An excerpt from:
Modern Iran: Caliphs, Kings, and Jurisprudents
by
Iraj Bashiri
Copyright 2017
The Mongols
The name of Genghis Khān and the Mongol horde that devastated Asia and a good
part of Europe and the Middle East go hand in hand. Genghis Khān, who was born in
1162 in Khentii Mountains of Mongolia and died in 1227, was buried in a place that is
unknown to this day. His original name was either Temūchīn or Temūjīn. He was the son
of Yesügei Baghātur (died 1171), a chieftain and a son of Kābul Khān.
Temūchīn's early life was comfortable. Soon, however, his father took him to the
Onggirat tribe where a ten-year-old girl, Berta, was betrothed to him. He remained in
Berta's camp to learn the ways of the Onggirat warriors. Traditionally, he would have
stayed there until the marriage ceremonies were completed. But a messenger arrived from
Yesügei and informed him that he had been summoned to his father's camp. On the way
to the camp, he was informed that the Tātārs had poisoned his father and that he was
dying.
After his father's death, enemies disassembled Yesügei's yurts and drove the family
out of the main encampment. Tribal members, loyal to Yesügei, chose different lords and
moved away. Young Temūchīn was left with his father's family and some of his
possessions, including a few horses and sheep. He moved his family deep into the
mountains east of Lake Baikal on the Onon River. But even there the thieves did not
leave them alone. Viewing the defenseless state of the family, one night they came and
took the family's main source of sustenance, their horses.
Temūchīn pursued the thieves alone for four days. On the way he met a young man
called Bogorchu and told him his story. Bogorchu had seen the thieves. He gave
Temūchīn a fresh horse and offered to accompany him. Together they took the horses
from the thieves and brought them back to the camp. In time, Bogorchu became a very
good friend of Temūchīn and aided him in his campaigns. He is one of Genghis Khān's
"four dogs," or army commanders. The other three dogs are Boroghul (who was also
Temūchīn’s cook), Chilagun the Brave, and Mukhali. Temūchīn also had "four heroes":
Jebe, Jelme, Khubilai, and Subedai. Subedai was the most accomplished and famous.
Temūchīn was ambitious. Unlike the other steppe chiefs who fought over rights to
women, horses, and pastureland, he fought over power. Early in his life, he realized that
without power, his enemies were likely to treat him and his family in the same way that
the thieves, who had driven away their horses, had treated them—leave them poor to die
on the mountains. Nevertheless, in resolving conflicts, he used tactics first. Only when
the result was not satisfactory, he used force.
As soon as his family situation improved, with the help of his brothers and his bloodbrother (anda), Bogorchu, he began to raid the other tribes and take their possessions. His
actions brought the other tribes into conflict, regardless of whether they supported
1
Temūchīn or opposed him. In the tribal wars that occurred, Temūchīn appointed the
heads of the tribes that he had conquered as his commanders. By 1206, he completed the
formation of a nation; he won enough support to be chosen the Khāghān or the Khān of
khāns. Within three years (1209), he invaded China and forced the Emperor to pay tribute
to him.
The first Qiriltai1 occurred in 1223 in the valley of the Chirchik River. Here Genghis
met with his sons and spent a long time resting from battle and hunting the wild ass.
From there he went back to Mongolia. In 1224, he was on the Irtysh. In 1225 he was in
Mongolia. He died in 1227.
Genghis Khān's legacy consists of the creation of the Yāsāq (Mongol Law), adoption
of the Uighur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system, promotion of religious
tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and creation of a unified empire from the nomadic tribes
of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of their
nation
After Genghis Khān, the term Mongol covered a lot of territory not all of which was
populated by the Mongol tribe. Before Genghis Khān united them, tribes like the Tamad,
Oriat, Khereid, Naiman, Qunqurat, Onnigud, Merkid, Tatar, Jalāyir, and others
nomadised independently around Lake Baikal. Each had its own identity, pastureland,
and nomadic route. Genghis Khān subjugated these tribes and made their chiefs
commanders of his army. As a result, these tribes lost their visibility and identity and
came to be referred to as either Tātārs or Mongols. A glance at ethnographic studies of
Central Asia shows that, although in diaspora, these tribes have retained their identities.
In addition to the tribes mentioned above, there were several other communities that
lived in the proximity of lake Baikal. Prominent and close to the lake were the Uighurs.
Today they live, for the most part, in northwestern China, in the Uighur Autonomous
Region of Xinjiang. A small number of them live in the present-day Central Asian
republics. There are nearly 9,000,000 Uighurs in China and about 300,000 in Uzbekistan,
Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. As one of the oldest Turkic peoples of Central Asia,
speaking a Turkic Altaic language, the Uighurs were first overtaken by the Kirghiz (840)
and later submitted voluntarily to the Mongols (1209).
By 1215, Genghis Khān had already crossed the Wall of China, devastated Peking
(Beijing) and subjugated the Qin Emperor. Looking west, there were two major
contenders: the Qarakhitāi Khānate with Kuchlūk Khān as its ruler and the Khwārazmian
Empire with Muḥammad Khwārazm at its head. By 1217 Kuchlūk was beheaded and the
Qarakhitai kingdom was absorbed. And by 1219, Genghis and his sons, Jochi, Chaqatāi,
Ogaday, and Tuloui were on the Irtysh, making preparations to capture the lands of the
Khwārazm Shāh.
1
Qiriltai is a family reunion of the Mongols that all chieftains must attend.
2
Mongol Conquests under Genghis Khān
3
The invasion of Transoxania by the Mongols has been documented in many books. In
order to put the extent of the destruction in perspective, we shall provide a couple of
eyewitness accounts. The city of Bukhārā fell after three days, Samarkand after ten days.
Other cities fell to the sons of Genghis Khān one after the other. In almost all the cities,
the populations were put to the sword. The following is a list of the souls lost:
Nishāpūr
Herāt
Merv
Balkh
Nisā
Bayhaq
Kuhistān
Baghdād
1,747,000
1,600,000
700,000
200,000
70,000
70,000
12,000
800,000
The cities of Ghazna, Bāmiyān, Rayy, and Urgench were razed to the ground. The
populations mentioned are staggering and there are no hard records to back them up. The
existence of these numbers and the reliable accounts of survivors who witnessed the
devastation, however, speak to the harshness of the times.
About the Mongol devastation, Ata Malik Juvaini writes, "Where there had been a
hundred thousand people, there remained...not a hundred souls alive." Qazwīnī, who
wrote in 1340, adds, "...there can be no doubt that even if for a thousand years to come no
evil befalls the country, yet will it not be possible completely to repair the damage, and
bring back the land to the state that it had been formerly." Saifī, another historian of the
Mongols, says, "After the slaughter of 1220 only 16 people survived in the city of Herat,
and only 40 if we include fugitives from other places, whilst not more than 100 survivors
remained in the surrounding countryside..." For survival, Saifī adds, "first they fed upon
the corpses of animals and men, then for a period of four years this handful of people
were only able to get food by attacking passing caravans; and this, too, at distances from
150 to 800 kilometers from Herāt."
Mongol Virtues
They are most obedient and respectful of their masters and lords
They share what they have with the rest of the family
They do not lie to each other and are very supportive of one
another
They do not steal from close relatives; they steal from other tribes
They can fast for two or three days
They can endure adverse weather conditions and keep guard
They support each other rather than fight
The concept of mutiny does not exist in their world
Their men can hold their liquor pretty good
Their women are chaste; every man can marry as many wives as
he can afford (they cannot marry their own mother.
Levirate is the law—one has to marry the wife of a deceased
brother and take care of his household)
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Mongol Vices
The Mongols were extremely arrogant towards other people,
even grand dukes
They disdained non-Mongols
They angered very easily towards other people
They lied profusely to other people
They were crafty, sly, and secretive
They had no qualms about killing other people
Initially they flattered but in the end stung like a scorpion
They were extremely messy in eating, drinking, and their whole
way of life
Drunkenness was honorable among them
The Mongols rarely gave gifts
If they liked something, they tried both flattery and force and
took it
Mongols were shamanists and idol worshipers. They called their god Tengri. They
also worshiped the sun, the moon, and fire and offered the first of any food as sacrifices
to them. In their religion, all sins were purified by fire, and all things that came to their
camp had to be purified by passing between two fires. Killing people, invading other
countries, seizing other peoples’ property, whoring, committing wrong against other
people, disregarding God’s commandments were not sin.2
Shamanism
The deity of the shaman is called Tengri. There are many Tengris, each
in charge of some aspect of nomadic life. After death, the soul of the
individual continues to make progress until it becomes a part of Tengri.
The power of the spirit over the living, therefore, is enormous. Within this
power structure, the shaman, believed to have recourse to the supernatural,
in a trance, visits the spirit and, in the course of an elaborate series of
rituals, heals the sick.
The shaman is chosen as an intermediary between this world and the
world of spirits. He is distinguished from others physically (he has more
bones than others, e.g., six fingers), psychologically, and emotionally. He
works in consort with an assistant or a group of helpers who prepare the
scene and play the drums.
The exceptional abilities of the shaman appear after the spirits choose
an individual. The individual, who refuses to serve, is struck, becomes ill—
falls into a trance. During this trance, the body of the shaman-to-be is cut
up into pieces by the spirits and put back together. This is to count his
bones. After the shaman gains consciousness, he climbs an imaginary
2
[add fn from …]
5
World Tree. Then using drums, headgear, gown, metal rattlers, mirrors, and
his staff, he utters special words developed in the community of shamans.
The shaman does not work (hunt, gather, fish, etc.). The community
supports him.
In Mongol society, the Bīkī shaman, or witch-doctor, had an elevated place. He read
bones, climbed the world tree and, in a trance, talked to the ancestors. He also was an
astrologer and read the intent of the stars. For instance, Genghis Khān did not start any
war befiore the Bīkī announced that the stars were in agreement.
The dead were buried in Kurgāns. Their horses, carriage, gold, and other worldly
possessions were buried with them as well. In Genghis Khān's case, for instance, every
living thing along the way to his burial place was put to death so that their spirits may
accompany him and serve him in the hereafter.
Genghis Khān’s Yāsāq
In Genghis Khān's camp, his word was the law. It was, however, an
unwritten law. After Genghis Khān, his words were put down and emerged
as the Yāsāq. The following are examples of the fragility of life under
Mongol rule.
An adulterer is to be put to death without any regard as to whether he is
married or not.
Whoever is guilty of sodomy is to be put to death.
Whoever intentionally lies, or practices sorcery, or spies upon the
behavior of others, or intervenes between the two parties in a quarrel to help
the one against the other is to be put to death.
Whoever urinates into water or ashes is to be put to death.
Whoever takes goods (on credit) and becomes bankrupt, then again takes
goods and again becomes bankrupt, then takes goods again and yet again
becomes bankrupt is to be put to death after the third time.
Whoever gives food or clothing to a captive without the permission of his
captor is to be put to death.
Whoever finds a runaway slave or captive and does not return him to the
person to whom he belongs is to be put to death.
The Mongols' attitude toward other faiths is difficult to assess. The early Ilkhāns were
sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity. Among their Muslim subjects, they did not
distinguish between the Sunnī and the Shīʿī. In 1295, Ghazān Khān embraced Sunnī
Islam. After Ghazān Khān, his brother, Uljaitū accepted Shīʿism. He made Shīʿism the
official religion of his realm. We shall deal with this aspect of Mongol life in more detail
further below.
6
Mongol Conquests in Russia (Batu) and Meospotamia (Hulegu)
7
The Mongols created a major empire in which the Iranian, Chinese, Uighur, and
European merchants and scholars could exchange goods and ideas. As a result, both the
arts and the sciences benefited. Exchange of ambassadors between Asian and European
powers of the time benefited commerce, and using the security of the Yam, Asian goods
were moved to Europe and European goods were moved to Asia with ease. Capable
Muslims found their way to the Mongol court and were placed in key administrative
positions.
Similarly, the Persian language was promoted as a lingua franca and Islam, especially
Shīʿite Islam, and Ṣūfism found many adherents.
The Ilkhānate (1256-1335)
In 1236, Batū Khān, son of Jochī, was ordered to capture the Qibchaq Plain and what
is present-day Eastern Europe. Following that, an Iranian deligation, headed by the Qāḍī
of Qazwīn, requested from Great Khān Monke to appoint a pādeshāh for Iran (1252).
Thus, in 1255, Khān Monke commissioned Hūlagū, son of Tolui, to subjugate, or
destroy, the fortifications of the Assassins at Alamūt; subjugate, or destroy, the ʿAbbāsid
caliphate based in Baghdād; subjugate, or destroy, the Ayyūbid states in Syria, based in
Damascus; and subjugate, or destroy, the Baḥrī Mamlūk Sultanate of Egypt.
Map of the Ilkhānate
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Following Khān Monke's order, in the 13th century, Hūlagū established the Ilkhānid
khānate in Persia as a part of the greater Mongol Empire. The genesis of the khānate goes
back to Genghis Khān's 1219-1224 invasion of Khwārazm discussed earlier. The Ilkhānid
Khānate comprised most of the present-day Iran, Iraq, Afghānistān, Turkmenistān,
Armenia, Azerbaijān, Georgia, Turkey, and some regions of western Pākistān.
Hūlagū Khān (r. 1256-1265)
Hūlagū was the son of Tolui, Ghengis Khān's youngest son. He ruled between 1256
and 1265, and died on February 8, 1265 at the age of 48. He was buried in Shāhī Island,
in Lake Urmia, Azerbāijān. His funeral was the only Ilkhānid funeral to feature human
sacrifice.
Hūlagū's first undertaking was the elimination of the Ismāʿīlīs that, for over 150
years, had lived in the mountain strongholds in a vast region between Syria and the
mountains of Central Asia. Their fortifications were impregnable and their assassins were
ruthless. Hūlagū divided his forces and sent each to a fortification. Within three years, the
most important fortification, the stronghold of Quhistān, surrendered. The fall of Alamūt,
Maymūndezh, and Lonbeh Sar followed.
Following the fall of the fortresses, the ruler of the Ismāʿīlīlis, Rukn al-Dīn Khurshāh,
was captured and the famous Ismāʿīlī libraries were set on fire (1256). Iranian advisors
saved many of the books and instruments that were used in astronomy. One of the books
that were saved was Sargozasht-i Sayyidinā (History of Our Master), a life history of
Ḥassan al-Ṣabbāḥ.
The Caliph al-Mustanṣir Billāh, the last ʿAbbāsid caliph, was a weak ruler. Hūlagū
capitalized on this weakness and captured Baghdād. Since Baghdād could not have two
rulers, Hūlagū ordered the caliph to be beheaded. Officials informed him that it would be
unwise to spill the blood of a descendant of the Prophet. He then ordered to place the
caliph in a felt cover and have horses trample him to death. His order was carried out
(1258).
After the elimination of the caliph, Hūlagū founded the Ilkhānate dynasty of Persia
(1258) and chose Marāgheh as his capital. He then ordered all the booty he had gained to
be moved to that city. His wazīr at the time was Khwāja Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī. Hūlagū
ordered him to build an observatory in Marāgheh.
After the fall of Baghdād, the conquest of Syria was not difficult. It took place as
scheduled and Damasus, one of the major centers of Islam ruled by the Ayūbids at the
time, fell into Mongol hands in 1259.
The major event of the time was the death of the Great Khān Monke. His death forced
Hūlagū to remove the bulk of his army from Syria and move them to the east. He left
about 10,000 soldiers with Kitbūqā to subjugate Egypt (1259).
Kitbūqā’s small force was no match for the Ayūbid Mamlūks. Taking advantage of
the weakness in the Mongol ranks, the Egyptians moved north and gave battle around the
present-day town of Acre. The Mongols were defeated at ʿAyn Jālūt (also Ain Jalūt)
(1260). Although a relatively small battle, this was advertized as a decisive victory for the
Egyptians. After the battle of ʿAyn Jālūt, the Mongols never returned to capture Egypt
and the Tigris River became the border between the territories held by the Ilkhāns and the
west.
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Iran Becomes a State
Under Hūlagū, Iran became a state again. Through his family in
the east, he connected Persian rule to China, and through the
Golden Horde to the West. He also promoted the Persian language
at the expense of Arabic that had served the Islamic Empire from
the dawn of Islam.
Ghāzān Khān (Maḥmūd) (r. 1295-1304)
Also referred to as Maḥmūd Ghāzān, he ruled between 1295 and 1304. He was born
on 5 November 1271, and died on 11 May 1304. He was the seventh ruler of the
Ilkhānate state (1295-1304). One of his first decrees, upon ascending the throne in 1295,
was to make Islam the official religion of the realm. Following that, he ordered all the
churches and synagogues in the country to be replaced by mosques. Since Chingiz Khān
had established the Yāsāq as the only law for the Mongols, adopting the Sharīʿa law was
a drastic change of policy.
Ghāzān Khān’s conversion did not sit well with the Mongol warriors. As a result,
throughout his rule, he had to deal with unruly chiefs, wazīrs, and a discontented
citizenry. Ghāzān Khān’s military campaigns include a number of unsuccessful battles
with the Ayūbids of Egypt for control of Syria that resulted in his death.
Ghāzān Khān was a builder. Having converted to Islam, he built many mosques.
His tomb near Tabīrz, called Shām-i Ghāzān, is well known.
Ūljaitū (r. 1304-1316)
Grandson of Hūlagū, Ūljaitū is also referred to as Muḥammad Khudābaneh, He was
born in 1280 and died in 1316. He ruled for twelve years (1304-1316). He also served as
his brother’s crown prince. After his brother’s death, he eliminated all claimants and
ascended the throne.
Ūljaitū was one of the great Ilkhāns. His emphasis was on establishing Islam. He
intended to create a Mongol society in which justice was prevalent. He also intended to
destroy the bases of the other religions by levying heavy taxes on Christians and Jews,
and by preventing non-Muslims from finding employment.
Ūljaitū's only successful military campaign was in the north against the inaccessible
Gīlān province. This was accomplished with the help of his commanders, especially
Chupān Khān. After its conquest, he left the province to the Gīlānīs themselves to rule.
All he required of them was to pay their taxes on time.
Ūljaitū was interested in capturing Egypt. He corresponded with the heads of states of
Europe and sought their help. He even tried to invade Egypt but could not advance
beyond the Euphrates River.
Ūljaitū was a good administrator. He was particularly keen on taxes and court
expenditure. Like his Mongol predecessors, he was also an excessive drinker and
womanizer. As a builder, Ūljaitū renovated many cities and built new ones. His octagonal
building at Sulṭānieh, in the province of Zanjān, was originally built as a tomb for Imāms
ʿAlī and Ḥussein. It ended up as Ūljaitū’s own tomb.
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Ūljaitū continued the practice of rebuilding and reestablishing the schools and
mosques destroyed by earlier Mongol rulers. He was also a major promoter of
scholarship.
Iran Under the Mongols
The fall of Baghdād to the Mongols was quite unexpected. It put the world of Islam
against an enemy that was different than any of the enemies that it had confronted before.
As we have seen, the enemies of the caliphs before the Mongols were upstart Muslim
states like Egypt, breakaway states like the Seljūqs, religious contenders like the
Ismāʿīlīs, or nationalists like the Būyids. The administrators of the caliphate had worked
out specific strategies for dealing with each of those situations. After the Mongol
takeover, the situation was altogether different. There was no caliph to either organize the
affairs of the caliphate or command the army. Additionally, those who ruled Baghdād
spoke a different language and ignored the rules of the Sharīʿa. In the long run, the
leaders of the ʾummah had to create strategies that were attractive to the Mongols and
which assured safety for the citizenry.3
After the death of the Prophet, the caliphate underwent many changes. The "ahl-i ḥall
wa ʿāqd," that brought Abū Bakr to power; "istikhlāf," that made ʿUmar caliph, and the
"shuwrā" that appointed ʿUthmān, all acted within the rules of Islam. The government of
"sulṭa" that empowered Muʿāwiya I and his son Yazīd I, was the closest to the
government of the Mongols, but not as brutal. Additionally, unlike the caliphs and their
advisors, who tried to adhere to the Sharīʿa and be just, the Mongols followed the Yāsāq;
they eliminated individuals for the smallest infraction. When it became clear to the
community leaders that closeness to the Quraysh and ʿiṣmat did not mean anything to the
Mongols, they created new decrees. Lawgivers like Ibn Jamāʿah decreed that any
rulership is preferable to no ruler. So if the ruler went against the law and drank wine or
raped the innocent, he had to be tolerated as long as he maintained his position.
Thereafter, the person who overthrows him should be followed.4
During the Mongol overlordship, the Iranians were primarily Sunnī with pockets of
Shīʿites in such central locations as Kāshān, Qom, what was left of Rayy, and certain
parts of Khorāsān. Each faction had to deal with the Mongols separately and find a modus
vivendi with them. The dictates of al-Ghazzālī had already divided the Sunnī community
into those who adhered wholeheartedly to the Sharīʿa and those who had chosen the
ṭarīqa. The latter could deal with the Mongols with more ease.
Who would have believed that the Mongol destruction would have in its wake an era
of political unity, as well as cultural and social prosperity for Iran? Yet that is what
happened, thanks to the foresight of Iranians like the Qāḍī of Qazwīn who, in 1252,
requested from Great Khān Monke to send a padishāh to Iran to organize its affairs. So
when Hūlagū arrived in Iran, he was welcomed as a legitimate king of the country rather
than as an invader.
An astute ruler, Hūlagū gave space to both the ʿulemā and the administrators to see to
the prosperity of the country; but, more importantly, he decreed that the country should
return to the unity that it had enjoyed in ancient times. Hūlagū 's policies, to a great
3
4
Cf., Qaderi, pp. 99-100.
Qaderi, pp. 100-104
11
degree, allowed sages like Naṣir al-Dīn Ṭūsī to establish new measures for the recovery
of Iran's status in the region.
The Mongols were tolerant. They did not distinguish between the Shīʿa and the
Sunnī. But they liked Ṣūfīs who presented something in between. Ṣūfī sages accepted the
Sharīʿa, venerated the Ahl al-Bayt, especially ʿAlī, and promised the possibility of
connection with the deity in this life. Therefore, when it came for the individual to choose
between the Sunnī and Ṣūfī, he chose Ṣūfī. Mongols were also fond of stories, especially
those surrounding al-Ḥussein and his family. They were incensed that Yazīd I should
have treated the family of the Prophet so harshly. Therefore, when it came to choose
between Shīʿite and Ṣūfī, they chose both. Kings and Amīrs of the time, too, made similar
choices. They supported sages like Rashīd al-Dīn, for instance.
As can be seen, by the time of the conversion of the Mongols to Islam, Islam itself
was undergoing certain modifications. A new way that blended orthodoxy with folk
religion was gaining popularity and charismatic individuals like Shaykh Ṣafī al-Dīn
Ardabīlī promoted it.
The Mystique of Ṣūfīsm
The following is an indication of the degree of loyalty that the
post-Mongol faithful had to their shaykh. The statement is from
Ṣafvat al-Safā:5
The throngs arriving from the fields and mountainsides were so dense
that the Shaykh, shielded by government officials who kept the multitude
away, had to climb onto the roof of the residence. On the roof, he held to
one end of a rope. The other end, to which a number of long ropes were
tied in the shape of a tassel, was thrown onto the crowd. The end of each
of those subsidiary ropes was in the hands of two or three thousand
individuals. In this way, the subjects of the Shaykh connected with him
spiritually and paid their allegiance.6
As we have seen, Hūlagū was the first to put Iran on a different trajectory than it
had been since the Arab invasion. The Ilkhāns who followed supported Shīʿism and
Ṣūfism, as well as promoted the Persian language at the expense of Arabic. Ghāzān
Khān's reforms were comprehensive. They covered every aspect of the life in the country
and, to a great degree, obviated the trauma that his forefathers had inflicted on Iranians.
5
6
About the text of Safvat al-Safa and the veracity of its contents, see Kasravi, 1943, pp. 6-16.
Cf. Ravandi, 1976, vol. 2, p. 375.
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