianxiavisionoftheworldor to theWesternChinese-history-rooted
ofchange,
state-centric
international
Theimperative
dominated
system.
of tianxiaand
whichis notintegralto thedominantinterpretations
China'srelationship
withtheWestern
worldorder,isbuiltintoChina's
and the international
initiative
ConfuciusInstitute
publicrelations
campaign.
The World Park, Beijing, and the World
festival
thatwas tied to the
As partof the "Chinaat Manchester"
Institute
launchoftheConfucius
there,a numberoffilmsbyChinese
director
JiaZhangkewerescreened.Jiais oftenregardedas one of
His
the bestof the new (sixth)generationof Chinesefilmmakers.
in somewaysechoesthepromotional
videooftheConfilmTheWorld
on China's
a different
butitalsoprovides
fuciusInstitute,
perspective
film
at
The
looks
how comthe
world.
with
changingrelationship
withthe
monersin Chinaperceiveand experiencetheirrelationships
videowasmadewiththeclose
outsideworld.Whilethepromotional
codifiedfora visually
ofthestateand therefore
involvement
presents
withtheworld,theartoffilmis not
mulationofChina'sengagement
the
relatedto thediscourseofthestate.As Shapiroobserves,
directly
and
of
about
time
a
mode
cinema
thought
provides
"contemporary
of the present."37
eventsthatencodesthepeculiarities
Buildingon
its
that
of
thework Deleuze,Shapiroargues
cinematography
through
of
of
nationhood
and
its
treatment
"banal"visualrepresentation
daily
lifeis engagedin the culturalexpressionof a nationand is closely
Thatis eventruerifa filmreceives
relatedto theprojectsofstates.38
ofthestate.
thesupportand endorsement
Until2004JiaZhangkewasfamousoutsideChinamainlyforhis
of theChinese
highlyacclaimedfilmsmadewithoutthepermission
in
All
ofhisearlier
films
received
the
West.
His
were
well
government.
Pleasures
works,such as Xiao Wu (1998), Platform
(2000), and Unknown
awards
creations
thatreceived
(2002),were"underground"
prestigious
to
in theWest.TheWorld,
destined
have
was
at filmfestivals
however,
lifein China.It receivedapprovalfromtheChineseFilm
a different
Bureauand was thefirstfilmbyJia to be publiclyshownin China.
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142
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it was generously
fundedbythe authorities,
and itspreMoreover,
miertookplaceduringtheNationalDayholiday,
one ofthemostcelin recentyearsthe
ebratedholidaysin China.In Jia'sownwords,39
in Chinahas
environment
forfilmmaking,
and censorship
generally,
been slightly
relaxedbyauthorities.
Thus it is not his styleofwork
thathas changedbuttheclimateforfilm,whichhas becomemore
to "underground"
work.He emphasizestheimportance
of
receptive
accesstotheChinesemarket
and theability
ofhisfilmstobe watched
bywidercirclesof the Chinesepublic.40However,thereare more
forwhyTheWorld
receivedsuchactivepromopoliticalexplanations
tionfromtheauthorities,
and one shouldturnto theplotofthefilm
to explorethem.
The filmstarts
offwitha lavishbeauty-pageant-like
performance
ofpeopleinnationalcostumes
fromaroundtheworld.The plotis set
in theWorldParkin Beijing,whichfeaturessmall-scale
replicasof
famoussightsfromall overtheworld.The viewersfollowthe daily
ofwork,romance,drama,and friendship
ofpeoplewho
experiences
liveand workin the park.None of the characters
in the filmare
nativesofBeijing.Theyarrived
fromremotepartsofthecountry
and
abroadin searchofa betterlifeand morestableincome.The film's
narrativefocuseson securityguards and performers,
but also
in Beijing."See theWorldWithout
includesothermigrant
workers
EverLeavingBeijing"isthesloganofthepark,as viewers
arereminded
severaltimesthroughout
thecourseofthefilm.
The themesraisedin thefilmaredifferent
fromthoseinJia'searlierworks,whichwereall setin his hometown
in Shanxiprovince.
the
of
local
his
earlier
filmsportrayed
Through experiences
people,
thechangingconditions
oflifein Chinaundergoing
a buoyanteconomictransition.
TheWorld,
on theotherhand,is setin Beijing,and
ofChinaareatthecruxofthefilm,they
althoughthesocialproblems
aresoftened
the
oftheparkand its
by prominent
background
setting
The
film
shows.
focuses
on
the
ofthefilm's
extravagant
dailystruggles
with
and
China
reference
for
characters, Beijing
points developments
in the world;China'ssocial ills and developmental
difficulties
are
as
of
the
The
everworld.
partlyrepresented part
contemporary
oftheworld,includingChinaand Beijing,is the
changingcharacter
mainthemeof TheWorld.
The filmdepictsa curiousintersection
of
the
film's
characters.
The
references
to
the
geoscapesperceivedby
to producea narrative
of
world,China,and Beijingare intertwined
that
is
both
and
characteristic
of
the
complexspatiality
China-specific
world.For thecharacters,
contemporary
Beijingand itsWorldPark
in
the
world.
and
various
Love,drama,
embody
spectaclesunfolding
theparkare theironlyexperiences
ofthecontemporary
world.They
are theprismsthrough
whichtheprotagonists
learnabouttheoutsideworld,relatetoit,and experienceitin theirdailylife.The world
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ElenaBarabantseva
143
embracesBeijing,whichmanypeoplein Chinaregardas thehub of
theirlife.
thewholeworldespeciallyforall thosewho
Beijingconstitutes
havenotexperiencedtheworldoutsideChinaandwhoareforcedto
travellongdistances
fromremotepartsofChinatofast-growing
cities
insearchofjobs and higherlivingstandards.
In theirencounters
with
themodernworld,thecharacters'
ofmobility,
as a fundaexperiences
mentalcondition
ofmodernlife,become"post-progressive'"
(toborrow
a termfromRofel)41:
in searchofa betterlife,
Theyexercisemobility
but experienceit as a movementwithoutpurposefuldestination.
Moreover,
althoughmobility
bringsthemintocontactwiththemodernworld,theyare ultimately
alienatedfromit.
Experiencesand PerceptionsoftheWorld
Without
Destination
Mobility
are indispensable
forexperiencing
themodern
Practicesofmobility
world,bothwithinand outsideChina.The veryact of mobility
(as
of
is
a
of
to
the
traditional
manifestation
life)
sedentary
style
opposed
into
modern
life.
"An
to
contact
with
is
coming
obligation mobility
in
on
characters
of
The
World
their
interactions
the
the
with
imposed
The characters
had toundertake
world."42
contemporary
journeysto
comeintocontactwiththemodernworldin Beijing.Traveling
short
or longdistancesbecomesan important
of
component joiningmodIn thiswaytheprotagonists'
erncitizens.
oftheworldare
experiences
a moderncondition.
relatedtohowtheyperceive
Theirperceptions
of
of
are
and
the
world
coconstitutive
and
modernity
mutually
informing.
The mobility
inthefilmundertake
thatthecharacters
isrestricted,
however.
There are onlya limitednumberof physicaldestinations
and meansof traveling
availableto them.Thereare also substantial
institutional
barriers
to theirmobility.
Theirperceptions
ofthematerialworldoutsideChinaare confinedto howit is presentedin the
park,whence theirlifejourneyhas led them thus far.The exof Zhao Xiaotao,the main femalecharacter,stops in
boyfriend
to
heron hiswayto Mongolia.She says,"Yourmumwas
visit
Beijing
right.Breakingup withme wasgood foryou."He replies:"Andfor
youtoo! Newworldeveryday."She agrees,"Thatis right.I see the
worldwithout
leavingBeijing."She thusutterstheofficial
sloganof
theparkas herownlifemotto.Forherand otherparkdwellers,
the
their
"I
to
the
outside
world:
am
on
the
parkprovides
onlyexposure
trainto India,""AreyougoingtoJapan?"Theymovefromone spot
intheparktoanother,
incolorful
participating
performances,
imperdifferent
and
nationalities, livingtheworldthroughtheir
sonating
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144
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shows.One daytheyare Indiandancers,anothertheyareJapanese,
and so on. In theirdailyshowstheyengagein a
American,
African,
mode
oflivingwithout
leavingBeijingor takinga
verycosmopolitan
the
world
throughcostumeperformances
plane. Theyexperience
the
realitiesof lifein present-day
whileoutsidethe stagetheyface
China.Andso perceptions
oftheoutsideworldand China'srealities
are intimately
in the dailyroutinesof the characters.
intertwined
theirperceptions
oftheoutside
Theirdailylifein theparkconditions
constitutive.
The design
world,and Chinaand theworldaremutually
oftheWorldPark- whichexpresses
theviewsoftheChinesestatecul- and the everyday
in
turalauthorities
manifestations
of modernity
Chinaare theprismsthrough
ofthefilmperwhichtheprotagonists
ceivetheworld.
Airplanesare depictedas an idealizedmodernwayof traveling,
butalmostnobodyin theparkhaseverbeenon a plane.Whenasked,
"Whoflieson thoseplanes?"Xiaotaois baffled:
"Whoknows?I don't
knowanybody
whohas everbeen on a plane."Instead,visitors
and
oftheparkcan flyon the"magicalflying
or by
employees
carpet,"43
payinga visitto thesiteof an old plane theycan experienceflying
withtheguidanceofparkworkers
whowelcomethemwiththevoice
ofa flight
attendant:
"Ourairlinewouldliketowelcomeyouon board.
Beforelandingin ourpark,thisplanemadeinternational
We
flights.
itsoriginalappearance.The hostesses
havepreserved
areallperformersof theFiveContinents
is thereforyou to
Company.Everything
of
An
is prethe
air
travel."
actual
experience beauty
airplaneflight
sentedas a highlydesirablebutalmostunattainable
for
activity the
ofthepark.Theycannotafford
dwellers
andvisitors
themodernconditionof experiencing
theworldthroughthe air,thoughcovering
distances
is
not
buta necessary
conditionfor
long
onlya meaningful
theirinteractions
in
withthemodernworld.TheWorld's
characters,
ofthemodernworldwhere
otherwords,arefoundon theperiphery
as an inalienableattribute
ofmodern
takingplanesisoftenpresented
to
it
is
The
closest
can
come
living.
they
experiencing throughrides
on magiccarpetsor decommissioned
planesat the state-sponsored
tourist
sites.Trains,on theotherhand,are an accessibleand affordable meansoftravel.
Anda trainjourneyis associatedwithbringing
themoderndreamoffinancial
successclosertoreality.
XiaTaisheng,
otao'sboyfriend,
recallsthaton thefirst
of
his
in
night
stay Beijing,
he sleptin thehotelnextto thetrainstation,
listenedto thetrains,
and dreamtofbecomingsuccessful
in Beijing.
A passportis also essentialforvisiting
theforeignworld.There
are severalreferences
in thefilm.The mainprotagto itspracticality
XiaotaoandTaisheng,
do notseemtohavepassports,
whichin
onists,
Chinayouonlyneed to travelabroad.WhenXiaotao'sex-boyfriend
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ElenaBarabantseva
145
stopsin Beijingon his wayto Mongolia,he showshis passportto
Xiaotao.She does notunderstand
whyhe needsituntilhe explains
thathe is goingto Mongolia(bytrain). A passportis also associated
in thefilmareRusThe onlynon-Chinese
characters
withfreedom.44
in the park.Whenthey
sianwomenwho are employedto perform
on keepingtheirpassports.
arriveinBeijingtheirmanagerinsists
They
handthemoverto him.We laterfindout thatAnna,one
reluctantly
to affordto visit
oftheRussiandancers,had to takeup prostitution
hersisterin Ulan Bator.She is theonlyemployeein theparkwhois
abletotakea plane.Xiaotaogetson wellwithAnna,and theybecome
eachother'slanguagethrough
closerwithout
doinglaundry
knowing
WhenAnna tellsXiaotao
drinking,
sharing,and chatting.
together,
what
thatshe is goingto changejobs, Xiaotaodoes notunderstand
she meansbutnoticesthatshe is worriedand triesto cheerherup:
in thepark.It'sbeau"Christmas
is coming.[Therewillbe] fireworks
tiful.
Youshouldsee it.I willtakephotosforyou.I envyyou.Youcan
XiaoWhatfreedom!"
Underlying
go abroad.You can go anywhere.
thata personwitha passportand thus
is theassumption
tao's remark
can be free.
thecapacityto travelanywhere
to
the sisterof one of his dubious
is
attracted
Cun,
Taisheng
She hailsfromWenzhouand herhusbandhasbeen livingin
friends.
Parisformanyyears.She wantstojoin himand recently
appliedfora
her
husband
left.Cun
Frenchvisa.Taishengcannotunderstand
why
abroad."
Taisare
"attracted
to
that
Wenzhou
going
people
explains
come
to
the
if
not
her
she
should
that
she
does
get visa,
hengsuggests
there:the Eiffel
WorldParkas theyhaveall theFrenchattractions
Tower,NotreDame,and theArcde Triomphe.Butas Cun observes,
theParisianChinatown
whereherhusband
theydon'thaveBelleville,
based.In theend,Cungetshervisa,andTaishenglooks
issupposedly
atherpassportcuriousaboutthevisa,buthe stillcannotrelatetoher
desireto leaveChina.
to abovedepicthowthecharacters
The narrative
linesreferred
ofthefilmperceivetheworldand experiencemodernliving.In their
availableto and
interactions
withtheworld,the formsof mobility
are essentially
restricted.
exercisedby the protagonists
Theycome
without
intocontactwiththeseforms
leavingBeijing.Theyonlyoccathe
travelbytrain,
sionallyleavethepremisesof
park,thepassersby
of relatives
are
confined
to
their
circles
and iftheygo abroadthey
a
domesticated
in
takes
on
andfriends Chinatowns.
Cosmopolitanism
mode of living
character.
The characters
engagein a cosmopolitan
or
if
do
abroad
without
homes,
they go
theyare
leavingtheircurrent
China.
Restricted
withconfinedto thespacesdominatedby
mobility
a
and
of
modern
livstandsoutas value
outa cleardestination
aspect
the
ideal
of
modering.The actofmovingis associatedwithbringing
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146
vs.Order
Change
even ifwhatconstitutes
nitycloserto reality,
beingmodernis not
for
clearto theperformer.
Movingis a markofthemodernidentity
the charactersof The World.
Theyare engagingin whatZigmunt
Baumanmetaphorically
calls a "liquidlife,"a seriesof beginnings
without
a cleardestination,
where"theneed ... is torunwithall one's
justto stayin thesameplace."45
strength
Thisindeterminate
natureofmodernity
amongtheChinesecan
alsobe linkedtoChina'spostsocialist
transitional
where"the
context,
. . . overthe meaningand ownership
of modernity"
are
struggles
This meaningforthe protagonists
of The
highlylikelyto occur.46
World
seemsto be ambiguous,
or source.
withno clearformulation
LikeRofel'syoungChinesefemaleinterviewees,
thecharacters
ofThe
World
have"nosenseofcertainty
The
abouthistorical
progress."47 only
prominent
uncertainty,
aspectsof theirlivesare restricted
mobility,
andprecariousness.
as an essential
Mobility
partofmodernlivingdoes
not grantthemmembership
in the modernworld,governedand
dominated
holdersandfrequent
bymultiple-passport
flyers.
Theyare
alienatedfromthisworld,thoughin manywaystheirveryalienation
makestheconditions
forthismodernworldpossible.48
The Vicesand VirtuesoftheModernWorld
Jia'sfilmsare celebratedfortheirexplorationof the problemsof
China'spost-Maotransition.
Theyexposesocietalvices,troublesof
in thecourseoftransand
development
projects, personaltragedies
formation.
TheWorld
is no exception.The filmexemplifies
howthe
valuescelebrated
in Chinain thereform
clash
traditional
with
period
whichare notpresentedas peculiarto China.The problems
virtues,
ofChinaarepresented
as notoriously
modernand partly
creditedto
itsengagement
withtheoutsideworld.Theyareas muchproblems
of
themodernworldas theyareofChina.The globaland localintersect
in theproduction
ofattributes
thataresharedatmanylevelsbymany
societiestodayirrespective
oftheirgeographical
locations.Theyare
of
the
and conditions
how
expressions
economypenetrates
capitalist
humanlivesin different
of
the
world.
parts
Amongthequalitiesviewedas measuresofsuccessin themodern
in
worldand Chinais financial
Manyconversations
accomplishment.
thefilmrevolvearoundthesubjectof moneyor thelackof it.The
characters
talkabout debts,salarylevels,payrates,compensation,
and gambling.
Money,ratherthanwhatitcan buy,is depictedas the
valuethatbringstherealization
ofdreamscloser.The blindpursuit
ofmoneygoeshandin handwithtragedy.
nickTaisheng'sco-villager
namedLittleSistercomesto Beijingin searchofearningsand finds
a job on theconstruction
sitenearthepark.To makeextramoneyhe
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147
ElenaBaràbantseva
worksall day and overtimeat nightuntilone day a cable breaks,
him.Lyingon hisdeathbedin thehospitalhe scribseverely
injuring
bleshislastmessagetoTaisheng,
whichcontainsa listofpeoplewith
thesumsofdebthe owesthem.Thisis thetragiclegacythathe leaves
of
forhisfamily
to takecareof.Theywillnowhavetofacethereality
compaid bytheconstruction
spendingmostof the compensation
panyforhisdeathto coverhisdebts.
in thefilmrepresent
valueswhichare not
Onlytwocharacters
measuredbyfinancial
successin themodernworld.Anna,Xiaotao's
in Russia,
Russianfriend,
cametoChinatoearnmoneyforherfamily
hercause is pure.She
and althoughshe has to takeup prostitution,
wantstosaveup moneyandvisithersisterin Mongolia.She confesses
and hersongto heris a nonmaterial
thatXiaotaois heronlyfriend,
affection.
Xiaotaoappearsto be indifof
and
expression friendship
She refusestheadvanceferentto money,status,and careergrowth.
successful
and is somewhat
unenmentsofa seemingly
businessman,
in
abouttheroleshe is assignedin thedailyperformances
thusiastic
thepark.Whenthenewmanagerannouncesthatsheis goingtoperThe character
of
''Whatever."
forman African
dance,Xiaotaoanswers,
Xiaotaoisan exampleoffemalegoodness,humbleness,
purity,
loyalty,
She resists
thevicesofthemodernworld,manyofwhich
andmodesty.
Atthesametime,Xiaotao'scharacherboyfriend
Taishengpossesses.
to
attachment
teris intrinsically
cosmopolitan
despitehernecessary
Chinaandworkin thepark.The wayXiaotaorelatesto and caresfor
butalso a prostitute,
Anna,whois notonlya foreigner
pointsto Xiaand socialdivisionsin her
otao's abilityto riseaboveethnocultural
relations
withpeople.Forherthevalueofa humanbeingis separate
fromanysocialand moralcodesor affiliations.
forthevaluesof
Taisheng,on theotherhand,is themouthpiece
individualism
and self-reliance.
Perhapstheepitomeofhispersonal
stanceand viewsis expressedin an intimatescenein a hotelroom
and nevercheaton her:"Ifyou
whenXiaotaoaskshimto be faithful
evercheaton me I willkillyou.You are mywholelife.If you are
I willbe leftwithnothing."Taishengbringsherback to
unfaithful,
whathe considerstoday'sreality:"Don'thaveso muchfaithin me.
thesedays,includingmyself.
You can'tcountthatmuchon anybody
are
Youcan onlycounton yourself."
viewson relationships
Taisheng's
ofromanofBauman'sobservation
aboutthecharacter
reminiscent
in "liquidmodernity,"
whichare "lightand loose"
ticrelationships
commitments.49
and avoidthepromisesoflong-term
is filledwithpositiveand
The modernworldof theprotagonists
features.
The valuesofthesefeatures,
cannotbe dehowever,
negative
as it is notclearwhichofthemcan bringtheprotagonists
termined,
ofthefilmrepoftheirdreams.The characters
closertotherealization
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148
vs.Order
Change
in Chinawhoareestranged
fromthe
resentmillions
ofruralmigrants
modernworldandthebenefits
oftenassociated
withit.In China'spromotionoftheConfucius
themodernandtraditional
andthe
Institutes,
and globalareinfluxtoproducedesirableimagesofChina
particular
in thedailystruggles
forforeign
and expericonsumption.
Similarly,
in TheWorld,
encesoftheoutsideworldofthecharacters
thereis no
cleardistinction
betweenwhatrepresents
good and bad. Thereis no
ofvaluesconstitutes
moralguidanceand
clearsenseofwhatsystem
whatlifeaspirations
areconsidered
andtherefore
desirable.
auspicious
Worlds
EducatingtheIntersected
The promotional
and thefilmThe
videoof theConfuciusInstitute
World
accounts
of
the
for
visual
world
different
produce
purposes.
each otherin theirrepreHowever,theyparalleland complement
sentations
oftheworldand China'splace in it.Bothconstruct
an inof
the
world
that
is
as
the
terpretation
presented
dynamically
changtheChinesestate
ingworldof today.In thesevisualinterpretations,
playstheroleofculturalauthority.
A visitto theWorldParkis presentedas an educationalactivity
thatwillintroduce
thevisitors
in theworld.It
to themainattractions
offers
a particular
on
and
formulates
a
knowlperspective
prescribed
of
what
the
cultural
sites
of
the
world
are.
A
to the
visit
edge
major
is
not
as
the
tour
of
the
park
merelyentertainment,
guide
parkdeclares:"Goodday,dearvisitor.
Welcomeaboardtheelevatorof our
ownEiffelTower.We hope thispanoramicviewwillheightenyour
oftheworld."The parkoffers
a viewoftheworldthatfor
knowledge
visitors
could
be
their
many
onlyexperienceof the world'smost
in snapshots:
famoussites.50
The worldisreproduced
The parkhasits
ownEiffel
Towerthatis 108metershigh,theTwinTowersofManhattanintheUnitedStates(thoughtheimageswereremoved
after
9/11),
London'sTowerBridgeand Big Ben,Italy'sLeaningTowerofPisa,
theEgyptian
theTaj Mahal,St.Mark'sSquare,and so on.
pyramids,
The park'sprimary
aimis tointroduce
visitors
to themainattractionsoftheworldoutsideChina.Thereareno references
toBeijing's
tourist
sitesin theWorldPark.51
The park'smainaudienceis China's
domestictourists.
WhenI visitedtheparkon thelastSundayof the
in
Mayholiday 2007,I did notencounteranyforeigners
queuingto
enterit.Mostvisitors
and groupsoftourists
fromother
werefamilies
partsofChinawhocame to Beijingovertheweek-long
holidayand
used theopportunity
tovisittheWorldPark.The worldpresented
in
theparkcatersto Chineseconsumers,
whocome to rest,relax,and
takein a pictureof the world.The choice of food on
effortlessly
International
Street(guojijie),adjacentto themaingateofthepark,
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ElenaBarabantseva
149
is limitedto varietiesof Chinesecuisine,such as Sichuan,Hunan,
The parkis presentedas a placewhere
Cantonese,and Shanghaiese.
visitors
learnabouttheoutsideworldin one step.Chinaservesas a
and constagewhileChinesepeople are the creators,
performers,
sumersoftheworld.
Likethepark,theConfucius
Institutes
havean educational
dimendirectedat foreignaudiencesand oversion,buttheyare primarily
seasChinese,withthesloganoflearning
aboutChinawithout
needing
to enterit.The ConfuciusInstitutes'
videooffers
carepromotional
selected
and
materials
Chinese
fully
messages
detailing
contemporary
societyand polity;thevideohighlights
majorand probablythebestChina.It also emphasizesthatthe
knownaspectsof contemporary
initiative
iscateredtothepersonalneedsofpeoplearoundtheworld,
needsthatwillbe metthrough
Butthe
qualifiedChineseinstructors.
audiencestargetedforeducationalpurposesare notpresentedas a
homogeneousgroup.
The intersection
of globaland local is especiallyevidentin The
wheretheworld,reconstructed
withina particular
is
World,
locality,
as
a
of
diverse
cultures
and
contested
identities.
The
presented place
filmdoes notpresentChinaas possessinga uniform
cultureeither.
There are references
to multipledialects,whichwillonlybe overcomeoncemigrants
cometogether
inBeijingand areforcedtospeak
standardized
Chinesetounderstand
each other.Therearealso referencesto culturalstereotypes
and diversemodesoflivingin different
partsof China.TaishengobservesthatShanxipeople are sourand
like"vinegar,"
and Wenzhoupeople havea "traveling
gene"in their
bloodand "relyon theirhandsto makemoney"(shouyirenkaoshou
.
chifan)
Towardthe end of the filmthe directorof theWorldParkinformsthetroupethatthenextChineseNewYear'sCCTVconcertwill
be broadcastfromtheparkand thatthey"willbe viewedbyone billion people worldwide."
Yet the Chinesepopulationtodayis estimatedtobe morethan1.3billion.The mainTV programoftheyear
iscloselywatchedbytheChineseoverseas
whototalmorethan30 millionpeople.The director's
ofthepotentialaudience
underestimate
oftheconcertnotonlyexcludesa vastnumberofpeople in China,
buttheofficially
highlyregardedoverseasChinese.Thushisremark
delimits
China'sworldtolessthanthatpresented
in theChineseofficialdiscourse.
By educatingthe worldabout China and tellingthe Chinese
abouttheworld,theConfucius
Institute's
videoand the
promotional
filmTheWorld
intersected
producemultiple
imagesoftheworld.These
and influx.The
imagesaremultilayered,
conflicting,
heterogeneous,
worlddepictedin thepromotional
videoneedstoshow
contemporary
a better
ofChinatobe inlinewithworlddevelopments.
understanding
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150
vs.Order
Change
Fortheprotagonists
of TheWorld,
theworld,China,Beijing,and the
are
and
come
to recognizethiscomplexspaenmeshed, they
park
in
in
tiality theirownuniqueways spiteofthestrongpresenceofthe
state.
Conclusion
In TheWorld,
textmessagefromCun
whenXiaotaofindsthefarewell
on Taisheng'
s mobilephone,sheleaveshimand staysin theflatofa
friendfromtheparkwhogotmarriedand is awayon honeymoon.
notrealizing
findsand confronts
whathe has donewrong,
Taisheng,
- why?"
her: "Whatis wrong?You haveleftwithoutsayinggood-bye
Xiaotaorespondswithsilence.In thenextscenewe learnthatthere
and Xiaotaoand Taishengare carwasa gasleakin theblockofflats,
riedunconscious
or dead outsideand laidon theground.The filmis
over,thescreengoesblank,and thevoiceofTaishengasks:"Arewe
dead?"Xiaotao'svoicereplies:"No,itisjust thebeginning."
It is the
of
a
as
a
new
which
world,
beginning
theyexperience
sequenceof
constant
no
or
end.
with
clear
direction
beginnings
Everydayisa new
world(yitianyigeshijie)
forthemis thesame.
, althoughthesetting
The concludingremarkofthefilmexpressesthevisionofthemodern worldfoundin officialand popularvisualrepresentations:
a
worldalwaysin themakingthrough
mutualinfluences
and personal
experiences.
The depictions
oftheworldand China'splace in itin TheWorld
and theConfucius
Institute's
videochallengetreatments
promotional
oftheworldorderthathavebeen takenforgranted.Theyalso highand constant
overthemeaningofthe
lightthestruggles
negotiations
worldand China'splace in it thattakeplace in China at different
of and engagements
levels.China'sperceptions
withtheworldcannot be graspedbyassumingthatthe onlytraditional
notionof the
worldavailableto China is tianxiaand by examininghow China
international
conventions
adaptsto theWestern-dominated
imposed
on it.China'sinteractions
withtheworldare conditioned
bytheparticulareffects
oftimeand space.
China'sestablishement
of the ConfuciusInstitutes
aroundthe
worldand itspromotional
videoillustrate
howChinaevokesuniversallyrecognizedimages,norms,and practicesalongwithsometraditionalconceptstoconstruct
and projecta particular
to
imageofitself
to
China's
advanaudiences.
To
make
the
modern
world
work
foreign
and
tageand toproducea particular
placeforChinain it,traditional
modernnotionsare conflated.
oftheworldforthe
The experiences
inhabitants
oftheWorldParkinBeijingareregulated
andformalized
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ElenaBarabantseva
151
bythe designof theparkand itsregimeofwork,but theyare not
oftheparkand theproducers
solelya productofhowthearchitects
oftheshowsconfigure
it.Despitethestate-sponsored
and its
setting
and restrictions,
theexperiences
of theworldof
multiplelimitations
theworkers
oftheWorldParkareutterly
thoughconditioned
personal,
andeconomicfactors
toChina'sparticipabythesociopolitical
integral
tioninglobalprocesses.
Whilevisitors
totheparkcan onlysee aspects
of theworldthatare selectively
live
there,performers
represented
theirdailyperformances
andexperiences
atthepark.Through
through
theiremotions,
andshows,
relationships,
dailyencounters,
theynotonly
and
it.
And
ifthewhole
the
world
but
also
craft
live
so
even
imagine
to a particular
it
is
worldis restricted
place,
performed
differently
ofwayseveryday.
and experiencedin a variety
The visualnarratives
in both the promotionalvideo and The
to
as
an
essentialaspectoftheworldexperienced
World
point change
in China.The worldis changingand so is China'splace in it. It is
as theprotherefore
tolearnandunderstand
Chinabetter,
important
motionalvideotellsus. On theotherhand,theinteraction
between
in
and
domestic
China
dynamics
changeChina's
globalprocesses
inprofound
These
sociocultural
conditions
ways.
changesandChina's
thealiencloserengagement
withtheworldaremadepossiblethrough
ationofmanyat theverycenterofthechangesalongwiththosewho
cannotorwillnotadaptto theever-changing
world.
Notes
at theFirstInternational
ConEarlierversions
ofthisarticlewerepresented
and Multiculturalism,
Bilbao,26-29
gresson ChineseStudies:Immigration
and CulturalFlowsin
November
2008and theconference
Cosmopolitanism
EastAsia,Manchester,
21-22 May2009. I wouldliketo thankXiangBiao,
A. Callahan,DavidG. Goodman,StephenHutchings,
William
ShogoSuzuki,
oftheManchester
CentreforInternational
Politicscoland theparticipants
loquiumheldon 22 April2009fortheirusefulcomments.
1. The classicalstudywasa collaborative
volumeeditedbyJohnK. FairOrder:
Traditional
China's
Relations
World
bank,TheChinese
Foreign
(Cambridge,
MA:HarvardUniversity,
haveaddressedthe
1968).Sincethenmanywritings
Chineseworldorderand China'sperceptionofwhereit fitsin theworld.
300 Years
(New
Policy
TheyincludeMarkMancali,ChinaattheCentre:
ofForeign
York:FreePress,1983);LowellDittmer
andSamuelS. Kim,eds.,China'sQuest
Press,1993);LydiaH. Liu,
(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversity
forNational
Identity
TheClashofEmpires:
TheInvention
Making(CamofChinain ModernWorld
F.Kornberg
andJohnR.
Press,2004);Judith
bridge,MA:HarvardUniversity
2nded. (Boulder:LynneRienner,
Faust,Chinain World
Politics,
2005),David
UK:
Scott,ChinaStandsUp: ThePRC and theInternational
System
(Abington,
F.Blanchard,
eds.,"Harmonious
2007),SujianGuo andJean-Marc
Routledge,
andChina'sNewForeign
World'"
Books,2008).
(Lanham,MD: Lexington
Policy
This content downloaded from 130.225.198.202 on Tue, 25 Feb 2014 06:30:31 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
152
Changevs. Order
"APreliminary
inFairbank,
note1,p. 1.
2. TohnK Fairbank,
Framework,"
3. Ibid.,p. 4.
4. Kornberg
and Faust,note1,p. 7.
5. Scott,note1,p. 8.
6. Forexample,see WilliamA. Callahan,"NationalInsecurities:
Humiliand ChineseNationalism,"
Alternatives
ation,Salvation,
29,no. 2 (2004): 199and Security:
218; WilliamA. Callahan,"History,
Identity
Producingand
in
Nationalism
Critical
Asian
Studies
no.
2 (2006): 179China,"
38,
Consuming
208; and Peter Hays Gries,China'sNewNationalism:
Pride,Politicsand Diplom-
ofCalifornia
Press,2004).
acy(Berkeley:
University
7. For debateson thepersistence
ot traditional
culturein Chinas forsee MichaelNg-Quinn,
"NationalIdentity
in Premodern
China:
eignpolicy,
Formation
in Dittmer
andRoleEnactment,"
and Kim,note1,pp. 32-61.For
the argumenton China's incongruity
withthe sovereign-territory-based
international
see Chih-yu
World
Politics
Shih,Navigating
system,
Sovereignty:
Lostin China(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,
2003),p. 27.
8. Cosmology
can be understood
as "a wayofacting,thinking,
and credistinctive
whatishuman,
atinga world,including
waysofbeingandthinking
of organizingspace and of calibrating
time."See StephanFeuchtwang,
"BetweenCivilizations:
One Side of a Dialogue,"Sodai Identities
12, no. 1
(2006): 79-94,p. 85.
9. In additionto thestudiesmentionedin note 1 above,see Chih-yu
Shih, China'sJustWorld:TheMorality
ofChinese
FordgnPolicy(Boulder: Lynne
note7, whobuilds
Rienner,1993) and Chih-yu
Shih,Navigating
Sovereignty,
on thisargument.
10. Zhao Tingyang,
Tianxiatixi:Shijiezhiduzhexue
daolun(The Tianxia
a
for
the
World
Institution)
System: Philosophy
(Nanjing:Jiangsujiaoyu
chubanshe,
2005), and Zhao Tingyang,
"Rethinking
Empirefroma Chinese
"All-under-Heaven"
Sodai
Identities
12,no. 1 (2006):29-41.
(Tianxia),
Concept
11.The first
senseoftianxia
is geographical
and refers
toall ofthelands
includedin this
(as wereknownto Chinese)underheaven.Buttheterritory
sensedidnothaveclearboundaries,
as theycouldbe extendedandrestricted
inaccordancewiththevictories
anddefeats
oftheConfucian
rulersoftheallunder-heaven.
The secondsenseof tianxiais thepopularsentiments
of the
theall-under-heaven,
whichthrough
theirtransformation
peopleinhabiting
andsubmission
totheruleoftheConfucian
orderbestowed
tothe
legitimacy
rulers.In thethird,
is thesystem
famsense,tianxia
ethnopolitical
promoting
thatcan eventually
serveas a modelforan alternative
ily-like
relationships
worldinternational
theproblemsofthecontempoorganization
addressing
raryworld.
note7, p. 29.
12.Chih-yu
Shih,Navigating
Soverdgnty,
13.William
A.Callahan,"Chinese
Visions
ofWorldOrder:Post-hegemonic
or a NewHegemony?"
International
Studies
Review
10 (2008): 749-761at 754.
14. Daniel A. Bell, China'sNew Confudanism:
Politicsand Everyday
Lifein
a Changing
Press,2008), p. 29;
(Princeton,
Sodety
NJ:PrincetonUniversity
Boundariesand Confucianism,"
in DanielA. Bell,
JosephChan,"Territorial
PoliticalEthics(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversity
ed., Confudan
Press,
2008),p. 81.
15.WangGungwu.
"Chinaand theInternational
Order:SomeHistorical
inWangGungwuand ZhengYongnian,
eds.,ChinaandtheNew
Perspectives,"
International
Order
(London:Routledge,
2008),p. 23.
This content downloaded from 130.225.198.202 on Tue, 25 Feb 2014 06:30:31 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Elena Barabantseva 153
Nationalism:
toLateCommunist
16.WuGuoguang."FromPost-imperial
fromMayFourthtothelate1990s,"
Historical
ChangeinChineseNationalism
ThirdWorld
29,no. 3 (2008): 467-482at pp. 473-474.
Quarterly
17. Kai-wingChow,"Narrating
Nation,Race, and NationalCulture:
Nationhood
in ModernChina,"in Constructing
The ManzuIdentity
Imagining
in Modern
EastAsia,Kai-Wing
Chow,KevinM. Doak, and PoshekFu, eds.
ofMichiganPress,2001),pp. 47-83at p. 49; Chih-yu
(AnnArbor:University
note 7, p. 27.
Shih, NavigatingSovereignty,
18. SamuelS. Kim,"ChineseForeignPolicyin Theoryand Practice,in
Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and theWorld:ChineseForeignPolicyFaces theNew
Millennium
Press,1998),pp. 3-33 at p. 10 listsfourlevels
(Boulder:Westview
"thetoplevel,poliofvariablescomposingChina'sforeignpolicystructure:
des(mostvariable),thesecondlevel,prindples
(mostvocal),thethirdlevel,
or revisedeveryfiveyearsat thepartycongresses)
thebasicline(reaffirmed
,
conand nationalidentity
and thefourthlevel,worldview
(most
(shijie
guan)
"
.
stant) [italicsin theoriginal]
19. 'JiangZeminCallsforFairNewWorldOrder,"ChinaDaily,13 April
1
13/eng2000041
3_3889
2000,http://english.people.com.cn/english/200004/
inAllenCarlson,Uni.html.See moreon China'sapproachesto sovereignty
in theReform
withtheWorld:SecuringChineseSoverdgnty
fyingChina,Integrating
CA:Stanford
Era(Stanford,
Press,2005) andAllenCarlson,"More
University
and InterthanJustSayingNo: China'sEvolving
Approachto Sovereignty
in
and RobertS. Ross,eds.,NewDirections
vention"in AlastairIanJohnston
CA: StanfordUniversity
theStudyofChina'sFordgnPolicy(Stanford,
Press,
2006),pp. 217-240.
see Chun20. Formoreon theoriginsand usesoftheconceptofshijie,
of Shi-Jie:
SeveralCosmoand Construction
Mei Chuang,"TheTranslation
in EarlyTwentieth
in the DiscursiveField of Westernization
politanisms
at
20 (2006): 59-108,especially
China,"Soochow
ofSociology
Journal
Century
me to thissource.
pp. 76-77.1 thankWeiYinfordirecting
PartII: The CosmopocitedPhengCheah,"Introduction
21. Clifford
Thinkin PhengCheahand BruceRobbins,eds.,Cosmopolitics:
litical-Today,"
ofMinnesotaPress,
theNation(Minneapolis:
University
beyond
ingandFeeling
1997),p. 21.
22. Ibid.,pp. 23-24.
23. Otheracademicshave expresseda similaropinion.For example,
ChineseAmericannewConfucianscholarTu Weiming
arguesforuniversalits
is needed to universalise
"A globalperspective
izationof Confucianism:
'Towardsa ThirdEpochofConfuTu Weiming,
concerns";
(Confucianism)
cian Humanism,"in Tu Weiminged., Way,Learningand Politics:Essayson the
of EastAsianPhilosophies,
Intellectual
(Singapore:The Institute
Confudan
at thePeople'sUniver1989),p. 159.Similarly,
KangXiaoguang,a professor
oftheChinese
arguedbothforConfucianisation
sityin Beijing,has strongly
it.See KangXiaoguang,"Wo
and forexporting
societyand politicalsystem
weishenme
zhuzhang'ruhua':guanyuzhongguoweilaizhengzhifazhande
reA conservative
sikao"(Whydo I supportConfucianisation?
baoshouzhuyi
on China'sfuturepoliticaldevelopment),
flection
2004,availableat http://
www.tecn.cn/data/detail.php?id=4908.
24. ChinaNationalOfficeforTeachingChineseas a ForeignLanguage,
no date,http://www.eduInstitute
to the'Confucius
"Introduction
Project,"
chinaembassy.org.uk/english/confucius.htm.
This content downloaded from 130.225.198.202 on Tue, 25 Feb 2014 06:30:31 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
154
vs.Order
Change
Institutes
toReach500NextYear,"
ofConfucius
Worldwide
25. "Number
People'sDaily,13 March 2009, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/
3754.html.
90776/90883/661
on the Paradox of Globalisation:
26. See Nick Knight,"Reflecting
China'sSearchforCulturalIdentity
China:AnInternational
and Coherence,"
of theintellectual
de4, no. 1 (2006): 26-27fora detailedoverview
Journal
on Chineseculture.
batesin Chinaon theimpactofglobalization
notions
27.NotonlyhaveChineseleadersadoptedConfucianism-inspired
- echoedinsuchterms
intheirpolitical
lexicon
as "Harmonious
and
Society"
Shehui
but
it
is
now
claimed
that
Mao
was
a
of
ConfuXiaokang
practitioner
cianism.RangXiaoguang,
to LinBiao'sfollowing
characterisnote23,refers
ticof Mao in the "Summary
of Project571": "Mao is wearingthe skinof
thedoctrines
and applying
ofConfucianism,
themethMarxism,
practicing
ods ofQin ShiHuang."
Nationalism
in Contemporary
China(London:
28. Guo Yingjie,Cultural
2004),p. 62.
Routledge,
29. Bell,note14,p. 9.
30. One oftheexamplesofthistrendis Sentiments
ontheAnalects
ofConbooksin China
fudus,a bookbyYuDan,whichtoppedthelistofbestselling
fortwomonthsin summer2008.The bookwasbasedon Yu Dan's lectures
broadcastin a popularTV serieson China CentralTV. See JohnLiu,
"Confucius
TV Spin-Off
LeadsChina'sNon-Fiction:
Top 10Books,"Bloomberg
News,17July2008,http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601088&:
sid=a2KZVfUqxteg&refer=muse.
31. ShuyuKongquotedin Liu,note30.
ofConfucius,"
32. "ChinaUnveilsStandardPortrait
24 SeptemXinhua,
ber2006,http://www.china.orff.cn/enfirlish/2006/Sep/182087.htm
33. The communist
rhetoric
is especially
evidentin thematerials
distributedbytheChineseCommunist
For
an
Party.
aptexample,see Hu Jintao's
totheSeventeenth
National
Report
Congress
oftheCommunist
Party
ofChina,15October2007,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/24/content_6938749
.htm.
34.YenChing-Hwang,
"Ch'ingChanging
ImagesoftheoverseasChinese
AsianStudies
(1644-1912),"Modern
15,no. 2 (1981): 264.
35. Lu observesanothercollisionofConfucian
valueswithrecently
promotedmodernnorms.He notesthatthetermxiaokang
society(moderately
well-off
beenwidely
acclaimedin Chinesepoliti, whichhasrecently
society)
cal rhetoric,
wasmentionedalongsidethetermdatong
in TheBookofRites.
The bookis attributed
to Confucius,
inferior
wherexiaokang
wasconsidered
to datong.
See SheldonH. Lu, Chinese
and GlobalBiopolitics:
Studies
Modernity
inLiterature
and VisualCulture
ofHawaiiPress,2007),
(Honolulu:University
p. 200.
36. "Protection
ofChineseLanguageUrged,"People's
27 May
DailyOnline,
2004, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200405/27/eng20040527_144542
.html
37. MichaelJ.Shapiro,Cinematic
Political
Race,Nation
Thought:
Narrating
andGender
Press,1999),p. 15.
(NewYork:NewYorkUniversity
38. MichaelJ.Shapiro,Methods
andNations:
Cultural
Governance
and the
Subject
2004),p. 49.
(London:Routledge,
Indigenous
39."Interview
with
Senses
JiaZhangke,"
byValerie
Jaffee,
ofCinema,
http://
www.sensesof
cinema.com/contents/04/32/jia_zhane;ke.html.
40. Ibid.
This content downloaded from 130.225.198.202 on Tue, 25 Feb 2014 06:30:31 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ElenaBarabantseva155
41. Lisa Rofel,DesiringChina:Experiments
in Neoliberalism,
and
Sexuality,
PublicCulture
Press,2007),p. 129.
(Durham,NC: DukeUniversity
ofmodernity
as
42. Shapiro,note37,p. 33,evokesVirilio'scharacteristic
in defining
to mobility"
itas an "aspectofcontemporary
"obligation
power."
in epic stories
43. The fictional
flying
carpetappearsmostprominently
and others.
oftheMiddleEast,suchas OneThousand
andOneNights
44. The linkbetweenholdinga Chinesepassportand freedomis espea Tibetanpoetlivciallyapparentin therecently
popularizedcaseofWoeser,
theChinesegovernment
foritstreatment
ingin Chinawhoopenlycriticized
to
herfrom
ofTibetandwasrepeatedly
refuseda passport,
allegedly prevent
abroad (Assodated
activities
Press,23
government
engagingin anti-Chinese
confiscatepassportsof Chinese
routinely
July2008). Chineseauthorities
tostopthemfromgoingon Hajj toMeccaindeMuslims,
especially
Uyghurs,
fromthepilgrimage
organizedbythestate,RadioFreeAsia,27June
pendently
2007,availableat http://www.rfa.org/
english/uyghur/uyghur_passports-2007
0627.html.
inAnthony
45.Zygmunt
Bauman,"OnLivingina LiquidModernWorld,"
Bauman(London:Routledge,
Elliott,
ed., TheContemporary
2007),p. 108.
as a Cul'Transitional
46. SusanneBrandtstädter,
Spaces:Postsocialism
turalProcess,"Critique
27,no. 2 (2007): 135.
ofAnthropology
47. Rofel,note41,p. 129.
48. Arendtelaborateson theconditionofalienationfromthemodern
forcertaingroupsoftheirplacein the
thedeprivation
world:"Expropriation,
worldand theirnakedexposureto theexigenciesof life,createdboththe
this
of transforming
originalaccumulationof wealthand the possibility
constituted
theconditions
labor.Thesetogether
wealthintocapitalthrough
See HannahArendt,TheHumanConfortheriseof a capitalist
economy."
of ChicagoPress,1958),p. 254. I thankPheng
dition(Chicago:University
me to thissource.
Cheahfordirecting
49. Zygmunt
Bauman, Fallingin and out ofLove, in Elliott,note45,
p. 102.
theplanwasto buildseveralWorldThemeParksaround
50. Originally
forChinesepeople to geta glimpseof the
Chinato createan opportunity
The two surviving
ones are BeijingWorldPark and
world'sattractions.
Shenzhen'sWindowoftheWorld.Shenzhenand Beijingare also twoofthe
in China.Withthegrowing
workers
numberof
maindestinations
formigrant
forChinesepeople to travelabroadtheneed in theseparks
opportunities
inChengdu
Suchwasthefateofthesimilar
becamelessrelevant.
parkinitiative
Politics
of theCentreforInternational
(I thankan anonymous
participant
.
Colloquiumon 22 April2009forthisinformation)
51. Thereis a smallreplicaofa sectionoftheGreatWallin theparkin
Asia.
thesectionrepresenting
This content downloaded from 130.225.198.202 on Tue, 25 Feb 2014 06:30:31 AM
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