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Graduate Studies
1963
The Effects of Cooking Temperature and Stage of
Doneness on Some Factors in Broiled Beef
Carmencita Salvosa
Utah State University
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Salvosa, Carmencita, "The Effects of Cooking Temperature and Stage of Doneness on Some Factors in Broiled Beef " (1963). All
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THE EFFECTS OF COOKING TEMPERATURE AND STAGE OF
DONENESS ON SOME FACTORS IN BROILED BEEF
by
Carmencita Salvosa
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Food and Nutrition
.
UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY·
Logan, Utah
1963
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my major professor,
Dr. Margaret B. Merkley, for her patience, untiring personal interest
and efforts without which I would still be working on this thesis now.
To Dean Phyllis Snow and Dr. Ethelwyn B. Wilcox, I am grateful for
their generous help and suggestions throughout the study .
To Taylor Instrument Company, I would like to express my appreciation
for the loan of the multipoint potentiometer and the special thermometer .
To Dr. Rex Hurst I would like to express my thanks for help in the
statistical analyses.
I am indebted to all my friends for their true spirit in international
friendship .
Carmencita Salvosa
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Thiamine Retention
Thiamine retention after broiling
Soluble Proteins .
Denaturation
Effects of heat on nutritive value of proteins
5
6
6
Weight Losses
Stage of cookery
Cooking temperature
Tenderness
Cooking time and tempera tur e
Internal temperature
9
10
10
11
11
12
Press Fluid
Cooking of Meat
14
METHOD OF PROCEDURE
15
Preliminary Tests
Selection of Meat
Preparation for Cooking
Broiling
Chemical Tests
Preparation for sampling
Thiamine
Soluble proteins
15
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
Physical Tests
Weight losses
Moisture
Tenderness
Press fluid
Flavor test for preference
Other Tests
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Thiamine Retention
Effect of cooking temperature
Effect of cooking time
Effect of thickness of steaks
Soluble Proteins .
Effect of cooking temperature
Effect of cooking time .
Effect of degree of doneness
Weight Loss
Effect of cooking temperature
Effect of degree of doneness
Moisture Retention
Effect of cooking temperature
Effect of degree of doneness
Tenderness Scores
Effect of cooking temperature
Effect of degree of doneness
Effect of different muscles
Press Fluid
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
21
21
21
30
30
33
33
33
35
35
35
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
38
41
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
of cooking temperature
of degree of doneness
on tenderness
on weight loss
Flavor
Cooking Time
Rate of Heat Penetration
Statistical Analyses
41
43
43
43
45
46
46
49
SUMMARY.
50
LITERATURE CITED
53
APPENDIX
61
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
1.
Thiamine content of beef round and sirloin (mg/100 gm wet
basis)
2. Results of preliminary tests on charcoal broiler
3.
4.
5.
6.
4
16
Effect of temperature on some factors in top sirloin steaks
cooked rare
29
Thiamine retention as r elated to cooking time and stage of
doneness
31
Effect of degree of doneness on some factors in top sirloin
steaks broiled at 350° F
32
Tenderness values for r ec tus femoris and vastus lateralis
muscles
40
7. Juiciness as related to cooking temperatures
41
8.
Press fluid as related to tenderness
44
9.
Press fluid as related to weight loss
44
10.
Average scores of four judges for flavor test
45
11.
Cooking temperature as related to degree of doneness and
cooking time
47
12 . Time table for broiling sirloin steaks
13.
Effect of temperature on some factors in top sirloin steaks
cooked rare
62
63
14 . Top sirloin steaks cooke d at 350° F
66
15 . Hedonic scale
68
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page
Thiamine retention in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatures .
28
Thiamine retention in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees
of doneness at 350° F
28
Soluble protein retention in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at
three temperatures
34
Soluble protein retention in top sirloin steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F
34
5. Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatures
36
6 . Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350° F
36
Moisture in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350° F .
39
Shea r force values in top sirloin steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 35 0° F
39
Press fluid in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatures
42
Press fluid in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350° F
42
Heat curves representing temperatures of each of the three
thermocouples
48
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
viii
LIST OF PLATES
Page
Plate
1.
One inch thi ck top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatur es
2 . One in ch thic k top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350° F .
3.
One and one - half inc h thi ck top sirloin steaks cooked rare at
three te mpe ratures .
4 . One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F
22
23
24
25
Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatures .
26
6 . Two inch thick top sirloin stea ks cooked to two degrees of
don eness at 350° F
27
5.
viii
LIST OF PLATES
Page
Plate
1.
2.
3.
One inch thick top s irloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatures .
22
One inch thi ck top strloin steaks cooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350° F
23
One and one-half in h thick top sirloin steaks cooked rar e at
three temperatures
24
4 . One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F
25
Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
t emperatur es .
26
6 . Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to two degrees of
don eness at 350° F .
27
5.
INTRODUCTION
Broiling is cooking tender cuts of meat by radiant heat from hot coals ,
a gas fl ame, or an electric element. Steaks a nd chops for broiling a r e from
1 to 2 inches thick.
Broiling as a method of cooking meat is not new, but the directions for
the process are the result of individual trial a nd err or testing and are often
in conflict.
Current interest in indoor and outdoor broiling, particularly in
Western United States , emphasizes the need for better information.
There
is no measuring device for surface h eat during broiling and thus littl e research on the relationship of surface t emperatur e, degree of doneness and
cooking time.
Little has be en done to investigate the effect of a change in
rate of heat transfer on th e physical a nd che mical reactions whi ch occur during broiling.
Although some work has been done on the effects of diffe rent cooking
methods on weight loss es, tenderness, palatability , a nd thiamine content of
beef, no reports were found rel ating cut of m eat , t emperature at the surface
of the meat, a nd degree of doneness to other factors during broiling.
The existing literature c ontained r elatively littl e information on changes
produced in broil ed beef.
Most of the data available were indefinite , lacking
precise information regar ding time and temperature.
Timetables for broil-
ing, like roasting , varied in directions given and frequently stated the time
2
of cooking in minutes per pound.
At best this can serve only as a poor guide
because the amount of fat and bone present, the state of the meat, whether
solid or ground, the amount of connective tissue present, and the thickness
of the meat influence the rate of heat penetration.
This initial study was conducted on beef using charcoal as the source of
heat, since the heat of the charcoal could be controlled at different temperatures.
A high, medium and low temperature were used for cooking and the
meat was cooked to three degrees of doneness (rare, medium and well-done).
In this research a potentiometer devised by Taylor Instrument Company
to measure the temperature at the surfaces of the meat and internally was
used.
Thus it was possible to accurately measure the temperature.
An experimental model of a coil-type thermometer was also made by
Taylor Instrument Company and its use offered, for the first time, the possibility of determining the temperature at the surface of the meat.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of surface
temperature during broiling to stage of doneness and to cooking time on the
following factors in broiled sirloin steaks: thiamine retention, soluble protein content, weight loss, moisture retention, changes in tenderness, juiciness and flavor.
It was hoped that the findings might be of use in the develop-
ment of a thermometer to be used for broiling much as oven and meat
thermometers are used now for roasting meats.
Also, an attempt was made
to develop time-temperature charts for use in broiling.
3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Thiamine Retention
A review of literature indicated a wide variation in the thiamine content
of raw beef.
Cover et al. (1944, 1947) stated that since many cuts of meat
contained a large number of muscles, muscle variation could not be excluded.
They added that animal variation may account for some of the differences.
Table 1 shows the results of some studies on the thiamine content of beef
round and sirloin.
Arnold and Elvehjem (1939), Rice and Beuk (1945), and Beadle et al.
(1943) concluded that the rate and extent of destruction were related both to
the time and temperature of healing or cooking.
Schweigert et al. (1944) and Lushbough et al. (1959) reported that thiamine and pyridoxine were more readily destroyed by heat processing or
standard cooking procedures than were other B-vitamins.
Lushbough et al. (1962), in their work on thiamine retention in meats
after various heat treatments, stated that if the maximum amount of thiamine
were to be retained in meat, cooking or processing should involve the us e of
the lowest temperatures a nd shortest times possible.
Thiamine content of
beef round cooked to the same degree of doneness at three temperatures decreased significantly at tbe highest temperature.
4
Table 1.
Thiamine content of beef round and sirloin (mg/100 gm wet basis)
Reference
Round
Raw
Cooked
Sirloin
Cooked
Raw
0. 450a
Micke ls e n et al. (1939a)
Waisman and Elvehjem (1941)
0.900a
Cheldelin a nd Williams (1942)
0. 063
0. 450a
Campbell e t al. (1946)
0. 030
0. 039
Watt and Merrill (1950)
0. 080
0. 070
National Liv estock and Meat
Boa rd (1950)
0. 080
o. nb
L e ve rton a nd Odell (1958)
Dawson e t a l. (1959)
0. 19 - 1. 20c
Noble a nd Gomez (1960)
0. 102a
aM01stur e tree .
brat- fr ee .
'Tat-fr ee; average for loin, rib and round .
0. 084a
Thiamine retention after broiling
The existing literature contained relatively little information on the
thiamine retention in broiled beef.
According to Mickelsen et al. (1939b), Cover et al. (1944), and Tucker
et al. (1946) thiamine retention was related to degree of doneness.
Farrer (1955) stated that although shorter cooking time and lower cooking temperatures favored thiamine retention , a combination of high temperature and short time might lead to smaller loss es than found with lower
temperatures a nd longer cooking times.
The National Livestock and Meat Board (1950) stated that thiamine had
a retention of 80 percent in broiling.
Morgan (1960) in reviewing the effects
of home preparation on the nutrient content of foods of animal origin reported
a retention of 60 to 86 percent.
In sirloin steaks pan broiled to a well-done stage for 18 minutes,
Campbell et al. (1946) reported that 13 percent of the thiamine was lost in
cooking.
The cooking temperature and internal temperature at doneness
were not given.
Cover and Smith (1956) studied the effect of dry heat cooking on vitamin
retention in meat from beef animals of different levels of fleshing.
They
reported that loin and bottom round steaks broiled at 392° F for 35 minutes
had thiamine retentions of 56 percent and 61 percent, respectively.
Soluble Proteins
Denaturation
The effect of high temperatures on proteins is almost entirely one of
denaturation.
According to Bull (1949) the most generally accepted theory of
protein denaturation is that of Wu who proposed that denaturation be looked
upon as a change from the unique and specific structure of the native protein
to the much more randomly arranged denatured form.
The peptide chains in
the native molecule exist in a highly ordered structure and, when the protein
molecule is denatured, this precise folding of the peptide chains is destroyed .
A later definition was by Neurath et al. (1944): "Denaturation is any
non-proteolytic modification of the unique structure of a native protein , giving
rise to definite changes in chemical, physical , or biological properties."
This definition excludes hydrolysis of the peptide bonds.
Putnam (1953) interpreted the phenomenon in terms of a theory of protein structure.
According to him, all the evidence indicates that denatura-
tion is a physical or intramolecular rearrangement rather than a chemical
alteration of native protein structure and that it led to a change in specific
spatial configuration without hydrolysis of primary covalent bonds.
Heat is the first known, most common , and most widely investigated
denaturing agent.
Among the important changes occurring in various kinds
of denaturation of most proteins are the following which may be evaluated
quantitatively: (1) decrease in solubility, (2) loss of biological activity, (3)
increased reactivity of constituent groups, and (4) changes in molecular
shape or size.
According to Putnam (1953) , the coagulation was a secondary phenomenon although heat-denatured proteins readily aggregated.
Diminished solu-
bility was the most familiar criterion of heat denaturation, and measurement
either of the amount of soluble proteins remaining or of the precipitate served
as a useful quantitative index.
The coagulated protein was unsuited for most
physical or chemical analyses.
Anson (1945) stated that heat coagulation of isoelectric proteins took
place about 600 times faster when the temperature was raised 50° F.
Mitchell et al. (1949) and Rice and Beuk (1953) found that the effect of heat
on food proteins depended upon the temperature attained within the food.
A review of the literature showed only one report on the effect of heat
on soluble proteins of beef muscle.
Ginger et al. (1954) found that cooking
caused a very marked decrease in the amount of soluble protein nitrogen
present and resulted in the liberation of some free amino nitrogen.
Effects of heat on nutritive value of proteins
Some of the work on raw and cooked beef indicated that home cooking
methods had little effect on nutritive value.
This was observed by the follow-
ing workers: Seegers et al. (1936), Swanson and Nelson (1938), Mitchell
et al. (1949), McBride et al. (1951), and Clark et al. (1955).
In a study on raw and cured pork, Beuk (1948) found that neither
standard home cooking methods nor commercial heat processing methods
8
destroyed significant amounts of amino ac ids oth er than cys tine . Studies of
Neilands et al. (1949) and Dunn et al. (1949) supported these findings . Similar results were found by Griswold (1951) who also reporte d that excessive
h eat l owe red the nutritive value of m eat protein , probably by forming e nzym e
resistant linkages .
There were some indications that if the temperature of processing ex ceeded cert a in limits, i.e. , about 212° F, the nutritive value of meat proteins was impaired more seriously.
This was noted in the studies of Morgan
and Kern (1934) , Seegers (1935) , Seegers and Mattill (1935) , Poling et a l.
(1944), Mayfield and Hedrick (1949) , Beuk et a l. (1950) , and Wheeler and
Morgan (1958) .
Rice and Beuk (1953) stated that when a reduction in protein quality
occurred it could be attributed to one or more of th e following caus es:
1.
Actua l destruction of one or mor e of the essential amino acids.
2.
Formation of inte r- or intramolecular bonds which ar e r esistant to
digestive en zymes.
This may result in the inability of the animal to diges t
the protein or it may be reflected only in the biological value of the fragments
which are a bsorbed.
3.
Alteration in the rate at which the various amino acids are r el eased
fr om the protein , resulting in mixtures of amino acids less efficient for
m eta bolism and assimilation.
According to McHenry (1957) moderately cooked meat was digested and
a bsorbed more thoroughly than raw or overcooked meat; the moderately
cooked product had, ounce for ounce, a greater nutritive value . Clifford
9
(1930) also found that cooked beef was digested more rapidly than raw beef.
Results similar to those of McHenry (1957) and Clifford (1930) were
found by Schroeder et al. (1961) who reported that any ordinary heating of
meat improved the nutritional quality of the protein.
The methods of heating
used in ordinary cookery did not greatly diminish the nutritive value of meat
proteins.
On the other hand, prolonged high temperatures appeared to de-
crease their over-all utilization.
Weight Losses
Weight losses in meat have been studied by a number of workers.
In
general the higher the internal temperature of the meat or the stage of doneness and the higher the cooking temperature , the greater the losses.
Very little work has been done on the weight losses of beef during
broiling.
However, the literature showed that the factors affecting th e
shrinkage of meat were generally in agreement.
Stage of cookery
According to Hughes (1955), shrinkage in cooked meats started at
140° F.
The higher the internal temperature of the meat or the stage of
doneness, the greater the shrinkage.
Similar findings were noted by the
following workers: Latzke (1930), Child and Satorius (1937), Cover (1937 and
1943), Satorius and Child (1938), Tucker et al. (1946), Aldrich and Lowe
(1954), Clark et al. (1955), Cover et al. (1937 and 1962), and Visser et al.
(1960).
10
It was observed by Cover et a l. (1962) that greater weight losses were
associated with drier and less tender meat.
Cooking temperature
The literature showed that weight losses were greater with high er cooking temperatures.
This was observed by the following workers: Cline et al.
(1930), Alexander (1930), Child and Satorius (1938), Cover et al. (1949),
Lowe (1955) , West and Wood (1959), Bramblett et al. (1959), and Lushbough
et al. (1962) .
Griswold (1955) found that when the time of cooking was unusually long
at the lower temperature, the weight loss es during cooking were high .
Lowe
et a l. (1952) had similar findings in their study with veal leg roasts.
Tenderness
According to Harrison et al. (1959) tenderness in cooked meat was the
total effect of composition of mus cle, aging before cooking , heat coagu lation
of muscle fiber proteins, and the changes which took pla::e in the connective
tissues.
Ramsbottom et al. (1945) reported that in as much as connective tissue
and fatty tissue were made more tender by cooking, the decreas e in tenderness of muscle was associated with factors such as coagulation and denaturation of muscle proteins together with varying degrees of shrinkage and hardening of muscle fibers.
11
Winegarden et al. (1952) concluded that cooking steaks a nd roasts to
rare or medium-done (131 ° to 149° F) brought about littl e, if any, c hange in
the connectiv e tissues of the muscles . At 131° F little change occurred with
short periods of heating, but with higher temper atur e s , physic al changes
occurred rapidly.
During heating, the collagenous tissues lost weight ,
softened, shrank in length, and increas ed in thickness .
Rams bottom et al. (1945) found that collagenous tissue changed considerably on cooking but elastic tissue cha nged l ess.
Cooking time and temperature
Cooking time, Cover (1941) pointed out, was one factor in det ermining
tenderness of meat.
Experimenting with paired roasts (one roasted with a
skewer and the other without), she found that long , slow cooking of unskewered
roasts increased tenderness of m eat.
In a later work Cover (1943) compared
th e effect of extremely slow rates of h eat penetr ation to tenderness of beef
r oas ts.
She fo und , with paired roa sts , that those cooked at 17 6° F consist-
ently had lower shear values than thos e cooked a t 257° F .
Internal t emperature
Top a nd bottom round steaks were cooked by Clark et al. (1955) by
oven-braising to 176° F, in a pr essure saucepan unde r 10 and 15 pounds
pr essure to the same internal temperatur e, and under 15 pounds pr essure to
234 ° F. Top a nd bottom round steaks cooked to 234 ° F were significantly
mor e tender than those cooked to 176° F.
It was concluded that the internal
12
temperatures to which meat was cooked were more important in determining
tenderness than were methods of cooking studied.
Hood et al. (1955) noted no significant differences in tenderness of biceps
femoris cuts between meat roasted to 160° F and that to 176° F.
When semi-
tendinosus muscle was cooked to thr ee internal temperatures (136°, 153° ,
and 167° F) by Satorius and Child (1938) , the diameter_ of the muscle fibers
decreas ed and tenderness increased up to 153° F.
Between 153° and 167° F
the muscle fiber diameter did not change but tenderness decreased.
Visser et a l. (1960), in a study of various beef muscles cooked in deep
fat to 212° and 230° F, showed that an increa se in internal temperatur e
tended to increase tenderness scores, but not significantly.
Cover et al. (1962) observed that beef steaks cooked by dry heat became
less tender with increasing internal temperature.
Smith (1961) found similar
results in he r study on venison.
Press Fluid
On the whole, subjective juiciness and the amount of press fluid did not
appear to represent quite the same thing.
Satorius and Child (193 8), Hall
et al. (1944), Hardy and Noble (1945) , and Gaddis et al. (1950) found no relation betw een press fluid and juiciness.
That temperature and l ength of cooking affect juiciness in meat was
established by Satorius and Child (19 38).
Similar results were noted by
Lowe et al. (1952), Siemers and Hanning (1953) , and Bramblett et al. (1959).
How ever, Child and Satorius (1938) noted that semit endinosus muscle heated
13
to a n internal temperature of 136° F (rare ) a t different oven temperatures
did not differ in press fluid or shear for ce.
Although low oven temperatures during roasting usually resulted in
lower cooking losses and juicier meat both cooking loss es and juic iness
were adversely affected if meat were held at low cooking t emperatur es for
very l ong periods
Griswold (1955) studied the effect of cooking beef r ound
roasted at two temperatures and found that meat roasted at 300° F was
superior in juiciness to that roasted at the lower t e mp erature.
Weir (1960) stated that tenderness a nd juic iness were closely related;
the more tender the meat , the more quickly the juices were rel eased by chewing and the juicier the meat appeared. Cooking procedure was perhaps the
most important factor influencing th e juic iness of cook ed meat.
In general,
those cooking procedures that resulted in the greatest retention of fluids and
fat yielded the juiciest meat.
For this reason juic iness usually varied in-
versely with cooking losses.
Rare meat is juicier than well-done meat.
Satorius and Child (19 38 )
found that both the total moisture and press fluid decreased with each increment in interior temperature except that there wa s no decrease in press
fluid between 136° and 153° F for beef roasts . Several workers , Hall (1944),
Cover a nd Shrode (1955), Clark et al. (1955) , Visser et a l. (1960) , a nd
Cover et al. (1962), also reporte d that meat becam e progressively l ess juicy
as its internal temperature increased .
14
Cooking of Meat
Cooking of meat is accomplished when the heat necessary to achieve
the desired changes has penetrated to the center of the cut being cooked.
Directions for cooking often state the time of cooking in terms of minutes per
pound.
Lowe (1955) stated that at best this served only as a poor guide for
the following factors affected the time required to cook meat or the rate of
heat penetration: (a) the method of cooking, (b) the cooking temperature , (c)
weight, surface area, and the shortest distance to the center of the thickest
portion of the meat , (d) degree of doneness , (e ) the composition of the meat,
(f) the degree of post mortem changes, and (g) the initial temperature of the
meat . It is for these reasons that cookbook directions vary greatly (See
Appendix, Table 12).
According to Tischer and Hurwicz (1957) the striation of muscles influ e nced heat transfer and chemical and microbiological changes . Th e
structure of muscles was such that it conducted impulses , fluids, and gases
in one direction much more readily than in another . It is well known, for
instance, that diffusion through the sheath of muscle cells was much slower
than it was through the length of the muscle . The structure of cells was
changed after the application of heat . The changes, no doubt, influenced the
passage of heat and the character and extent of chemical changes in animal
tissue .
15
METHOD OF PROCEDURE
Preliminary Tests
Preliminary studies were made to determine the broiling t e mp eratur es
used in elec tric ovens as a guide to those which might be us ed with a charcoa l broiler.
These studies were conducted on an el ectric Hotpoint r ange
(Model RB , RC, and RD, Catalogue Number 109RD6).
Four broiling temperatures (500°, 400°, 350°, a nd 300° F) at three
different distances (8, 6, and 4 inches) from the broiler were tested.
The
thermometer was placed on a rack, the heat regulator set at the temperature
being tested, the broiler turned on, the door l eft open as indicated for broiling , and a record made of the tempera tur e at the broiling surface in 1 minute
intervals.
For example , with the heat regulator at 500° F a nd the thermometer
8 inch es from the broiler, at the end of 10 minutes the temperature was
340° F; a t the end of 20 minutes the temperatur e was 430° F; and a t th e end
of 30 minutes the temperature wa s 460° F.
At 6 inches from the heat , the
temperatures at the end of 10, 20, and 30 minutes were 400°, 480°, and 520°
F, respectively.
At 4 inches from the heat, at the end of 10 , 20, a nd 30
minutes, the temperatures were 500° , 570°, a nd 580° F.
These and other
tests showed that it was impossible to regulate the heat at a constant
temperature.
16
Since it was impossible to control the heat of the electric broiler at a
given temperature, the preliminary study was done using a charcoa l broiler
where through manipulation of the height of the grill from the charcoal and
manipulation of the coals, it was possible to keep the heat comparatively
constant.
Tests were conducted to determine the internal temperatures at time of
turning and at the end of the broiling period, methods of controlling surface
temperature, approximate cooking time required, and to work out the definitions for the three degrees of doneness . The results of these tests are
shown below.
Table 2 . Results of preliminary tests on charcoal broiler
Internal
temperature
at turning
Final internal
temperature
Color in a
cross section
slice
Amount and
color of juice
85°-90° F
135°-140° F
Bright red
Abundant ; red
Medium
90°-110° F
155°-160° F
Pink or rose
Well-done
11o 0 -n2° F
165°-170° F
Not pink
Degree of
doneness
Rare
Less than rare;
lighter red
Very little;
yellowish
Selection of Meat
Top sirloin steaks of good grade, 1, 1 1/2, and 2 inches thick, were
selected as representative of the type of steaks generally charcoal broiled.
17
They were purchased from the meat counter of a Logan supermarket either
the morning of the cooking day or the night before.
In the latter case the
meat was loosely wrapped and stored at 40° F until needed .
Preparation for Cooking
Before cooking the width of the outer contour fat was measured in centimeters .
A raw meat sample, approximately 100 grams, was cut from the biceps femoris, gluteus medius, and gluteus profundus muscles for chemical
analyses.
This sample was placed in a labeled 250 milliliter beaker, cov-
ered with saran wrap, and refrigerated until chemical tests could be made
later in the day.
The fat was scored and the steak weighed in grams on a labeled weighed
aluminum pan.
The meat, covered with saran wrap to help prevent moisture
loss , was kept at refrigeration temperature until ready for cooking.
Thermocouples were sewed to the top and bottom surfaces and into the
center of each steak, using nylon thread and a straight needle . These thermocoupl es were attached to a multi-point potentiometer built by Taylor Instrument Company.
The steaks were placed in an aluminum pan over ice during
the sewing and registered between 35° and 45° F at the start of broiling.
Cooking was done outdoors on a charcoal grill.
Charcoal was ignited
with an el ectric starter. It was allowed to burn until gray and then spread
18
evenly.
An experimental thermometer made by Taylor Instrument Company
was placed on the grill to note the temperature of cooking.
The desired
temperature (300°, 350°, or 400° F) was regulated by manipulation of the
coals and the grill.
These temperatures were chosen because they were the
ones most often suggested in cookbooks (See Appendix, Table 12).
The temperatures in the preliminary tests were used to determine time
of turning and degree of doneness.
The steaks broiled rare were cooked at 300°, 350°, and 400° F. Retentions of thiamine and soluble proteins were greater at 350° F than at either of
the other temperatures; moreover these steaks cooked at 350° were the most
palatable as indicated by the scores obtained by the subjective judging, thus
the medium and well-done steaks were cooked at 350° F . It was found impractical to cook 2-inch steaks to the well-done stage.
Surface core harden-
ing, formed during broiling, prevented penetration of heat into the center of
the meat and it was impossible to reach an internal temperature of 170° F
even after broiling times of 120 minutes.
Chemical Tests
Preparation for sampling
Samples of the l ean raw and cooked steaks, freed of visible fat and
connective tissue, were each cut into 1/2 to 1 inch cubes and ground with a
grinder attachment of an el ectric mixer.
were weighed out for analyses.
After grinding three times, samples
All determinations were made in duplicate.
19
Thiamine
The thiochrome method as modified by Conner and Straub (1941) was
us ed for thiamine assays.
Soluble proteins
Soluble protein determinations were made by a modification of the
biuret method of Salwin (1954).
Physical Tests
Weight losses
Weight losses were calculated from the change in weight of the meat
during cooking and thus included losses due to both evaporation and drippings.
Moisture
Moisture was determined by drying 5 grams of the ground meat in a
dehydrator for 2 hours and then in a vacuum oven for 5 hours at 208° F a nd
at 22 to 25 pounds pressure.
Tenderness
Four cylindrical cores, 1 inch in diameter, were taken from the rectus
fe moris and vastus lateralis muscles of each cooked steak. These cores
were tested for tenderness on the Warner-Bratzler shearing machine .
Press fluid
Tests for juiciness were made with 50 grams of meat from each steak.
The meat was placed in the succulometer machine and pressure was held at
20
2, 500 to 2, 550 pounds for 10 minutes to express the juice from the m eat.
The juice was measured in millilite rs .
Flavor test for preference
Research showed that when judging tenderness and flavor at the same
time , tenderness affected flavor.
Therefore it was decided to do tests for
flavor only due to the limited amount of meat .
The cores of meat used in the tests for te nderness were wrapped separately in squares of aluminum foil and teste d a t room temperature by four
judge s.
Because of its flexibility, simpli city, and reliability of results ,
the Hedonic scale suggested by Peryam and Girardot (1952) was used for
scoring.
This scale has nine phrases arranged from 1. 0 (dislike extremely)
to 9. 0 (like extremely) . See Appendix, Table 15 .
Other T ests
Total nitrogen and fat extractions were run on a ll samples included in
this study . These results will be r eported at a later time.
21
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Basic data on the thiamine and soluble protein content , weight loss es,
moisture , tenderness, press fluid, and flavor of the cooked meat are given
in the Appendix , Tables 13 and 14.
Colored pictures of the different thicknesses of steak.,; cooked rare a t
three temperatures and those cooked to three degrees of doneness at 350° F
are shown in Plates 1 to 6.
Thiamine Retention
Effect of cooking temperature
For all thicknesses, thiamine retention of the steaks cooked to the rare
stage was found to be highest in those steaks cooked at 350° F (Figure 1 and
Table 3) . At 400° and 300° F there was greater destruction of the vitamin.
Average retentions of thiamine in the 1 inch thick cuts were 55 percent at
400° F, 70 percent at 350° F, and 57 percent at 300° F. In the 11/2 inch
thick cuts average retentions at 400°, 350°, and 300° F were 61, 71, and
60 percent, respectively . The 2 inch thick cuts retained 51 percent at 400°,
67 percent at 350°, and 59 percent at 300° F . This is similar to the results
of Lushbough et al. (1962) who found that in beef round thiamine losses were
greatest at the highest temperature.
22
Plate 1.
One inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at thrr·ee temperatur es.
23
Rare
Medium
Well-done
Plate 2.
One inch thick top sirloin steaks cookec t c three degrees of
doneness at 350° F.
~4
Plate 3.
One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooiked rar e at hree
temperatures.
24
Plate 3. One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at threJ
temperatures.
25
Rare
Medium
Well -done
Plate 4. One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cookredi to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F .
25
Rare
Medium
Plate 4.
One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked t(J) three
degrees of doneness at 350° F .
26
Plate 5.
Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at t htr ree temp(ratures.
27
Rare
Medium
Plate 6 . Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to two degrees of doneness
at 350° F .
28
in, thick
80
Figure 1.
Thiamine retention in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three
temperatures.
in . thick
80
~ra re
CJmedium
~well-done
Figure 2. Thiamine retentio n ~ n top sir loin steaks e ooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350°. F.
Table 3.
t
Effect of tempera ture on s ome factors in t op sirloin steaks cooked r a r e
Internal
Press
Final
Total
Solubl e
Flav or
Weight Moisture Shear
Thia mine
Cooking
.
Turning
.
.
fluid
protein
temperatur e t '
mternal
cookmg
content forc e
emperature
.
1me
r et e ntion
s cor e
los s
at turnmg
t e mpera ture time
value
r et ention
min .
1 in. thick
400° F
350° F
300° F
min .
per c ent
pe rcent percent percent
lb .
ml.
85° F
83° F
85° F
12
11
15
137° F
138° F
139° F
19
18
22
55
70
57
53
62
60
31. 2
22.8
23 . 2
59 . 3
63 . 9
62. 0
20.8
19. 1
18.8
8.6
9.8
7.5
7. 2
7. 2
6. 8
1 1/2 in . thick
400° F
98° F
350° F
97° F
300° F
91°F
11
12
17
138° F
139° F
140° F
22
27
36
61
60
27
44
30
30.4
23 . 6
26.8
60 . 0
63.4
62.3
21.0
22 . 8
23 . 1
6.7
9. 2
7.1
7. 3
7. 7
6. 8
2 in. thick
400° F
350° F
300° F
22
31
32
136° F
141° F
136° F
33
43
61
51
67
59
27
41
23
29. 0
32.9
25.6
62 . 6
62 . 9
59. 3
18. 1
18.5
21. 7
11 . 0
10.1
8 .0
6. 3
7. 4
6.8
86° F
86° F
87° F
71
"'"'
30
Effect of cooking time
All s t eaks broiled rare at 300° F required a longer cooking time tha n
at 350° F (Table 3) and retention of thia mine was less . This agreed with the
findings of Farrer (1955) which stat ed that both shorter cooking time a nd
low er cooking temperatures favor thia min e retention, but a combination of
high temperatures and short cooking times may l ead t o smaller losses than
lower temperatures for longer times.
Cooking times for all stea ks at a ll degrees of doneness vari ed greatl y.
At a ny temperatur e, as cooking tim e required to reach the same fina l internal temperature increased, thiamine retention decreased (See Tabl e 4 a nd
Appendix , Tables 13 and 14) . This finding agrees with that of Beadl e et a l.
(1943) who reported that, at any tempe ratur e, the rate and extent of thiamine
destruction were related to time of heating or cooking.
Effect of thickness of steaks
Degree of doneness affected th e retention of thia mine in all thicknesses
of steaks cooked a t 350° F (See Figur e 2, page 28, and Table 5, page 32).
A
negative correl ation of -0 . 59 showed that thiamine retention decreas ed as the
sta ge of doneness increased.
In the 1 inch thick steaks retention averaged
70 percent in the cuts cooked rare, 49 perc e nt in the medium-done cuts, a nd
40 percent in the well-done cuts.
Retentions in the 1 1/ 2 inch thick steaks
cooked rare, me dium , and well-done were 71 , 51 , and 42 percent , respectively.
The 2 inch thick steaks ha d a retention of 67 percent in the cuts
cooked rare a nd 49 percent in the cuts cooked medium-done.
31
Table 4.
Degree of
doneness
Thia min e r etention as related to cooking time and stage of donen ess
Cooking
t e mperature
Thickness
Cooking
time
Thiamine
retention
minutes
perc e nt
24
32
27
19
29
41
63
51
38
Sampl e No.
inches
Rar e
400° F
Rar e
300° F
26
29
34
48
60
74
64
59
54
Medium
350° F
50
46
51
30
41
43
51
49
46
Medium
350° F
49
48
56
33
42
58
52
49
46
2
2
Table 5 .
Effect of degree of doneness on some factors in top sirloin steaks broiled at 350° F
De ree of
Inter nal
Tu rnin
Final
Total Thiamine Soluble Weight
g
temperature
g
internal
cooking
protein
retention
l oss
donenes s
at turning
time
temperature
time
retention
min .
1 in . thick
Rar e
Medium
Well-done
min .
percent
percent
percent
Moistur e
content
Shear
force
percent
lb.
Press
fluid
value
Flavor
score
ml.
83° F
93° F
112° F
11
14
17
138° F
150° F
173° F
18
38
52
70
49
40
62
43
28
22.8
29 . 8
43.1
63.9
57.0
50. 0
19 . 1
20 . 8
24 . 9
9.8
4.0
2. 0
7. 2
7.5
6. 1
1 1/2 in . thick
97° F
Rare
8 7° F
Medium
Well-done 114° F
12
30
32
139° F
149° F
172° F
27
45
51
71
51
42
44
39
28
23 . 6
32.6
38.6
63.4
60.4
57.9
22 . 8
21. 3
29.2
9.2
5. 9
3. 0
7. 7
7. 7
7. 2
2 in . thick
Rar e
Medium
31
31
141° F
152° F
43
44
67
49
41
37
32.9
32 . 2
62.9
62 .7
18.5
24 . 5
10. 1
6. 8
7.4
7. 3
86° F
93° F
"'"'
33
These results were similar to those of Mickels en et at. (1939) , Cover
et at. (1944), and Tucker et al. (1946) who noted that thiamine retention was
related to stage of doneness .
It was interesting to note that for the steaks cooked rare at 350° F,
th e 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch cuts r etained slightly mor e thiamine than did the
2 inch cuts (Figur e 1, page 28, a nd Ta ble 3, page 29) .
Soluble Proteins
Effect of cooking temperature
Under the conditions of this study retention of soluble proteins in th e
steaks cooked rare was found to be greatest at 350° F (Figure 3 and Tabl e 3).
A greater rate of dena turation was observed at 400° a nd 300° F.
Average
retentions of solubl e proteins in the 1 inch thi ck cuts cooked at 400°, 350°,
and 300° F were 53, 62, and 60 percent, respectively.
In the 1 1/2 inch
thick cuts th e retentions were 27 percent at 400° F, 44 percent at 350° F,
and 30 percent at 300° F . It was observed tha t a t the thr ee cooking temperatur es, so lubl e protein retention was highest in the 1 inch thick cuts, probably
due to shorter cooking time.
The highly significant correlation of -0.58 be-
tween soluble protein retention and thickness indicated that as thickness
incr ease d , soluble protein retention decreased.
Effect of cooking time
Denatura tion of proteins was greater with longe r cooking time in some
individual steaks.
As cooking time increased soluble protein retention
34
in. thick
1
2
%
-4000 F.
rnrm 3500 F.
"
§sooo F.
F1111re 3. Soluble protein retention in top elrloln et~ cooked rare at tiu'e.!l
temperaturee.
%
o
10
20
~rare
so
40
so eo
CJmedium
7o
~well-done
F11\lre 4. Soluble protein retention in top sirloin steaks Qooked to tiu'ee degree&
of donenese at 3500 F.
35
decreased . This agreed with the findings of Mitchell et al. (1949) and Rice
and Beuk (1953) who found that the effect of heat on food proteins depended
not only upon the intensity but a ls o upon the duration of the heat treatment .
Effect of degree of doneness
As in thiamine , degree of doneness was related to retention of solubl e
proteins.
The steaks cooked to highest internal temperatures lost most
soluble proteins .
F igure 4 and Table 5 show that at 350° F and at all thick-
nesses steaks cooked rare had a greater amount of soluble proteins than did
those cooked medium and well-done.
Soluble protein retentions in the 1 inch
thick cuts cooked rare, medium, and well-done were 62, 43, and 28 percent,
respectively . In the 1 1/2 inch thick cuts retentions were 44 percent when
cooked rare, 39 percent when cooked medium-done , and 28 percent when
cooked well -done.
The 2 inch thick cuts cooked rare retained 41 percent of
the soluble proteins while thos e cooked medium-done retained 37 percent .
Weight Loss
Effect of cooking temperature
Weight loss was directly related to cooking temperature.
Figure 5 and
Table 3 show that in the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick steaks cooked rare ,
weight l osses were markedly increased at the highest cooking temperature
or at 400° F.
This was in agreement with the results obtained by the follow-
ing workers: Cline et al. (1930), Alexander (1930) , Child and Satorius (1938),
36
in. thick
1 1/2
2
15
%
20
25
30
35
Figure 5. Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooke d rare at three temperatures.
in. thick
11/2
2
%
0
10
E228rarr.
15
20
25
c=Jmedium
30
35
4
45
~well-done
Figure 6. Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooked to t1!ree degrees of
doneness at 350° F.
37
Cover et al. (1949), Lowe (1955), West and Wood (1959), Bramblett et al.
(1959) , and Lushbough et al. (1962) .
Effect of degree of doneness
In general the higher the internal temperature of the meat or the stage
of doneness, the greater the loss in weight.
In the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch
thick cuts cooked to three degrees of doneness at 350° F , weight loss es were
increased as th e internal temperatures were raised (Figure 6 and Table 5).
Weight losses in the 1 inch thick steaks cooked rare, medium, and well-done
were 22. 8 , 29. 8, and 43.1 percent , respectively . In the 1 1/2 inch thick
cuts, weight losses were 23.6 percent in those cuts cooked rare, 32.6 percent in the medium-done cuts, and 38.6 percent in the well-done cuts .
A number of workers confirmed these findings:
Latzke (1930) , Child
and Satorius (1937), Cover (1937 and 1943), Satorius and Child (19 38),
Tucker et al. (1946), Aldrich and Lowe (1954) , Hughes (1955) , Clark et al.
(1955) , Cover et al. (1957 and 1962) , and Visser et al. (1960).
Moisture Retention
Effect of cooking temperature
Although the data show that cooking temperature affected moisture,
variations were very slight.
Effect of degree of doneness
In the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked to three degrees of doneness at 350° F, the total moisture tended to decrease with an increase in the
38
internal temperature (Figure 7 and Table 5).
Similar findings were reported
by Satorius and Child (1938) and Cover et al. (196 2).
Tenderness Scores
In th e shear test results, scores indicate the number of pounds required
to cut or press through a 1 inch core of meat .
Effect of cooking temperature
Cooking temperature affected tenderness in the steaks cooked rare at
the thr ee temperatures.
However, results in the different thicknesses were
inconsistent .
Effect of degr ee of doneness
Tenderness scores in the 1 inch and 2 inch thick steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F were similar to thos e found by Cover et al.
(1962).
As th e internal temperature of the m eat increased , toughness of the
meat increased also.
Effect of different muscles
Table 6 shows that except for the results on tenderness of the 2 inch
thick cuts cooked rare at the three different temperatures, the mean tenderness scores of the rectus femoris and vastus la teralis muscles were in
agreement with those reported by Ramsbottom and Strandine (1948).
The
vastus lateralis muscle was found slightly tougher than the rectus femoris
muscle.
39
in. thick
%
0
10
20
~rare
Figure 7.
30
40
50
O medium
60
70
~well-done
Moisture i.n top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of doneness
at 350° F.
in. thi ck
1 1/2
2
lb.
0
10
~ra re
Figure 8.
15
20
25
Omedium
30
~well-done
Shear force values in top s irloin steaks cooked to three degrees
of donenes s at 350° F.
40
Table 6 .
Degr ee of
done ness
Ra r e
Tenderness values for rectus femoris and vastus lateralis muscles
Cooking
te mperature
Thickness
Shear forc e
Rectus femoris
Vastus late r a lis
in.
lb.
400° F
350° F
300° F
2 0.2
18 . 8
17 . 0
21. 4
19 . 4
20 . 6
400° F
350° F
300° F
1 1/2
17.1
22.1
22 . 4
24.9
23.5
23 . 9
400° F
350° F
300° F
2
18 . 4
19.2
22 . 1
17 . 3
17.9
21. 3
Me dium
350° F
1
1 1/2
2
19 . 5
20.5
23 . 2
22 . 2
22. 1
25.8
Well-done
350° F
1
1 1/2
24. 6
28 . 8
25 . 2
29 . 5
41
Press Fluid
Effect of cooking temperature
Only s light differences in juiciness were observed .
Cooking tempera -
ture affected juiciness in the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked rare
(Figur e 9 and Table 7).
The amount of juice was found to be highest in those
cuts cooked at 350° F . At 300° F and with a longer cooking time the juice
was decreased.
Table 7.
Juiciness as rela ted to cooking t emperatures
Cooking temperature
400° F
350° F
300° F
Thickness
Cooking time
Press fluid
in .
min .
ml.
19
18
22
8. 6
9.8
7.5
22
27
36
6.7
9.2
7. 1
1 1/2
The results were similar to those of Satorius and Child (19 38), Lowe
et al. (19 52), Siemers and Hanning (195 3) , a nd Bramblett et al. (19 59), who
found that juiciness in meat was influenced greatly both by the temperature
and l ength of cooking.
42
in . thick
1 1/2
2
m l.
Figure 9.
2
4
6
Press fluid in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three t emperatures .
in. thic
1 1/2
2
ml.
0
2
~rar e
Figur e 10.
4
6
10
c:::Jmedium
~well-done
P ress flu id m t op sirloin steaks c ooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350° F.
43
Effect of degree of doneness
The meat became progressively les s juicy as the internal temp eratur e
was incr eased.
This fact was noted by Satorius a nd Child (1938), Ha ll (1944),
Cover and Shrode (1955), Clark et al. (1955) , Cover et al. (1957 and 1962),
and Viss er et al. (1960).
In the three thicknesses of steaks cooked to thr ee degrees of doneness
at 350° F, press fluid values were found to decrease with inc reas ing internal
temperature (Figure 10 and Table 5).
The 1 inch thick steaks cooked rar e,
m edium , a nd well -done had 9. 8, 4. 0 , and 2. 0 milliliters of press fluid ,
respectively . In the 1 1/2 inch thick steaks press fluid values wer e 9. 2
milliliters when cooked rare, 5. 9 milliliters when cooked medium , and
3. 0 milliliters when cooked well-done . The 2 inch thick steaks cooked rare
had 10 . 1 milliliters of press fluid while thos e cooked m e dium-done had
6. 8 milliliters.
As the degree of doneness was increased, press fluid
dec r eased.
Effect on tenderness
P ress fluid was related to tenderness .
tenderness decreased.
As press fluid decreased,
This was observed at 350° F with a ll thicknesses and
at a ll thr ee degrees of doneness with one exception, the 1 1/ 2 inch thick cuts
cooked rare (Table 8).
Effect on weight loss
Table 9 shows that press fluid decreas ed with increasing weight loss.
This was noted in the 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked rare at 400° F and 350° F .
44
Table 8.
Pr ess fluid as related to tenderness
Degree of doneness
Press fluid value
Thickness
ml.
in.
Rare
Medium
Well - done
Rare
Medium
Well-done
1 1/2
Rare
Medium
2
Table 9.
Degree of
doneness
Shear forc e
lb.
9.8
4.0
2.0
19. 1
20.8
24 . 9
9.2
5. 9
3. 0
22. 8
21. 3
29.2
10. 1
6.8
18 . 5
24 . 5
Pr ess fluid as related to weight loss
Cooking
te mperature
Rare
Rare
400° F
350° F
Rare
Medium
Well-done
350° F
Rare
Medium
Well-done
350° F
Thickness
Press fluid
value
Weight loss
in.
ml.
percent
1 1/2
1 1/2
6. 7
9.2
30 . 4
23 . 6
9.8
4. 0
2.0
22 . 8
29 . 8
43.1
9.2
5.9
3. 0
23 . 6
32.6
38.6
1 1/2
45
The same trend was observed in the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked
to different degrees of doneness at 350° F . These results concurred with
the report of Weir (1959) and Cover et al. (1962) who stated that juiciness
varied inversely with cooking losses.
Average scores obtained by the subjective judging for flavor are shown
in Table 10.
The Hedonic scale (See Appendix, Table 15) was used to judge
flavor . In the rare steaks cooked at the thr ee different temperatures, the
best score , 7. 4 (between "like moderately" and "like very much") , was given
to those cooked at 350° F.
Steaks cooked at 400° F scored 6. 9 or "like
moderately . " Steaks cooked at 300° F scored slightly lower , 6. 8.
Comments
showed that the judges found the meat juicy at 350° F but drier and less
tender at 300° F.
Table 10. Average scores of four judges for flavor test
Cooking
temperature
Rare
400° F
6.9
350° F
7.4
300° F
6.8
Flavor score
Medium
7.5
Well-done
6.6
46
Steaks were considered best wh en cooked m e dium - done at 350° F.
They scored 7. 5. Those cooked well-don e at the same temperature rec eiv ed
th e lowest scor e, 6 . 6 , between "liked slightly" and "like moderately."
Comme nts on the well-done steaks were m ade to the effect that they were
tough and ve ry dry .
Cooking Time
There was great variation in cooking time of the individual steaks (See
App endix, Tabl es 13 and 14) .
Table 11 shows the results of cooking temperature as related to degree
of doneness and cooking time.
The steaks are classified according t otem-
perature of cooking, thickness of th e cut , a nd degree of doneness .
It was obser ved that the thick cuts took th e long est time to reach a
definite te mpe r ature . A highly significant corr elation coeffici ent of 0. 48
indicated a direct relationship between thickness of the cut and l ength of
cooking time .
The temperature of cooking affected cooking time.
The meat r eached
th e fin al inte rnal temperature more r apidly at th e higher temperatur e.
Rate of Heat P enetration
Composite heat curves are shown in Figur e 11.
These curves r epre-
s ent the temperatures of each of the thr ee th ermocouples in the steaks broil ed
to the different stages of doneness at th e three t e mperatures.
47
Table 11 .
Cooking temperature as related to degree of doneness a nd cooking
time
Internal
Fina l
Total
Degree of
Cooking
inte rnal
Thickness temperature Turning
cooking
doneness te mperature
time temperature time
at turning
in.
Rare
400° F
350° F
300° F
min.
min .
85° F
83° F
85° F
12
11
15
137° F
138° F
139° F
19
18
22
400° F
350° F
300° F
1 1/2
98° F
97° F
91° F
11
12
17
138° F
139° F
140° F
22
27
36
400° F
350° F
300° F
2
88° F
86° F
87° F
22
31
32
136° F
141° F
1 36° F
33
43
61
Medium
350° F
1
1 1/2
2
93° F
87° F
93° F
14
30
31
150° F
149° F
152° F
38
45
44
Well-done
350° F
1
1 1/2
112 F
114° F
17
32
173° F
172° F
52
51
0
49
The standar d deviations of t emperatur e for the surface toward the heat
source and away from th e h eat source were greater than for th e internal
temperature .
For exampl e, in the 1 inch thi c k r are steaks cooked a t 300° F
the standard deviation for the tempera ture away from the heat source was
25, fo r the t emperature toward the heat sourc e, 29, a nd for th e internal
temperature , 13 . 7.
Other sampl es follow ed a similar pattern.
Statistical Analyses
When the first three variables , i.e ., thickness , cooking te mperature,
a nd internal tempe rature, were compared to cooking time in th e formula
2
1 , 1 , 2 , 22 , 3, 32 , 1
R
2
X
2, 1
X
= 0. 64
3,
§. = 10. 35 .
Th e variation in cooking time was 10 minutes ; 64 percent of th e total
variation was accounted for by the mathematical equati on whil e 36 percent
was due to unknown facto r s .
By adding five other variables, namely, raw weight, shear for ce,
pr ess fluid , solubl e proteins (raw ), and thiamine (raw), to the formula
1, 1
2
2
2
2 , 2 , 3, 3
1
X
R 2 = 0.79
2, 1
X
3, 4, 6 , 7, 9, 11,
§. = 8. 24.
The var iation in cooking time was decreased 8 minutes , 79 percent of
this variation was due to the mathematical e quation .
50
SUMMARY
Studies were conducted on Good grade top sirloin steaks of beef, 1,
1 1/2, and 2 inches thick, charcoal broiled at 400°, 350°, and 300° F.
The
steaks were cooked to an internal temperature of 135° to 140° Fat a ll three
temperatures .
Those cooked to the medium (155° to 160° F) and well-done
(165° to 170° F) stages were broiled at 350° F . The following chemical and
physical tests were made on each: thiamine, soluble proteins , weight loss ,
moisture, t enderness, juiciness, and flavor .
For all thicknesses, thiamine retention in the steaks cooked rare was
found to be highest in those cuts cooked at 350° F . When cooked to different
degrees of doneness, thiamine retention decr eased as the inte rnal temperature increased. It was found that in some steaks destruction of the vitamin
was proportional to the time of cooking .
Like thiamine , soluble protein retention was influenced by temperature
of cooking, degree of doneness, and time of cooking. Retention of soluble
proteins in the steaks cooked rare was found to be best at 350° F . When
cooked to different end-point temperatures at 350° F, the steaks cooked rare
had a greater amount of soluble proteins than did those cooked medium and
well-done.
Denaturation of proteins was greater with longer cooking time in
some individual steaks . Thickness was found to be related to retention.
highest amount of soluble proteins was found in the 1 inch cuts when the
The
51
steaks were cooked rare at th e three temperatures.
When cooked to different
degrees of done ness at 350° F, the 1 inch cuts cooked rare also had the best
retention of soluble proteins.
Weight losses were related to cooking temperature and degree of doneness in the 1 and 1 1/2 inch cuts.
At the highest cooking temperature, or at
400° F, the meat had a greater decrease in weight than when cooked at the
lower temperatures.
Ther e was a consistent increase in weight loss as the
internal temperature of the meat was increased.
In the 1 a nd 1 1/2 inch cuts cooked to three degrees of doneness at
350° F, moisture decreased with an increase in the internal temperature of
the meat .
Rare meat was more tender than medium and well-done meat . This
was noted in the 1 and 2 inch thick cuts cooked at 350° F . In the 1 1/2 inch
cuts the steaks cooked medium were more tender than those cooked rare .
However, the meat became l ess te nder when cooke d well-done.
Cooking temperature a ffected juiciness in the 1 and 1 1/2 inch thick
cuts cooked rare . The amount of press fluid was found to be highest in those
cuts cooked at 350° F.
Degree of doneness was another factor related to
juiciness. The meat became progressively less juicy as its internal temperature was increased. It was found that juiciness was also influenced by
tenderness and weight loss.
Greater press fluid was related to more tender
meat and less loss in weight.
Flavor scores showed a preference for steaks cooked rare and mediumdone at 350° F.
The lowest score was receiv ed by those steaks cooked
52
well-done at 35 0° F.
Broiling the meat rare at 350° F proved to be the best cooking temperature . Besides having the best retention of thiamine and soluble proteins ,
the steaks cooked at 350° F had more juice and better flavor than thos e
cooked at 400° and 300° F .
In the statistical analyses of the results the first three variables, i.e.,
thickness, cooking temperature, and inter na l temperature, gave an R 2 of
0. 64 and
a~
of 10 . 35.
Adding five other variables, namely, raw weight,
percentage of weight loss, shear force, pr ess fluid , and percentage of
thiamine retention, resulted in R 2 : 0. 79 a nd ~
= 8. 24.
Further research is needed to develop cooking charts for outdoor
broiling and to confirm the findings in this thesis.
53
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60
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61
APPENDIX
Table 12 . Time tabl e for broiling s irloin steaks
Cooking
Thickness temperature
Final internal tempera ture
Rar e
Medium
Well-done
Cooking time
Rare Medium Well-done
in.
National Livestock and Meat
Boa rd (1950)
McLean and Campbell (1952 )
1
1 1/2
2
minutes
350° F
350° F
350° F
140° F
140° F
140° F
160° F
160° F
160° F
1
1 1/2
2
Better Homes a nd Ga rdens (1953)
140° F
160° F
170° F
Wilmot a nd Batjer (1955)
110° Fa
135° F
ll0° Fa
155° F
120° Fa
170° F
Hughes (1955 )
Lowe (1955)
Armour (1956)
West and Wood (1959)
Fowler et al. (1961)
Taylor Instrum ent Co. (1962 )
a At turning .
1
1 1/ 2
350° F
350° F
20
30
40
25
35
45
5
9
16
6
10
18
7-8
12-13
20 -2 1
20-22
30-32
25
35
30
40
10-12
14-16
20- 25
14-16
18-20
30 - 35
20-2 5
25-30
40-45
15
25
35
20
35
50
30
131-149° F 149-158° F 158-176° F
1
1 1/2
2
130-135° F
1
1 1/2
2
1 35° F
155° F
165° F
"'
""
Table 13.
Effect of temperature on some factors in top sirloin steaks cooked rare
Chemical tests
Final
Total
Sampl e
Internal
Turning
Physical tests
Thiamine Soluble
internal
number temperature time
cooking
retention protein Weight Moisture Shear Press fluid Flavor
at turning
temperature time
loss
content force
value
score
retention
min.
min .
percent
percent percent percent
lb.
ml.
1 inch thick
400° F
18
21
38
44
35
Average
84°
82°
84°
81°
95°
85°
F
F
F
F
F
F
6
10
14
15
13
12
140°
141°
134°
135°
136°
137°
F
F
F
F
F
F
11
18
21
23
23
19
63.9
60.0
44.9
56.9
51.4
55.3
60.0
49.7
45.3
55.6
53.2
53.1
26.5
36.6
41.1
23.6
31.3
31.2
65.2
53.2
55.2
64.8
58.0
59.3
19.9
17.6
25.7
17.0
24 .0
20 . 8
8 .2
10.6
6.4
9.0
8.8
8.6
~
7.2
350° F
22
19
39
36
45
Average
84°
82°
81°
84°
85°
83°
F
F
F
F
F
F
8
10
13
9
16
11
139°
144°
135°
136°
135°
138°
F
F
F
F
F
F
13
14
16
20
27
18
64.7
79.1
71. 3
77.0
64 .8
70.1
70.1
65.5
52.2
63.3
61.4
61. 7
24 . 8
18.2
23.8
25.4
22.6
22.8
62.1
66.5
63.6
62.2
65.2
63.9
16.4
17 .1
21.9
21. 1
15.4
19 . 1
13. 7
10.8
9.3
9. 7
7.
6.
6.
8.
~
9.8
.§.:_Q
300° F
20
37
55
47
40
Average
79°
91°
93°
82°
81°
85°
F
F
F
F
F
F
9
11
17
16
22
15
140°
145°
135°
141°
134°
139°
F
F
F
F
F
F
13
17
23
25
30
22
66. 3
45.5
61. 6
56.8
54.0
56.8
62.2
65.4
59.4
65.4
45 .3
59.8
14. 8
37.5
21.5
18.7
20.6
23.2
68.4
56.1
63.3
66.5
55.6
62.0
19.2
27.8
13.7
15 .3
17 .4
18 .8
9.0
5.5
5.0
13.4
5.8
5.8
7. 0
7.5
~
7.5
~
6.8
7. 0
6.8
7. 3
7. 3
0
5
8
0
7. 3
"'
"'
Table 13.
(Continued)
Chemical tests
Sample
Internal
Turning
Final
Total Thiamine Soluble
Physical tests
number temperature time
internal
cooking retention protein Weight Moisture Shear Press fluid Flavor
at turning
temperature time
retention
loss
content force
value
score
min.
min
percent
percent percent percent
lb.
ml.
!....!L.2 inches thick
400° F
16
10
13
Average
350° F
17
11
Average
300° F
15
9
12
Average
106°
98°
90°
98°
F
F
F
F
9
9
15
11
140°
140°
134°
138°
F
F
F
F
17
24
26
22
58.7
60.0
62.7
60.7
30.3
23.0
30.9
27.2
30.9
30.6
30.1
30.4
61. 1
58.6
60.4
60.0
21.6
24 . 1
17 .3
21.0
9.3
3. 9
92° F
105° F
95° F
139°
140°
139°
139°
F
F
F
F
20
27
35
27
70.5
75.8
70.8
34.3
60.0
45.0
43.5
24.1
17.5
31.3
23.6
60.7
67 . 3
62.1
63.4
18 . 4
23 . 8
26.1
22. 8
10.4
11.8
~
12
12
12
12
90° F
95° F
89° F
91°F
6
12
30
17
141°
139°
141°
140°
F
F
F
F
24
34
50
36
65.5
74.3
43 . 9
59 . 9
21.7
47.2
25 .5
29.9
20.1
20.0
41.5
26.8
64.9
63.5
58.5
62.3
19 . 1
24 .4
25.9
23 . 1
-~
~
6.7
~
9 .2
10.9
7.4
~
7.1
7.3
7.5
7.3
7.3
7.8
7. 3
§.:Jl.
7. 7
7. 0
7. 3
§.:Jl.
6.8
"'
""
Table 13. (Continued)
Chemical tests
Sam le
Internal
Turnin
. Final
Total Thiamine Soluble
.
.
Physical tests
.
temperatur e
g
mternal
cookmg
We1ght Mo1sture Shear Press flmd Flavor
p
number at turning
time
temperature time
retention protein
loss
content force
value
score
retention
min.
min.
percent
percent percent percent
lb .
ml.
2 inches thick
400° F
24
32
27
Average
91°
89°
85°
88°
F
F
F
F
16
21
29
22
138°
135°
136°
136°
F
F
F
F
29
29
41
33
63.3
51. 1
38.5
51. 1
25.8
31.2
21.5
27.1
29.8
22.7
51.5
29.0
62.7
64.0
61.2
62.6
14 . 2
20.2
19.9
18.1
10.3
12.4
10.4
11. 0
6. 0
6. 8
350° F
25
28
33
Average
89°
85°
85°
86°
F
F
F
F
27
29
37
31
139°
136°
149°
141°
F
F
F
F
37
46
46
43
64.7
40.9
58.5
67 . 4
44.8
42.4
39.6
41.4
31. 0
35.7
32 . 3
32.9
64.3
60.3
64.0
62 .9
11.9
21.6
22.1
18 .5
11. 3
7.7
11.4
10 . 1
7.8
6.8
89°
86°
85°
87°
F
F
F
F
34
33
136°
136°
135°
136°
F
F
F
F
48
60
74
61
63. 6
58 .7
53.8
58.7
30.0
23.6
20.7
23.1
19.1
33.5
23.0
25.6
61.3
56.4
60.2
59. 3
18.1
19 .2
27. 8
21. 7
9.5
3.5
11. 1
8.0
300° F
26
29
34
Average
~
32
~
6.3
u
7. 4
5.8
7.2
22
6.8
a>
"'
Table 14 . Top sirloin steaks cooked at 350° F
Chemical tests
Internal
Final
Total
Physical tests
Sample temperature Turning
internal
cooking Thiamine Soluble
Weight Moisture Shear Press fluid Flavor
number at turning
time
temperature time
retention protein
loss
content force
value
score
retention
min .
min.
percent percent percent percent
lb.
ml.
Medium-done
1 inch thick
50
98° F
46
90° F
51
91°F
Average
93° F
14
15
-12
14
150°
149°
150°
150°
F
F
F
F
30
41
43
38
51. 1
48.7
46.3
48.7
48.0
38 . 9
43.3
42 .8
32.8
18 .7
35. 1
29.8
57.4
55.7
57.9
57.0
21.9
18.8
21. 7
20.8
4.3
3.1
-4.7
4. 0
8.2
7.0
-7.2
7.5
1 1/2 inches thick
42
89° F
43
89° F
41
82° F
Average
87° F
23
27
39
30
149°
149°
150°
149°
F
F
F
F
40
40
56
45
52.2
48.1
54.6
51.4
40.0
36.1
40.0
38.7
27.6
35.4
34.4
32.6
59.9
60.9
60.5
60 . 4
18 . 7
19.5
25 . 6
21. 3
7. 7
5.0
8.2
8.0
!:....!!.
5.9
~
7.7
2 inches thick
49
90°
48
90°
56
99°
Average
93°
22
28
44
31
148° F
151° F
156° F
33
42
58
44
51. 7
49.5
45 . 7
49 . 1
45.9
38 . 0
30 .3
36 . 9
28.5
33 . 2
34.6
32.2
63.9
64 . 6
59 .4
62.7
25.1
24.2
24.1
24.5
7.5
3.6
9.2
6 .8
7.0
7.0
8. 0
7.3
F
F
F
F
l52"F
a>
a>
Table 14 .
(Continued)
Chemical tests
Sam le
Internal
Turnin
. Final
Total Thiamine Soluble
.
.
Physical tests
.
temperature
g
mternal
cookmg
Weight Mmsture Shear Press flmd Flavor
P
number at turning
time
temperatur e time
retention protein
loss
content forc e
value
score
retention
min .
min
percent
percent percent percent
lb.
ml.
1.6
3.7
6. 5
6.8
.2.:.1.
£.Jl.
2.0
6.1
3. 1
2.1
7.2
7.2
.?.:...Q
7. 2
Well-done
1 inch thick
54
57
64
Average
117°
110°
110°
112°
F
F
F
F
10
29
12
17
176°
171°
171°
173°
F
F
F
F
34
50
73
52
40.6
37. 8
41.8
40.0
29.6
29 . 6
26.4
28.4
42. 3
38 .2
51.4
43. 1
50.6
52 . 0
46 . 3
49.6
22 .9
27.8
24.0
24 . 9
1 1/2 inches thick
123° F
59
110° F
60
110° F
58
114° F
Average
22
36
38
32
171°
174°
170°
172°
F
F
F
F
38
53
62
51
41.9
42.4
42.1
42.1
26.3
31.6
26.3
28 . 1
36 .8
44 . 1
34. 7
38 . 6
56 . 5
56.5
60.7
57.9
33.1
20.2
31.6
29.2
~
3.0
...,
0>
68
Table 15 . Hedonic scale
Name
Sample_
Date
Sample_
Sample_
Sample_
Sampl e _ __
Like
9 Extremely
Like
Extremely
Like
Extre m ely
Like
Extremely
Like
Extremely
Like
8 Very Much
Like
Very Muc h
Like
Very Much
Like
Very Much
Like
Ver y Much
Like
7 Moderately
Like
Moderately
Like
Moderat ely
Like
Moderately
Like
Moderately
Like
6 Slightly
Like
Slightly
Like
Slightly
Like
Slightly
Like
Slightly
Neither Like
5 Nor Dis like
Neither Like
Nor Dislike
Neither Like
Nor Dislike
Neither Like
Nor Dislike
Neither Like
Nor Dislike
Dislike
4 Slightly
Dislike
Slightly
Dislike
Slightly
Dislike
Slightly
Dislike
Slightly
Dislike
3 Moderately
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
2 Very Much
Dislike
Very Muc h
Dislike
Very Much
Dislike
Very Much
Dislike
Very Much
Dislike
1 Extremely
Dislike
Extremely
Dislike
Extremely
Dislike
Extremely
Dislike
Extremely
Comm ents
Comments
Comments
Comments
Comments
Directions:
Completely enctrcl e the category which best describes your
reaction to the s a mpl e written above the column . Then under
Comments give your reasons for r ating the sample as you did .
(i. e. Flavor too strong, lacks flavor, odor not pleasant, etc.)