Cleveland State University
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The Journal of Traditions & Beliefs
Michael Schwartz Library
2015
Appropriating Balance: Reversing the Imbalance
for Indigenous Women through Spirituality
Candra Krisch
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Krisch, Candra (2015) "Appropriating Balance: Reversing the Imbalance for Indigenous Women through Spirituality," The Journal of
Traditions & Beliefs: Vol. 3, Article 10.
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Krisch: Appropriating Balance
Introduction
Controversialissuessurroundtheco-optingofIndigenousspiritualityforpublicconsumption.This
paperwilldiscusstheterms“shaman”and“shamanism”astheyrelatedtosomeoftheseissues.
Oncethesetermswereusedtorefertomen,buttheyhavenowshiftedtorefertowomenaswell.
ThisstudywillprovideevidenceofIndigenouswomenheldupasexamplesfortheirhelpfulness,
faithfulness,andabilitytoembraceacculturationandassimilation,anditwillfurthershowhowthe
damageofcooptionbymainstreamwomenhasdamagedIndigenouswomen.Thediscussionwill
thenturntospecificexamplesofwomenwhoarevictimsofinternalizedoppressionandonewhois
redeemedthroughreconnectionandownership.Finally,Iarguethatcooptionmustbestoppedand
Indigenouswomenmustreturntotheblankettobegintoheal.
SomevitalpartsoftheappropriationofIndigenousspiritualitywillbeexploredinthis
paperincluding:(1)theuseofManifestDestinyandBorderlandRomanticizedLivingtoappropriate
thespirituallifeofthe“others”and(2)theemptinessofthe“conquered”peoplesproducedby
acculturationandassimilation.Indigenouswomenaredirectlyaffectedbythenegativeimpactsthat
resultfromtheblendingofNewAge,neo-PaganismandIndigenousceremonies,practicesand
sacredobjects.Unfortunately,itisnotonlyaspiritualstrippingofIndigenoussacredceremonies,
objects,andpractices;itisthestrippingoftheirveryvoicesandtheirabilitytoself-determine.The
dynamicsofIndigenousculturesarepushedtotheedgesofimbalancefromcooptation,whichis
generallydefinedasusingsomethingforone'sownpurposes.Forthepurposeofthispaper,the
focuswillbeonfemaleswhointernalizeoppressionandmaystrugglewithdrugoralcohol
addiction,depression,suicide,abusestoselfandothers,andvariousotheracts.Toanalyzethese
twoareas,therearefourpointsthatwillbeexplored:thehistoryoftheprevailingculturestripping
theIndigenouspeoplesoftheirculturesandvoicesthroughappropriation;removingselfdeterminationbyreplacingitwithoneoftheprevailingculture’sreligionsasanexample;
disruptionofthenatureofIndigenousreligionsbydisturbingthebalanceofallthings;andtheneed
ofIndigenouspeoples,especiallywomen,toreclaimallofthesepoints.
LiteratureReview
Manyresearchershavediscussedtheappropriationsofdidgeridoos,sweatlodges,Gaelicpractices,
myths,andthetermshaman/essaswellastheeffectsoftheappropriationandcooptiononthose
whoareIndigenousorhaveagreatrespectforthosecultures.1Virtuallyallauthorswhohave
writtenonthissubjectagreethatNewAgersandneo-pagansareimaginingtheseculturesashaving
occultknowledgethatismissingfromthecurrentWesternphilosophy.ChristinaWelchsees
prevailingculturesthatstress“these‘Other’cultures...asemphasizingelementswhicharemissing
fromcontemporaryWesternsociety,notablyenvironmentalfriendliness,atribal/communityethic,
andalackoftechnologisationandindustrialization–attributesthatcombinetoformaGoldenAge
Arcadianfantasyofindigenouslife."2VariousgroupsoftheprevailingculturepressureIndigenous
womentogiveprimalandIndigenousculturalessenceawayandrevealthe“occult”orhiddenand
mysteriouspiecesofinformation,furtherstrippingIndigenouswomen’ssoulsuntilnothing
recognizablyIndigenousisleft.AsAndreaSmithhasdiscussed,“Withholdingknowledge,then,is
1PaulC.Johnson,“ShamanismfromEcuadortoChicago:ACaseStudyinnewAgeRitualAppropriation,”
Religion25(1995):163-178.SuzanneOwen,“IndigenousKnowledgeanditsIntertribalTransmission:
SourcesofContemporaryMi’kmaqTraditionalPractices,”[articleon-line](accessed15January,2009)
availablefromhttp://www.cst.ed.ac.uk/2005conference/papers/Owen_paper.pdf.CynthiaR.Kasee,
“Identity,Recovery,andReligiousImperialism:NativeAmericanWomenoftheNewAge,”Womenand
Therapy16,no.2/3(1995):83-93.
2ChristinaWelch,“AppropriatingtheDidjeriduandtheSweatLodge:NewAgeBaddiesandIndigenous
Victims?,”JournalofContemporaryReligion17,no.1(2002):21.
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anactofresistanceagainstthosewhodesiretoknowyouinordertobettercontrolyou."3Welch
statesthatwhile“...appropriatingindigenousintellectualandculturalpropertyisvalidatedbythe
West’sperceivedneedtosavesuchvaluableinformationforposterity...Theoppositeisthe
case...”4Oncethesereligious/spiritualbeliefswhicharebasedinspace,placeandtimeare
appropriatedthedisenfranchisedculturesaresetadriftitsculturalessencegone.
OthersarguethatsinceIndigenousculturessharepracticeswitheachothertheyshouldalsoshare
withtheprevailingculture.SuzanneOwenprovidessomeinsightintotheissue:
AlongwithotherinfluentialNativeAmericanactivistsandscholars,they
havemadetheproblemofappropriationoneofethnicitybetweenthe
‘colonised’Indiansandthe‘colonising’euro-Americans.However,when
pressed,Lakotaspiritualleadersdenysuchexclusivityandwhenaskedfor
reasonswhynon-Indiansshouldceasefromparticipatinginorconducting
ceremonies,theyoftenspeakofprotocols–thewaythingsaredone.
LakotaandotherPlainsIndianceremonialpracticeshavespreadtoother
tribesandindigenouspeoples...andeventoothercontinents,butthese
appropriationshaveescapedcriticism...5
TheprevailingculturewantstoquantifyandqualifyIndigenousspiritualityinsteadofallowingitto
existinspace,place,andtime.Becausethedominantculturefollowsalinearprogression,it
destroysthenon-linearnatureofIndigenousspirituality,thatwhichhasbeenkeptsecurewithin
thevariousIndigenousculturesthataretiedtoplace,space,andtime.Centraltonativebelief
systemsarehoweachspiritualelementisdone,whenitisdone,and(mostimportantly)whereitis
done.Forexample,manyIndigenouswomenfromvirtuallyanyIndigenoustribe/Nationwakeup
inthemorning,facethesunrisingortheEastandrejoicethatanotherdayhasdawned.Itcanbein
prayer,song,ormeditationbutitisdone.Althoughthiscanbedoneanywhere,theceremonymust
beperformedintheprescribedwayswiththeoriginalintent.Itcanbedonealone,butthewomen
wouldbeengaginginthispracticewiththeknowledgethatotherpeopleswhosharehercultural
backgroundareengaginginthesamepractice,atthesametime,inthesameprescribedmanner—
albeitindifferentlocations.Thislinksthesinglepractitionertothelargercommunity.
DiscussionoftheProblem
AlthoughtherearemanyscholarlyanalysesanddefinitionsofShamanism,twodefinitionsfromthe
workofJennyBlainandWendyRoseareparticularlyrelevant.Blain,Roseandotherscommonly
describe“shaman”or“saman”asaTunguswordforhealerorspiritualleader.Blainstates,
“’Shamanism’inthemodernWesthasahistoryofabstractionandappropriation,constructedas
beingsomethingtomarvelat,somethingexoticthat‘other’peopledo;describedbyrecourseto
individual.”6RosereferstoGearyHobsontodefinewhiteshamanismasdescribing‘theapparently
growingnumberofsmall-presspoetsofgenerallywhite,Euro-ChristianAmericanbackground,who
intheirpoemsassumethepersonaoftheshaman,usuallyintheguiseofanAmericanIndian
3AndreaSmith,“SpiritualAppropriationasSexualViolence,”(2005)WicazoSaReview,20,no.1(Spring
2005):97.
4Welch:26.
5Owen:1.
6JennyBlain,“Shamans,Stones,AuthenticityandAppropriation:ContestationsofInventionandMeaning,”
(Accessed1February,2009)availablefromhttp://www.sacredsites.org.uk/papers/Blain_J-perm.pdf,
2001.BlaineparaphrasesMirceaEliade,IndianReligions(S.I.1964),53.
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Krisch: Appropriating Balance
medicineman.Tobeapoetissimplynotenough;theymustclaimapowerfromhighersources.’”7
AsRosefurtherstates,thepressesarenotalwayssmall,andtheyarenotalwaysusingtheguiseofa
manbutofawoman.8
OnehasonlytosearchanyInternetbooksite,andtypeinkeywords“AmericanIndian”or
“NativeAmerican”todiscoverthatthemajorityofthewritersarewhite.WomensuchasLynn
Andrewsareindicative.Onerecentsearchrevealedthatshehad13itemsthatwere“related”to
IndigenousspiritualityonAmazon.com,and,inordertomaketheappropriationcomplete,sheand
othershavecrowdedoutbysheervolumetheIndigenouswoman’svoice.AccordingtoRose,Lynn
Andersonisa“whitewomanfromBeverlyHillswhohasgrownrichclaimingtohavebeentaught
bytwotraditionalCreewomen.”9Thesewomenaresaidtohavetaughtherhowtoovercome
innatelyevilmalesthroughfemaleempowerment.Ofevengreaterconcern,giventheplightof
womeninthepresent,isthefactthatAndersonextractselementsfromotherbeliefsystemsandfits
themintoafeministmodel,muchtothedetrimentofanoverallunderstandingofIndigenousbelief
systems.
ThemajorityofIndigenousculturesviewtheworlddifferentlythanthedominantculture
does–bothmundaneandspiritual.Neithergenderismorepowerfulthantheother.Malesarenot
innatelyevilandwomenhavetraditionallybeenempowered.Itisasystemthatrevolvesaround
balance.
OnecanuseaspectsofCherokeeculturetoillustratetheideaofbalance.Traditional
Cherokeesbelieve,forexample,thattheyareonepieceofthetapestryoftheworldandeverything
hasanessence.Thelossofbalancewouldcause“sickness,badweather,failedcrops,poorhunting,
andmanyotherproblems.”10Itwasnecessaryforhumanstoworkwiththerestoftheworldto
maintainbalance.Onecanimaginethat,inearliertimes—whenIndigenouswomenwereout
tendingthecropsthatwouldfeedtheirfamilies,theyperformedritualsforhealthyplants,enough
rainandsunshine,andstrengthfromthefoodtheyweretending.Theywouldbetalkingtothecorn
mother,Selu,whogavetheCherokeescorn,beansandsquash.Seludiedbythehandsofher
biologicalsonandheradoptedson.Beforeshedied,sheinstructedthemtodragherbodyaroundin
theearthseventimesandherbloodproducedcorn,beansandsquash.Seludidthistoassure
AniYunWiYa(Cherokee)alwayshadfood.11Shesacrificedherlifeonearthtoprovideforthewhole.
(OtherIndigenouscultureshavesimilarstoriesofhowcultivatedfoodcameintobeing.)Becauseof
thesacrificeofherlifeforthesustenanceofthetribe/Nation,Selu—andthesimilarsacrificesmade
byfirstmothersofmanyIndigenouscultures,thefirstcultivatedfoodsshouldbeconsidered
sacred.GeorgeTinkerposits,
Cornandallfoodstuffsareourrelatives,justasmuchasthosewho
liveinadjacentlodgeswithin[the]clan-cluster...weareeatingour
relatives...Thismaysoundcannibalistictotheprevailingculture.
However,therearemanyreasonsthatIndigenouscultureswould
interactwithrespectoflifeessenceandhonorthefoodplantor
animal.Thiscareandconcernisreflected.12
7WendyRose,“TheGreatPretenders:FurtherReflectionsonWhiteShamanism.”SusanLoboandSteve
Talbot,eds.NativeAmericanVoices:AReader(2nded.)(NewJersey:PrenticeHall,Inc.,1992),330.
8Rose:330.
9Ibid,338.
10KarenRaley,“MaintainingBalance:TheReligiousWorldoftheCherokees,”(1998)(accessed20January,
2009)availablefromhttp://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-twoworlds/1839.
11Kana\'tiandSelu."EncyclopediaMythicafromEncyclopediaMythicaOnline.(accessed6April,2009)
availablefrom<http://www.pantheon.org/articles/k/kanati_and_selu.html>.
12GeorgeTinker,“Jesus,CornMother,andConquest:ChristologyandColonialism”inJaceWeaver,ed.
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Onascientificlevel,itisgenerallyacceptedthat“theevolutionofcorndependedonintense
interventiononthepartofCentralAmericanhumans.”13Withouttheseacknowledgmentsof
relationandthecentralityofwomenandtheircontributionstobalanceandknowledgeofhistory,
Indigenouswomenstepintotheacculturationandassimilationpushedbytheprevailingculture
thatcauseslossoftheessencethatconnectsthemtotheiressentialcultureandplace.
Whatarethevariousimpactsofthelossofessence?Thereisoppressionanditsinsidious
relative,internalizedoppression.VirtuallyeveryscholarofAmericanIndian/Native
American/IndigenousStudieswouldarguethatIndigenouspeopleshavebeenandcontinuetobe
oppressedbytheprevailingcultureinnumerousways.Theresultofcenturiesofoppressionhas
resultedininternalizedoppression.Webster’sNewWorldCollegeDictionarydefines“internalize”
inthefollowingmanner:
[T]omakeinternal;interiorize;specificallytomake(others,esp.the
prevailing,attitudes,ideas,norms,etc.)aspartofone’sownpatterns
ofthinking14andoppressas“tokeepdownbythecruelorunjustuse
ofpowerorauthority;ruleharshly;tyrannizeover;tocrushor
trample.15
Incasesofinternalizedoppression,Indigenouswomenacceptthenegativestereotypesof
Indigenouscultures.Therefore,whenIndigenouswomenallowtheiressencetoberemovedbythe
combinationofinternalizedoppression,acculturation,andforcedassimilationatthehandsofthe
prevailingculture;thereisnothingtoreplacethelostessenceitexceptanemptinessthatcannotbe
filled.
Thequestionofwhytheprevailingculturehasturnedawayfromitsownreligionsand
wantstoco-optIndigenousreligionisavitalpoint.Americahasbeenandcontinuestobea
voraciousconsumeristsociety.Religiousparticipationconsumessomethingthattheprevailing
cultureinAmericadoesnotwanttooffer–time.BothCatholicismandProtestantismexpectseveral
dailyprayersessionsandactsofcharityaswellasweeklyformalcommunityservicesandhighdays
ofprayerfulcelebrationssuchasChristmasandEaster.Ifpracticed,theseobligationswouldbuild
communityandbringpractitionersclosertointernalpeace.Indigenousspiritualpracticesareno
different.AhealerorspiritualleaderwhohasbecomeknowntotheWesternworldasShaman/ess
leadsanevenmorerigorousspirituallife,becauses/heisattheworkofkeepingtheworldin
balancebyhelpingothersthroughthespiritualterrain.
ForAmericans,spiritualityandtheprocessofbecomingashaman/ess,likeanyother
consumableproductorservice,becomesapay-per-view/on-demandpursuit.AllanGreercitesJill
LeporeasseeingAmericansconstructinga‘triangulated’identity,inrelationtothenative‘other’
butalsototheEuropean‘other.’16LisaAldredconjecturesthatasignificantnumberofwhite
affluentsuburbanandurbanmiddle-agedbaby-boomerscomplainoffeelinguprootedfromcultural
traditions,communitybelonging,andspiritualmeaningtowhichtheNewAgemovementhasbeen
oneanswer.Aspartofaconsumeristsocietytheypursuespiritualityandidentitythroughthevery
actsofconsumerismtheyclaimtheywanttoescape.Thisspiritualconsumerismleavesthem
NativeAmericanReligiousIdentity:UnforgottenGods(Maryknoll,NY:OrbisBooks,1998),151.
13JudeTodd,(2008)“CornCulture:AStoryofIntelligentDesign,”AmericanIndianQuarterly,no.4(Fall
2008):475.(FussellcitedinTodd)
14Webster’sNewWorldCollegeDictionary3rded.,s.v.“internalize”(NewYork:Macmillan,1996).
15Webster’sNewWorldCollegeDictionary3rded.,s.v.“oppress”(NewYork:Macmillan,1996).
16AllanGreer,“NativesandNationalism:TheAmericanizationofKateriTekakwitha,”CatholicHistorical
Review90,no.2(April2004):260.
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Krisch: Appropriating Balance
wantingbecausethecommunityisnotgroundedintimeandplace.Thisgivestheprevailingculture
afeelingoflossandabandonmentthatcannotbefilled.17MichaelGibbonssupportsthese
consumersinresearching“theirownmythologiesforculturalinnovationandethicalgroundingfor
desiredbehaviors.”18However,hedoesnotsupporttheminthecooptionofothers’religionor
spirituality.ExploringtheeffectsthatChristianityhashadonIndigenouspeoples,Tinkerobserved
attheLivingWaters’Sundayservicethat“[t]hepoliticalcompromiseandresulting
disempowermentthatcome[s]fromparticipatingintheconqueror’sceremonywasandissimply
toogreat.”19ThosewhochoosetoparticipateinChristianitywithoutsomesyncretismwiththeir
ownessenceisoppressiveitself.“TocalluponJesusasLordistoconcedethecolonialrealityofnew
hierarchicalsocialstructures;itistoconcedetheconquestasfinalandtobecomecomplicitinour
owndeath,thatis,theongoinggenocidaldeathofourpeoples.”20Westerncultureleavesitselfand
theconqueredinaspiritualvoid.
ThePrevailingCultureandItsUseofIndigenousWomen
FormanyAmericans,fillingthespiritualvoidthatresultsfromtheunwillingnessorinabilityto
committoreligioninitsoriginalformatisnotenough.BothProtestantsandCatholicsholdhighthe
idealassimilatedIndigenousexamplesofKateriTekakwithaandCatherineBrowntolure
Indigenouswomentotheemptinessofassimilationandspiritualvoid.Theybothbecomepartof
thePocahontasPerplex“Princess”iconthatisvirgin-like,pure,andhelpfulto
European/Americans.21ThePocahontasPerplexforIndigenouswomenisnodifferentthanother
womenofcolor.Thegoodandevilperplexsetsimpossiblegoals(virginity,helpful,pure)which
forceswomentoattempttheimpossible-maintainperfectionforanentirelifetimeorfallinto
deprivation.Thisimpossiblequestisextremelycomplexandconfusing.Itdamagesself-esteemand
nurturesinternalizedoppressionsimilartothatwhichhasoftenbeenpromotedbyCatholicismand
ProtestantfaithsintheAmericas.
TheCatholicChurchhaslonghadatenuousholdonAmericabecauseofthestrong
ProtestantismthatcrossedwiththeMayflowerandsomanyothersafterher.By1884,the
ChurchneededtoreshapeitsimageandsolidifyitselfintheU.S.DuringthePlenaryCouncilof
Baltimore,manynamescameupbutonefinallyemergedasafavoritecandidateforcanonization–
theMohawkconvert,CatherineTekakwitha.Shewasaperfectchoiceatthetime,becauseshefitthe
stereotypeofthepureIndigenouswomanofthecountry’simaginedpast;shecouldreflectthe
borderland-romanticizedlifethatAmericansenvisioned.Mostimportantly,sheconnectedthe
Churchtonature,landandtheexplorerindividualistwhowastheoppositeoftheurbanrealitiesof
thetime.22Herstoryistoldasfollows:
BornintheMohawkvalleyin1656,Tekakwithawasasicklyand
reclusiveorphanwhoconvertedtoCatholicismasanadolescent,
takingthebaptismalnameofCatherine.Thevillagerspersecutedher
17LisaAldred,“PlasticShamansandAstroturfSunDances,”AmericanIndianQuarterly24no.3(Summer
2000):329.
18MichaelS.Gibbons,“NewAgeCowboysandIndianReligion:BoundaryMaintenanceandReligiousInterCulturalBorrowing”(2004),(accessed15January,2009)Availablefrom
faculty.evansville.edu/mg86/docs/020%20New%20Age%20Cowboys%20and%20Indian:p.18
19Tinker,137.
20Ibid,139.
21ReynaGreen,“ThePocahontasPerplex:theImageofIndianWomeninAmericanCulture,”SusanLobo
andSteveTalbot,eds.,NativeAmericanVoices:AReader2nded.(NewJersey:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,2001),206.
22Greer,262.
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andshefledtoSaultSt.Louis(Kahnawake)toaJesuitmission.She
joinedagroupofotheryoungIroquoiswomenwhoabstainedfrom
sexandmarriageinordertoobtainreligiousperfectionthrough
Catholicism.Herself-inflictedpenances--includingfasting,selfflagellation,sleepdeprivation,mixingashesinherfood,creatinga
bedofthorns,brandingherselfwithhotcoalsandmore,werejudged
tobeseverebutbroughtherparticularlyvividandilluminating
visionsanddreams.Shediedat24.23
HerfollowingamongFrenchCanadianandIndigenousCatholicsgrew.Tekakwitha’s
citizenshipbecameacontestedissuebetweenCanadaandtheU.S.Therearenowtwo
shrinesinherhonor.OneisinKahnawake,Quebec,CanadaandoneinFonda,N.Y.
ClarenceandNellyWalworth,anuncleandniece,werecrucialtothesurvivalof
Tekakwitha’slegend.Clarencefoundhergraveandpersonallyfinancedagravestone.
NellyhadwrittenaboutheradventuresinEuropeandAsia.Shewantedtotackle
Tekakwitha’slifeandbringhertwofavoritestylestoit,romanceandarchaeology.
Nelly“approachedthechallengebyconfrontingthemeagerevidencedirectlybearingon
thatphaseofthelifewithwhatshecouldfindoutaboutMohawkcultureandthehistoryof
FrenchandDutchcolonization.Onthatwellresearchedbasis,shethenimaginedalifefor
Tekakwitha,completewithcozyepisodesofdomesticroutineanddangerouswartime
adventures.”24
Greerlaterstatesthat“Europeansandnativesalltaketheirplaceinthis
picturesquetableauwithoutanyhintthatonegroupisflourishingattheexpenseofthe
other.”25Tomakethestorycomplete,NellyeliminatesthenameCatherinefromthetitle
andusesaMohawkmispronunciationoftheItaliansaintalongwithaFrench
approximationofaMohawknametopresenthercreationasapristineaboriginal.26The
mostinterestingthingaboutKateriisthatshewasveneratedin1943;beatifiedin1980;
buthasyettobecanonized.27
Thisstoryraisesmanyinterestingquestions.Whatdoesthatsayforthefaithful,thatonly
onemoremiracleisneededandhasnotoccurredintwenty-nineyears?28IsKaterinolonger
23CherylPetten,“LilyoftheMohawksBlessedandDevoted,”Windspeaker,(April2004):34.(accessed20
January,2009)availablefromhttp://www.catholic-pages.com/saints/process.asp.
24Greer,267.
25Ibid,269.
26Ibid,271.
27Thequalificationsforanyonetobecanonizedareasfollows:
5.ForthebeatificationofaconfessoramiracleattributedtotheServantofGod,verifiedafterhis
death,isnecessary.Therequiredmiraclemustbeproventhroughtheappropriatecanonical
investigation,followingaprocedureanalogoustothatforheroicvirtues.Thisonetooisconcluded
withtherelativedecree.Oncethetwodecreesarepromulgated(regardingtheheroicvirtuesand
themiracle)theHolyFatherdecidesonbeatification,whichistheconcessionofpublicworship,
limitedtoaparticularsphere.WithbeatificationthecandidatereceivesthetitleofBlessed.
6.Forcanonizationanothermiracleisneeded,attributedtotheintercessionoftheBlessedand
havingoccurredafterhisbeatification.Themethodsforascertainmentoftheaffirmedmiracleare
thesameasthosefollowedforbeatification.Canonizationisunderstoodastheconcessionof
publicworshipintheUniversalChurch.Pontificalinfallibilityisinvolved.Withcanonization,the
BlessedacquiresthetitleofSaint."Formoreinformation,visithttp://www.catholicpages.com/saints/process.asp.
28
The reference to “twenty-nine” years refers to the period between the date of beatification (1980) and the date of
the author’s presentation at the Women and Spirituality Symposium (2009).
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interestedinbeingtheperfectIndigenouswomanfortheCatholicChurch?Hassheabandonedthe
faithful?Coulditbethattheverypeoplewhocouldhaveattributedamiraclenolongerinvestthe
timethatittakestoprayforintersessionto“create”thatfinalmiracle?Orcoulditbethatsheno
longerservestheChurchbecauseIndigenouswomencannotliveuptothatidealizediconography?
LeavingCatholicismbehind,onecanturntoanidealizedIndigenouswomanforthe
Protestantfaith,CatherineBrown.CatherineBrownwasaCherokeewhoalsoledabrieflifewhich
seemstobeoneofthecriteriatobecomethevenerated‘other’fortheprevailingcultureandeasier
tokeeppure.CatherineBrowncamealongatanearlierbutnolessimportantreligioustimeinthe
early19thcentury.Shewasbornaround1800anddiedbythetimeshewas23.UnlikeKateri,she
wasalivingmodelfortheBrainerdMissionSchoolandtheAmericanBoardofCommissionersfor
ForeignMissions(ABFM).29TheABFMwantedtobeamoverandshakerwhenitcametothe
“IndianQuestion.”ItsupportedcompleteacculturationandassimilationofIndigenouspeoplesinto
theprevailingcultureatanycost.
SomeCherokeesalsounderstoodthevalueoftheappearanceofacculturation.Thepressure
fromstatestomovetribes/NationsthatlivedintheSoutheastsuchasTennesseeandGeorgiawas
becomingunbearable.Cherokeeshadtraditionallandthatcoveredfivetosevensoutheastern
states.Bythe1820s,mostoftheCherokeeswereconfinedtoGeorgiawhere,unfortunately,gold
wasdiscoveredin1827onCherokeelands.30Thisdiscoveryencouragedacampaigntoportraythe
Cherokeesasuncivilizedwhentheoppositewasactuallythecase.
Inordertopresenta“perfect”acculturatedandassimilatedexamplethatwouldbe
acceptabletotheABFM’sfunders,thegrouppromotedCatherine.However,Catherine’scase
backfired.InsteadofbecomingaunifyingforcetopromoteChristianity,sheestrangedherselffrom
theCherokeebecauseofherfaith.31
AsaprogressiveCherokee,Catherinesawthemissionasawaytosaveherpeoplefromtotal
destruction.Sheeventuallyconvincedherentirefamilytoconvertwhichwasagreatcauseof
distressforher.32First,Catherine’sbrotherJohncontractedtuberculosis.Aftercaringforhim,
Catherinecamedownwiththesamedisease.At23,shewasdead.TheABFMfeltthather“physical
appearanceandinnatecharactertraitsmadehermoresusceptibletotheChristianmessageand
moreeducableinacademicsubjects.Nevertheless,onlyasmallminorityofCherokeesjoined
ChristianchurchesbeforetheCherokeeNation’sremovalwestoftheMississippiin1838-39,and
missionrecordsrevealthathalfofthembecamebacksliders.33HerCherokeecontemporaries
thoughtofCatherineasseparatefromthecollectivegroupmentalityoftribal/Nationalculturesand
putherintothesingularmindsetoftheprevailingculture.Intheend,however,whenshe
witnessedherbrother’sillnessanddeath--andwhenshewasdiagnosedwiththesameillness,she
allowedherparentstotakehertotraditionalhealers.34ThisfinalactsuggeststhatCatherine’s
searchforhelpthroughacculturationwasonlyatthesurfaceandthatsherevertedtoher
traditionalbeliefsystemsintheend.
29ThedaPurdue,“CatherineBrown:CherokeeConverttoChristianity.”InThedaPurdue(ed.)Sifters:
NativeAmericanWomen’sLives(ViewpointsonAmericanCulture)(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,Inc.,
2001),78-79.
30ColinCalloway,FirstPeoples:ADocumentarySurveyofAmericanIndianHistory,3rded.(Boston:Bedford
St.Martin’sPress,2009).
31ThedaPurdue,“CatherineBrown:CherokeeConverttoChristianity.”InThedaPurdue(ed.)Sifters:
NativeAmericanWomen’sLives(ViewpointsonAmericanCulture)(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,Inc.,
2001),77-91.
32Purdue,85.
33Purdue,89.
34Purdue,88.
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ActingOutofInternalizedOppression
Inthecontemporaryworld,thecooptionandcorruptionofIndigenousbeliefsresultsindisruption
andimbalancethatcontinuestoharmIndigenouswomen.Theseconditionsaremanifested
throughalcoholanddrugabuse,lossofidentity,depression.Combinationsoftheaforementioned
problemscanleadtoattemptedandcompletedsuicide.
AccordingbyPhilipMay,Indianfemalemortalityratesduetoalcohol-relatedincidencesin
completedsuicidesishighestinthe35-44agegroupat9.3comparedto7.2perhundredthousand
intheU.S.Thisfiguredoesnotaccountforattemptedsuicides,whichcanoftenbelookeduponas
accidents.Hisstatisticsfordeathsinaccidentsofvarioustypesforthisagegroupis49.1compared
to14.5intheU.S.ForIndigenouswomen,then,thecombinedfigureisastaggering58.4per
hundredthousand,comparedto21.7perhundredthousandintheU.S.Thestatisticsarenotmuch
betterforthe45-54femaleagegroup,becausethedeathfromalcoholismanditsrelatedillnesses
isupto57.3comparedto7.6intheU.S.perhundredthousand.Theaccidentaldeathis46.1
comparedto15.6perhundredthousand.Maydoesnottrackanygroupabove54orbelow15
yearsofage,butthesestatisticsshowadownwardspiralthatpeaksinthe35-44agegroups.35
Hereiswheretheonsetofhopelessnessduetotherealizationsofcooption,thepresenceof
negativestereotypes,andtheforcesofinternalizedoppressionareclearlyreflected.Thesestatistics
donotbegintocovertheemotionalpricethatispaid.
ThefollowingtwoexamplesshowthedramaticresponsesofIndigenouswomentothese
challenges.Onemodernresearcher,PaulSpicer,looksatIndigenousidentityandalcoholthrough
narrative.HediscussesawomanhecallsBeth(Ojibwe)whowasraisedinCaucasianfosterhomes
andsearchedforherIndigenousidentitythroughencounterswithotherurbanIndiansthrough
alcoholanditsabuse.Bethwaslivedbetweenbothfosterhomesandinstitutions.Shewouldrun
awaytomeetupwithotherUrbanIndiansandgoonbinges.Bethleftthechildwelfaresystemat16
butcontinuedtofeellost.ShemarriedanUrbanIndianwhowas10yearshersenioroutoffearof
theprevailingculture.Shestayedsoberformostofthemarriagebutreturnedtodrugsandalcohol
asacopingmechanismforheranxieties.Bethfoundamedicinemanwhowasabletohelpherfora
shorttime,buthepassedaway.HewasOjibweaswellandtoldhermanystoriesofherpeople.
TheseinteractionswithherOjibwemedicinemanallowedBethtostartconnectingtohercultural
communityintime,space,andplace.Thedisconnectshehadexperiencedspiritually,throughno
faultofherown,hadstartedtoreconnecthertoaninnatespiritualexistenceinaccessibleinthe
fostercaresystemandthehomesofherCaucasianfosterparents.Bethwassoberforfiveyears,
whenshebecameinvolvedwithanabusiveman,andlostherdaughter.Bethendsherstorywith
“WhenIsayI’mdrinking,I’mtalkingabouteveryday,untilIcan’tdrinknomore.”36Thisisaclear
exampleofhowthelackofbalanceandspiritualanchoringthroughthedisruptionoftraditionsand
IndigenoussocializationharmsIndigenouswomen.
InthenextaccountofGladys,itisclearthatherknowledgeofselfbroughtheroutofthe
alcoholsyndromeandgaveherpurposeinlife.Inheryouth,Gladyswasspirituallycenteredinthe
traditionsoftheLakota.ShehadbeenaSunDancerandapipecarrier.AsGladysgrewolder,she
begantodrinkmore,andshemovedawayfromtraditions.Followingtheexampleofherbrothers,
Gladysjoinedthemilitaryservice,andheralcoholanddruguseincreased.Gladysbecameaddicted
toheroin,whichkeptherawayfromalcoholforatime.Whenshereturnedhometocareforher
ailingfather,sheencounteredamedicinemanwhopredictedshewouldbedeadat34.Whenher
35PhilipA.May,“TheEpidemiologyofAlcoholAbuseamongAmericanIndians:TheMythicalandReal
Properties”inSusanLoboandSteveTalbot(Eds.)NativeAmericanVoices:AReader(2nded.)(NewJersey:
Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1994),436-453.
36Spicer,Paul(1998).“NarrativityandtheRepresentationofExperienceinAmericanIndianDiscourses
aboutDrinking,”Culture,MedicineandPsychiatry,22(1998),155-158.
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Krisch: Appropriating Balance
34thbirthdayhadcomeandgone,Gladysthoughtshehadoutlivedtheprediction,butshewas
struckwithamassiveheartattack.Gladyswenttoaceremonywithelderlywomenonthe
reservationlookingforguidance,thensheleftthereservationandreturnedtoMinneapolisstill
lookingforsigns.
GladyswenttotheIndianCenterandmetsomeotherwomenwhotoldherthatherpath
wouldberevealedsoon.ShereturnedtotheCenterafewdayslateranddiscoveredthatapipewas
cryingbecauseitwasassembledandondisplay.ShespoketotheOjibwemanwhohadleftit
assembled.Shetoldhimherstoryaboutbeingapipecarrier,andhegaveherthepipetocarefor.
Thereawakeningofherearlierspiritualconnectionasapipecarrier,andreceivingthepipeasa
gift,spoketoher,openedheruptoreceivenotonlythedirectionherlifeshouldtakebutalsoa
recoveryprogramforIndigenouspeople.Gladyswasabletosynthesizeherearlierspiritual
experiencesandreturntoherspiritualroots.Shesharedhervisionwithothers,inordertobring
healingthroughtraditionalthemes.37
BothstoriesshowthepowerofconnectivityforIndigenouswomenthroughtraditional
practicesthatseemtohaveaninnatehealingpower.AlthoughBethlostthatconnection,ithelped
herforfiveyears.Losingthatspiritualconnectionsentherintoatailspinfromwhichshefeltshe
couldneverrecover.Bethhadnoconnectivitytotime,place,space,orthespiritualityneededto
sustainthebalance.TheIndigenousspiritualconnectionhelpedGladysnavigatethroughtheshiftto
urbanlivingandalcoholsocializationbacktosobriety.Gladysalsodiscoveredtheneedtogiveback
toherpeoplethroughadrugandalcoholtreatmentplanthatshehadreceivedfromherhigher
power.Gladysunderstoodtheconnectivitythroughtime,place,andspacebecauseshehadthe
innateconnectionthatcouldnotbeachievedwithoutthecollectivememoryofbeingIndigenous.
Conclusion
Theneedforreclamationandsettingofclearboundaries—whichincludepan-Indiansharing,
reversingvictimmentalities,andIndigenouswomenreturningtotheblanketortraditionalways,is
unmistakable.ThereareseveralpointsthatMichaelGibbonsstressesonboundarymaintenance.
Blurringculturalboundariestothepointofcompromisinguniquenessfliesinthefaceofcultural
diversity.Asthepopulationincreases,itisnecessarytoappreciateandrespectmultiplicity.
Indiscriminateborrowingofritualsandspiritualitywithoutcontextualculturalsupportdevalues
themandleavesthemmeaninglessintimeandplace.38InlookingatgroupssuchastheMi’kmaq,
Catawba’sandothers,theintergroupsharingisnodifferentthanthehistoricalsharingand
regroupingdemonstratedbyOhio’sMingosorMichigan’sSaukorSacandFox,whowere
eventuallydriventoOklahoma.
WhenlookingatKateriTekakwithaandCatherineBrown,theiriconographyhasultimately
failedtheprevailingculture,becausetheyarenolongerusefulandhavebeenleftoutofthe
proselytizingtoIndigenousculturesaboutChristianity.Theyhaveoutlivedtheirusefulnessandare
castasidelikeanabaloneshellandsagewhenitisnolongerfashionabletouseinanappropriated
way.BethwillneverfindherwayhomeinspiteofherIndigenousness.Shewasstrippedofher
Indigenousrootsandwillcontinuetowanderaimlesslyuntilshediesfromthedisconnectionthat
wasoutofhercontrolthroughabandonmentbyherparentsandtheacculturationandassimilation
thathasleftherspirituallyvoid.Thisisthepriceofthosewhoappropriateorco-optIndigenous
37Spicer:144-150.
38MichaelS.Gibbons,“NewAgeCowboysandIndianReligion:BoundaryMaintenanceandReligiousInterCulturalBorrowing,”(2004):(AccessedJanuary15,2009,
faculty.evansville.edu/mg86/docs/020%20New%20Age%20Cowboys%20and%20Indian%20Religion.pdf.
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The Journal of Traditions & Beliefs, Vol. 3 [2016], Art. 10
spiritualityoutofcontextaswell.Clearly,intheexampleofGladys,itispossibletoreversevictim
mentalityandsynthesizehurtfulandhelpfulbehaviorsthroughtribe/Nation-specificandpanIndianpracticeswhentakenintotality.Bytakingthetimetolearnabouttime,place,traditions,and
specificuses—insteadofpickingandchoosingbitsandpiecesofIndigenouscultures,traditional
back-to-the-blanketwayscanhealbothtribes/NationsandUrbanIndians.
ThisisamodestattempttocontinuetheworkofgettingattherootsofhowIndigenous
womencanreverseacculturationandassimilationandreturntotheworkofbalance.Itisan
additionalpleatootherwomenwhoarenotIndigenoustobeintentionallyawareofthenegative
impactofappropriationoutofthecontextsoftime,space,andplace.Thispaperaddstothe
literatureontheeffectsofChristianconversiononIndigenouswomenspecificallyandto
Indigenouspeopleingeneral.Indigenousritualsandspiritualitymustbeseenasatoolfor
Indigenouswomentoregaincollectiveandpersonalempowermentwhethertheyareruralor
UrbanIndianwomen.Bystoppingthecooptionandappropriationofritualsandspirituality,nonIndigenouswomancanshowsupportofIndigenouswomenintheirfighttocontinuetocleaveto
Indigenousspiritualpaths.Thesepathsmustbereclaimedaspartoftheoverallhealingfor
Indigenouswomenwhohavecontinuedtosuffertheassaultofcooptionandappropriation.39
39IwouldliketoexpressmyextremegratitudetoDr.RobertWheelerforreviewingandeditingthispaper.
Hisinsightwasinvaluable.
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Krisch: Appropriating Balance
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