Faith & Economics - Number 58 - Fall 2011- Pages 31-46
Divisible Goods and Common Good:
5HÁHFWLRQVRQ&DULWDVLQ9HULWDWH
Francis Russell Hittinger
8QLYHUVLW\RI7XOVD
Abstract: Pope Benedict XVI issued the encyclical Caritas in veritate
(Benedict XVI, 2009) on the heels of the global economic crisis. It pleased
some readers, dismayed others, but seemed to perplex many more. I neither
defend nor quarrel with the encyclical. Instead, I hope to remove some
impediments that social scientists, and especially academic economists,
might have when they read social encyclicals, including Benedict’s. I make
three main points. First, the term “social” in this tradition does not take
LWVPHDQLQJFKLHÁ\IURPWKHVRFLDOJRRGVDQGXWLOLWLHVXVXDOO\VWXGLHGE\
VRFLDO VFLHQWLVWV 6RFLDO UHIHUV LQ WKH ÀUVW SODFH WR PRGDOLWLHV RI VRFLDO
union. Second, the Catholic tradition does not take a one-sided view of
either state redistribution or the logic of private exchange. Third, while
the tradition speaks of different kinds of justice, it is also quite insistent
that natural and supernatural loves are the companion of justice. JEL:
A12, A13, Z13. Key words: Catholic Social Doctrine, Caritas in Veritate,
common good, social justice, social charity.
n this paper I will not attempt to expound Caritas in veritate &9
%HQHGLFW;9,WKRURXJKO\DQGDWWKHSURSHUOHYHORIGHWDLODQG
complexity. Instead, I will use the encyclical as an occasion to remove
DIHZLPSHGLPHQWVWRVHULRXVGLDORJXHEHWZHHQHFRQRPLVWVDQG&DWKROLF
VRFLDO GRFWULQH &6' , DGPLW DW WKH RXWVHW WKDW WKLV LV D ULVN\ ZD\ WR
SURFHHGEHFDXVH,PXVWEULQJLQWRYLHZFHUWDLQLPSHGLPHQWVQRWIURPWKH
VWDQGSRLQWRIDQHFRQRPLVWEXWDVVRPHRQHZKRZRUNVZLWKLQWKHWUDGLWLRQ
RI&DWKROLFVRFLDOGRFWULQH%XWWKHUHLVQRRWKHUZD\,GRQRWNQRZWKH
VRIWVSRWVDQGWKHREVFXUHFRUQHUVRIHFRQRPLFWKHRU\,GRKDYHDWUDLQHG
VHQVHRIZKHUHWKH\H[LVWLQ&6'
)LUVW,KDYHWRVD\DIHZWKLQJVDERXWKRZWRUHDGDVRFLDOHQF\FOLFDO
$Q HFRQRPLVW RU DQ\ VRFLDO VFLHQWLVW GHVHUYHV DW OHDVW D URXJK LGHD RI
I
Editor’s Note: This paper was presented at a conference sponsored by the
Lumen Christi Institute (lumenchristi.org), the 2011 Meeting on Economics
and Catholic Social Thought, March 17-18, 2011, at the University of
Chicago. Joseph Kaboski’s discussion of the paper follows.
© 2011 Association of Christian Economists
32 FAITH & ECONOMICS
ZKDW FDQ EH UHDVRQDEO\ DVNHG DQG H[SHFWHG LQ GRFXPHQWV RI WKLV NLQG
Second, and somewhat cautiously, I want to examine the distinction
between a market, an economy, and a society. I say cautiously, because
although social encyclicals are usually very clear about what is meant by a
society, they are not always so clear about the terms market and economy.
7KLUGDSURSRVRIWKHWLWOHRIP\SUHVHQWDWLRQ,ZLOORIIHUVRPHFRQFOXGLQJ
UHÁHFWLRQVRQWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQGLYLVLEOHJRRGVDQGDFRPPRQJRRG
Hermeneutical Issues
You will have noticed that I used the word “doctrine” rather than
´WKRXJKWµ´7KRXJKWµLVDPRUHDFDGHPLFDOO\UHVSHFWDEOHWHUPLIQRWKLQJ
else, it avoids the odium theologicum WKH DOOHUJLF UHDFWLRQ WR WKLQJV
WKHRORJLFDOLQFOXGLQJGRFWULQHV:KLOHDOOGRFWULQHVDUHWKRXJKWV³ZKLFK
HQFRPSDVVVWLOORWKHUWKRXJKWVGHÀQLWLRQVDQGGLDOHFWLFV³QRWDOOWKRXJKWV
DUHGRFWULQHVDQGQRWDOOVFKRROVRIWKRXJKWDUHGRFWULQDO7KHUHDGHUZKR
KDVQRWUXFNZLWKGRFWULQHVZLOOÀQGLWXVHIXOWRNHHSWKHWHUPLQWDFWMXVW
DVDUHPLQGHURIWKHOLWHUDU\JHQUHWKDWKHRUVKHLVWU\LQJWRLQWHUSUHWDQG
to understand.
&9 LV D WHDFKLQJ OHWWHU 7KHUH DUH VHYHUDO VWDQGDUGV LQWHUQDO WR WKH
SUDFWLFH RI &DWKROLF WHDFKLQJ OHWWHUV 7ZR DUH HVSHFLDOO\ LPSRUWDQW LW VKRXOG VSHDN WUXWKIXOO\ DQG FRKHUHQWO\ RQ D VXEMHFWPDWWHU ZLWKLQ WKH
FRPSHWHQFHRIWKHDXWKRU·VRIÀFHLWVKRXOGVSHDNLQOLJKWRIDWUDGLWLRQ
RIVXFKWHDFKLQJ,QWKHFDVHRI&9SXWWLQJWRRQHVLGHWKHPDQ\UHIHUHQFHV
WR VFULSWXUH ZH ÀQG DERXW WZR KXQGUHG GLVFUHWH UHIHUHQFHV WR SUHYLRXV
documents reaching back to the nineteenth century. It is not so easy to
LQWHUSUHWZKLFKRQHVDUHGRFXPHQWDU\WUDFNVRIVXSSRUWDQGZKLFKRQHVDUH
SLYRWDOZKLFKLVWRVD\WKDWWKH\DUHWKHYHU\SRLQWVDWLVVXHIRUSXUSRVH
RIFODULÀFDWLRQRUH[WHQVLRQRUDSSOLFDWLRQWRVRPHQHZVHWRIIDFWV7KH
VDOLHQWSRLQWLVWKDWWKHÀUVWSULQFLSOHWRVSHDNWUXWKIXOO\DQGFRKHUHQWO\RQ
DVXEMHFWPDWWHULVYHU\PXFKFRPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHFRQGSULQFLSOHGRLQJ
VRLQWKHOLJKWRIDWUDGLWLRQ
$OWKRXJKWKHDQDORJ\LVLPSHUIHFWWDNHWKH)HGHUDOLVWSDSHUVRULJLQDOO\
SHQQHG E\ -RKQ -D\ $OH[DQGHU +DPLOWRQ DQG -DPHV 0DGLVRQ RYHU D
ten-month period between 1787-1788. Imagine subsequent authors who
HQGHDYRU RYHU WZR FHQWXULHV WR SHUSHWXDWH WKH RULJLQDO OLQHV RI WKHLU
SUHGHFHVVRUV :KDW GRHV WKH DGMHFWLYH ´IHGHUDOLVWµ VLJQLI\" (YHQ WKH
seasoned interpreter will admit that it is not easy to distinguish between
UHFXUUHQWSDUDGLJPVDQGFKDQJLQJFLUFXPVWDQFHVDQGWKDWLWLVHYHQPRUH
GLIÀFXOWWRVD\ZKHWKHUWKHODWHUOLQHVRIWKRXJKWRXJKWWREHLQWHUSUHWHGLQ
OLJKWRIWKHIRUPHURUYLFHYHUVD'RHVWKHVLOHQFHRIDSDUWLFXODUGRFXPHQW
Hittinger 33
indicate that the issue has already been solved? Or, does it suggest that the
present author is not prepared to tackle the issue head on?
6RFLDOHQF\FOLFDOVDUHHVSHFLDOO\DSWWREHLQJUHDGRXWRIFRQWH[WEHFDXVH
WKH\UHÀWWKHWUDGLWLRQZLWKLQWKHWHUUDLQRIKLVWRULFDOO\FRQWLQJHQWWKLQJV
ZDUVHFRQRPLFFULVHVDQGUHOLJLRXVSHUVHFXWLRQVWRQDPHRQO\DIHZ,W
goes without saying that about these things most people already have their
RZQRSLQLRQ+HQFHWKHPLVFKLHYRXVSLHFHRI-HVXLWGRJJHUHODERXW3RSH
-RKQ;;,,,·VHQF\FOLFDOPacem in terris-RKQ;;,,,
%\QRZZHNQRZWKHVLPSOHWULFN
2IKRZWRUHDG3RSH-RKQ·VHQF\F
7RSOD\WKHJDPH\RXFKRRVH\RXUVQLSSHW
2I´3HDFHRQ(DUWKµDQGEROGO\FOLSLW&RJOH\
+HUH,ZLOOOLPLWP\VHOIWRRQHH[DPSOHRIWKH´FOLSLWµPHWKRG*UDSSOLQJ
ZLWKWKHTXHVWLRQZKDWGRHVWKHDGMHFWLYH´VRFLDOµVLJQLI\ZKHQXVHGLQ
WKH WHUP VRFLDO GRFWULQH WKH JHQHUDWLRQ RI &DWKROLF WKLQNHUV ZKR FDPH
RIDJHLQWKHZDNHRIWKHHFRQRPLFWXUPRLORIWKHVDQGVZDV
LQFOLQHGWRDGRSWDUHVWULFWHGXVHRIWKHZRUG´VRFLDOµ,QDUHVWULFWHGVHQVH
social means economic activity and the diverse social relations which
ensue upon it.17KDWEHLQJGRQHWKHSKHQRPHQDDUHEURXJKWWRWKHEDURI
PRUDOLW\FKLHÁ\MXVWLFH)RUWKHJHQHUDWLRQWKDWFDPHRIDJHLQWKHV
LQWKHZDNHRIGHFRORQL]DWLRQDQGWKHHPHUJHQFHRIZKDWZDVWKHQFDOOHG
the “third world,” the “social” was restricted to the political and economic
SROLFLHVQHHGHGIRULQWHUQDWLRQDODLGDQGGHYHORSPHQW7KLVZDVWKHHUDRI
Populorum progressio3DXO9,WKHIRUWLHWKDQQLYHUVDU\RIZKLFK
%HQHGLFW;9,·V&9ZDVPHDQWWRFHOHEUDWHLWLVXVHIXOWRNQRZWKDWPXFK
RI&9ZDVZULWWHQSULRUWRWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLV
However well-intentioned, the restricted meaning caused more than a
OLWWOH FRQIXVLRQ DPRQJ &DWKROLFV DQG ZKR NQRZV ZKR HOVH PLJKW KDYH
come upon encyclical letters. The subject matter, along with the terms
RI DUW E\ ZD\ RI GHÀQLWLRQV DQG GLVWLQFWLRQV ZHUH FXW DQG WULPPHG IRU
WKHSXUSRVHRIDGYDQFLQJSROLFLHVRQLVVXHVRISROLWLFDOHFRQRP\6RIRU
H[DPSOH/HR;,,,Rerum novarumZKLFKZDVFKLHÁ\DERXWWKH
QDWXUDOULJKWWRIRUPYROXQWDU\VRFLHWLHVHVSHFLDOO\WKRVHZKLFKFRQVWLWXWH
DNLQGRIVRFLDOPHPEUDQHDURXQGWKHIDPLO\EHFDPHRQWKH´UHVWULFWHGµ
PHDQLQJVLPSO\DWHDFKLQJDERXWODERUXQLRQVDQGMXVWZDJHV:KLOH/HR
;,,,ZDVH[DPLQLQJVRFLDOUHODWLRQVZKLFKHQVXHXSRQWKHIDPLO\PDQ\RI
KLVFRPPHQWDWRUVDVVXPHGWKDWKHPXVWKDYHEHHQVSHDNLQJRIUHODWLRQV
which ensue upon economic activity. On this view, one mightÀQDOO\DUULYH
34 FAITH & ECONOMICS
DWWKHIDPLO\EXWRQO\DVWKHWHUPLQDOREMHFWRIZRUNFROOHFWLYHEDUJDLQLQJ
a just wage, and state law.
7KLVKDELWRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQQRWRQO\WXUQHGWKHVXEMHFWPDWWHURIVRFLDO
HQF\FOLFDOVXSVLGHGRZQEXWDOVRFUHDWHGWKHLPSUHVVLRQRIDUHDG\PDGH
SRQWLÀFDODFFRXQWRIHFRQRPLFVDQGHFRQRPLFSROLF\7KLVYLRODWHVERWK
SULQFLSOHV LQWHUQDO WR WKH SUDFWLFH RI WHDFKLQJ OHWWHUV³VSHDNLQJ ZLWKLQ
D FHUWDLQ FRPSHWHQFH RQ D JLYHQ VXEMHFW PDWWHU DQG WKH FRQWLQXLW\ RI
tradition. To be sure, individual economists and social scientists might
KDYHDJUHHGZLWKWKHPRUDODQGSROLWLFDOJLVWRIDSDUWLFXODUHQF\FOLFDOUHDG
LQWKHUHVWULFWHGVHQVHEXWWKH\FRXOGVHHSHUIHFWO\ZHOOWKDWWKHGRFXPHQWV
FRQWDLQHG YHU\ OLWWOH HFRQRPLF WKHRU\ 7KH UHVWULFWHG VHQVH RI WKH ZRUG
´VRFLDOµ WKHUHIRUH REVFXUHG UDWKHU WKDQ FODULÀHG GLDORJXH EHWZHHQ
economists, social scientists, and CSD.
For more than a century, popes warned that this restricted sense was
PLVWDNHQ/HR;,,,WKHIDWKHURIWKLVWUDGLWLRQZURWH´For, it is
WKHRSLQLRQRIVRPHDQGWKHHUURULVDOUHDG\YHU\FRPPRQWKDWWKHVRFLDO
TXHVWLRQLVPHUHO\DQHFRQRPLFRQHZKHUHDVLQSRLQWRIIDFWLWLVDERYH
DOO D PRUDO DQG UHOLJLRXV PDWWHUµ SDUD 3RSH %HQHGLFW PDNHV WKH
VDPH SRLQW DW WKH RXWVHW RI &9 &6' KH ZDUQV GRHV QRW SUHWHQG WR EH
PHUHO\DQDQDO\VLVRIVRFLDOVFLHQWLÀF´GDWDµSDUD,QIDFWORQJEHIRUH
he became pope, Cardinal Ratzinger had registered the complaint that
VRFLDO GRFWULQH ZDV EHLQJ WUDQVIRUPHG LQWR D VHFRQGUDWH VRFLDO VFLHQFH
that mutes distinctively Catholic insights in history and society.2
,QGHHGWKHWLWOHRIKLVHQF\FOLFDO³Caritas in veritate in re sociali—
LQGLFDWHVFOHDUO\HQRXJKWKHSURSHUORFDWLRQDQGPHDQLQJRIWKHDGMHFWLYH
´VRFLDOµSDUD1RW´VRFLDOµLQWKHUHVWULFWHGVHQVHRIUHODWLRQVHQVXLQJ
upon economic activity, but rather: in social matters, love rooted in
WUXWK´6RFLDOµWKHUHIRUHVLJQLÀHVWKHGLYHUVHPRGHVDQGOHYHOVRIKXPDQ
IUDWHUQLW\IULHQGVKLSFRPPXQLRQQDWXUDODQGVXSHUQDWXUDO
It is always important to understand what a thinker is looking through and
what he is looking at:KHUHDVWKHUHVWULFWHGPHDQLQJRI´VRFLDOµDWWHPSWV
WR ORFDWH VRFLDO UHODWLRQV DQG LVVXHV RI MXVWLFH after economic activity,
%HQHGLFW LV LQWHUHVWHG LQ PRGHV RI IULHQGVKLS ´within normal economic
DFWLYLW\DQGQRWRQO\RXWVLGHLWRU¶DIWHU·LWµSDUD7KHVXEMHFWPDWWHU
WKHUHIRUHLVVRFLDOUHODWLRQVKLSV0RUHRYHUDV%HQHGLFWUHSHDWHGO\LQVLVWV
VRFLDOUHODWLRQVDUHQRWEHLQJFRQVLGHUHGH[FOXVLYHO\XQGHUWKHDVSHFWRI
MXVWLFHEXWPRUHEURDGO\RUGHHSO\XQGHUWKHDVSHFWRIIULHQGVKLS
2Q WKH VXUIDFH WKH UHVWULFWHG PHDQLQJ ZLOO ORRN PRUH DJUHHDEOH WR
economists, but it should be eschewed. First, because it promises more
than what can be delivered in either empirical or abstract economics.
Hittinger 35
6HFRQG EHFDXVH LW REVFXUHV WKH VXEMHFW PDWWHU RI &6' ZKLFK LV QRW D
JRRGZD\WRHQJDJHDGLDORJXH7KHVHSUREOHPVFRPHIURPWKH&DWKROLF
VLGHQRWWKDWRIWKHVRFLDOVFLHQWLVWV
,ZLOOUHWXUQWR%HQHGLFW·VXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIIULHQGVKLSZLWKLQDQGQRW
DIWHURURXWVLGHHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\ODWHU)LUVWKRZHYHU,QHHGWRUHPRYH
another impediment to constructive dialogue between CSD and social
science.
Markets, Economies, Societies
:KHQ ZH FRQVLGHU WKH SROLWLFDO PRUDOLW\ RI VWDWH LQWHUYHQWLRQV LQ WKH
PDUNHW HFRQRP\ WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI ZLVGRP LV WR ´ÀQG D SDWK EHWZHHQ
XQFULWLFDODSRORJ\DQGSUHVXPSWXRXVPRUDOLVPµ.RVORZVNL)RU
WKH EHWWHU SDUW RI WKH SDVW WZR FHQWXULHV WKLV SDWK KDV QHYHU EHHQ HDV\
WR ORFDWH DQG LQ WLPHV RI HFRQRPLF FULVLV WKH YRLFHV RI ´SUHVXPSWXRXV
PRUDOLVPµDERXWWKHIDLOXUHVRIWKHPDUNHWHFRQRP\DUHOLDEOHWREHWKH
loudest and most insistent.
According to the Austrian school, a spontaneous or catallactic order is
QRWWKHHQWLUHW\RIDQHFRQRP\PXFKOHVVWKHHQWLUHW\RIDVRFLDORUGHU
7KHVRFDOOHG´LQYLVLEOHKDQGµUHIHUVFKLHÁ\WRWKHPDUNHWSDUWRIDPXFK
more complex order. As Martin Rhonheimer, a Catholic moral and social
thinker in the liberal tradition, puts it in a recent paper: “In reality, the
LQYLVLEOH KDQG LV WKH IHHGEDFN V\VWHP RI WKH ¶PDQ\ KDQGV· WKDW LV RI
the market which, through the price system, spontaneously coordinates
SULYDWHLQWHUHVWVLQDZD\ZKLFKFRQFXUVWRDQRSWLPDO>EXWQRWQHFHVVDULO\
DSHUIHFW@DOORFDWLRQRIUHVRXUFHVµ5KRQKHLPHU
,QGHHG)ULHGULFK+D\HNZDVDWSDLQVWRLQVLVWWKDWVSRQWDQHRXV
RUGHU PXVW QRW EH FRQIXVHG ZLWK ZKDW ZH RUGLQDULO\ XQGHUVWDQG E\
DQ HFRQRP\ ´$Q HFRQRP\ LQ WKH VWULFW VHQVH RI WKH ZRUG LQ ZKLFK D
KRXVHKROG D IDUP RU DQ HQWHUSULVH FDQ EH FDOOHG HFRQRPLHV FRQVLVWV
RIDFRPSOH[RIDFWLYLWLHVE\ZKLFKDJLYHQVHWRIPHDQVLVDOORFDWHGLQ
accordance with a unitary plan among the competing ends according to
WKHLUUHODWLYHLPSRUWDQFHµSS2QWKLVYLHZZKLOHDVSRQWDQHRXV
RUGHUXQGHUDUXOHRIODZEHFRPHVG\VIXQFWLRQDOLIVRPHRQHVKRXOGSXW
their thumb on the scale to game the system, every economy has someone’s
WKXPE RQ WKH VFDOHV IRU HFRQRP\ UHTXLUHV MXGJPHQW DERXW D SDUWLFXODU
RUGHURIJRRGVWREHSXUVXHGDFKLHYHGDQGGLVWULEXWHGLQDFFRUGZLWKD
SDUWLFXODUVRFLDOERG\RUHQWHUSULVH:KHQZHSUHGLFDWH´IUHHµRIDPDUNHW
DQG ´IUHHµ RI DQ HFRQRPLF HQWHUSULVH DQG ´IUHHµ RI D SDUWLFXODU VRFLDO
ERG\HQMR\LQJDFRPPRQOLIHZHDUHXVLQJWKDWZRUGLQTXLWHGLIIHUHQW³
DOWKRXJKDGPLWWHGO\LQWHUUHODWHG³VHQVHV:HKRSHRIFRXUVHWKDWWKHVH
36 FAITH & ECONOMICS
distinct sectors can be kept in equilibrium, but keeping or restoring an
equilibrium presupposes that we can sort out the things to be harmonized.
+LVWRULFDOO\HIIRUWVWRGRVRKDYHQRWDOZD\V\LHOGHGKDSS\UHVXOWV
5KRQKHLPHU DUJXHV WKDW DOWKRXJK ´PDUNHW IDLOXUHV DUH DQ
REYLRXVIDFWµKLVWRU\WHVWLÀHVWKDW´VWDWHIDLOXUHVDUHPXFKPRUHIUHTXHQW
DQGPRUHKDUPIXOµ2QWKLVVFRUHWKHOHVVHUNQRZQ$XVWULDQHFRQRPLVW
Karl Polanyi, in The Great Transformation3RODQ\L>@VKRZHG
KRZ PDUNHW IDLOXUHV FDQ JLYH ULVH WR SROLWLFDO SDWKRORJLHV +LV WKHVLV LV
VXFFLQFWO\VWDWHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHERRN
2XUWKHVLVLVWKDWWKHLGHDRIDVHOIDGMXVWLQJPDUNHWLPSOLHGVWDUN
XWRSLD 6XFK DQ LQVWLWXWLRQ FRXOG QRW H[LVW IRU DQ\ OHQJWK RI WLPH
ZLWKRXW DQQLKLODWLQJ WKH KXPDQ DQG QDWXUDO VXEVWDQFH RI VRFLHW\
LW ZRXOG KDYH SK\VLFDOO\ GHVWUR\HG PDQ DQG WUDQVIRUPHG KLV VXUroundings into a wilderness. Inevitably, society took measures to
SURWHFW LWVHOI EXW ZKDWHYHU PHDVXUHV LW WRRN LW LPSDLUHG WKH VHOI
UHJXODWLRQRIWKHPDUNHWGLVRUJDQL]HGLQGXVWULDOOLIHDQGWKXVHQGDQJHUHGVRFLHW\LQ\HWDQRWKHUZD\S
For Polanyi, who was writing during the Second World War, the utopian
GUHDP RI PDUNHWV IXQFWLRQLQJ ZLWKRXW WKH UXOH RI ODZ DQG FRPSOHWHO\
XQWHWKHUHG IURP RWKHU VRFLDO FRQFHUQV LJQLWHV SROLWLFDO SDVVLRQV ZKLFK
PRYH WKH KDQG RI WKH VWDWH WR UHVWRUH DQ HTXLOLEULXP EHWZHHQ PDUNHW
HFRQRP\DQGVRFLHW\³XVXDOO\UDWKHUEUXWDOO\GULYHQE\ZKDW5KRQKHLPHU
DSWO\FDOOVVKRUWWHUPLQWHUHVWVRIFRQVWLWXHQFLHV3RODQ\LIDPRXVO\
FDOOHGWKLVWKH´GRXEOHPRYHPHQWµSZKLFKFDQEHSHUVRQLÀHGDV
WZRRUJDQL]LQJSULQFLSOHVRQHWKHIHFXQGLW\RIDVHOIUHJXODWLQJPDUNHW
WKH RWKHU WKH SULQFLSOH RI VRFLDO SURWHFWLRQ DJDLQVW WKH PDUNHW 3RODQ\L
EHOLHYHGWKDW)DVFLVPZDVERUQLQWKDWGRXEOHPRYHPHQWRIDQDYHQJLQJ
VWDWH H[DFWLQJ UHWULEXWLYH MXVWLFH IRU WKH VLQV RI ODLVVH]IDLUH HFRQRPLFV
,QDQ\HYHQWKHZDVVNHSWLFDOWKDWWKHSDVVLRQIRUUHWULEXWLRQLVOLDEOHWR
produce an equilibrium between markets, economies, and societies.
During the same era, Catholic social doctrine also worried that the
KHDY\ KDQG RI VWDWH LQWHUYHQWLRQ ZRXOG KRPRJHQL]H VRFLHW\ UDWKHU WKDQ
producing an equilibrium in its various sectors. Both the totalitarianism
DQG WKH GHPRFUDWLF LPSHUDWLYHV RI WKH SRVW HFRQRPLF FULVLV PDGH
precarious the predicate “social.” It was practically inevitable that there
ZRXOGEHDFRQIXVLRQRIWKUHHWKLQJVMXVWGLVWULEXWLRQRIUHVRXUFHVRQWKH
SDUW RI WKH VWDWH WKH UXOH RI ODZ ZKLFK SXWV D OHJDO DQG SROLWLFDO OLPLW
RQVWDWHDFWLRQDQGWKHSULQFLSOHRIVXEVLGLDULW\ZKLFKSXWVDVSHFLÀFDOO\
Hittinger 37
social limit on that same project.
,WDNHDPRUHIDYRUDEOHYLHZRIQuadragesimo anno3LXV;,
WKDQGRHV5KRQKHLPHU3LXV;,PDLQWDLQHGWKDW´VRFLDOMXVWLFHµLV
QRWWKHMXVWLFHRIH[FKDQJHQRUWKHMXVWLFHRIGLVWULEXWLRQUHGLVWULEXWLRQ
RU UHWULEXWLRQ 6RFLDO MXVWLFH PDUNV WKH MXVWLFH RI DFWLRQV PDLQWDLQLQJ D
FRPPRQJRRGWKDWWUDQVFHQGVJRRGVFRPPXWHGDQGGLVWULEXWHG³WKHULJKW
RUGHURIDVRFLHW\ERWKZLWKLQLWVHOIDQGDPRQJVWLWVVXEVLGLDU\VRFLHWLHV
3ROLWLFDOO\´VRFLHW\µLVDXQLRQRIRWKHUVRFLDOXQLRQV:KHUHDVLQSDUWLFXODUMXVWLFHDFWVDUHRUGHUHGWRWKHJRRGRIDQRWKHUVLQJXODUSHUVRQUHODWLRQV
HTXDOL]HGE\H[FKDQJHRUGLVWULEXWLRQJHQHUDOMXVWLFH³ZKDWFDPHWREH
FDOOHG´VRFLDOMXVWLFHµ³RUGHUVDFWLRQVWRWKHFRPPRQJRRG,WFRQVLGHUV
LQGLYLGXDOV RI FRXUVH EXW LQVRIDU DV WKH\ D PHPEHUV RI D ZKROH DERXW
ZKLFKZHFDQVD\ZKDWLVJRRGIRUWKHZKROHLVJRRGIRUHDFKRILWVSDUWV
$TXLQDV,,,,DG
,WZDVLQWHUPVRIVRFLDOMXVWLFHQRWGLVWULEXWLYHMXVWLFHWKDW3LXV;,
HPSKDVL]HGWKHSULQFLSOHRIVXEVLGLDULW\QDPHO\WKDWDFWLRQVWDNHQE\D
superior society should not displace, or absolutely replace, the common
JRRGRIRWKHUVRFLHWLHVZLWKLQWKHERG\SROLWLF,PSRUWDQWO\VXEVLGLDULW\
does not merely require that extraordinary intervention by the state ought
to be temporary, but that even temporary interventions may not absorb or
GHVWUR\IDPLOLHVFKXUFKHVDQGWKHDUUD\RIDVVRFLDWLRQWKDWZHFDOO´FLYLO
society.”
8QIRUWXQDWHO\WKHSULQFLSOHRIVRFLDOMXVWLFHRULJLQDOO\LQWHQGHGWRPDUN
WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIDVSHFLÀFDOO\social common good, was interpreted in the
´UHVWULFWHGµVHQVHDVDSULQFLSOHFKLHÁ\LQIRUPLQJSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLF
SROLFLHV RI GLVWULEXWLRQ DQG UHGLVWULEXWLRQ 7KLV LV WKH YHUVLRQ RI VRFLDO
MXVWLFHWKDW+D\HNUXWKOHVVO\FULWLFL]HG3 The upshot was that social
MXVWLFHFRXOGQRORQJHUEHDUHJXODWLYHLGHDORIFRPPRQJRRGGLVWLQFWIURP
H[FKDQJHDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ³LQVWHDGDOORIWKHFDUGVZHUHSXWLQWKHGHFN
RIVWDWHDFWLRQ$FFRUGLQJO\VXEVLGLDULW\LWVHOIKDGWREHUHLQWHUSUHWHGWR
PHDQWKHUHVLGXHRIIUHHDFWLRQWKDWPXVWUHPDLQDWWKHORZHVWOHYHO7KH
price paid is that the social principle was either lost altogether or collapsed
LQWRWKHVWDWHRUZKDWHYHUUHVLGXHRIOLEHUW\ZDVOHIWWRSULYDWHODZ
This is precisely what Caritas in veritate UHMHFWV &9 SDUDV Here is Benedict:
The Church has always held that economic action is not to be reJDUGHGDVVRPHWKLQJRSSRVHGWRVRFLHW\,QDQGRILWVHOIWKHPDUNHW
is not, and must not become, the place where the strong subdue the
weak. Society does not have to protect itself from the market, as
38 FAITH & ECONOMICS
LIWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHODWWHUZHUH ipso facto to entail the death
RIDXWKHQWLFDOO\KXPDQUHODWLRQV$GPLWWHGO\WKHPDUNHWFDQEHD
QHJDWLYHIRUFHQRWEHFDXVHLWLVVRE\QDWXUHEXWEHFDXVHDFHUWDLQ
ideology can make it so. It must be remembered that the market
GRHVQRWH[LVWLQWKHSXUHVWDWHSDUD
$PRQJWKHFDXVHVJLYHQIRUWKH´QHJDWLYHIRUFHµ%HQHGLFWHPSKDVL]HV
DW SDUD KRZ D PLVWDNHQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI KXPDQ DXWRQRP\ LV
projected onto economic processes, as though immanent dynamisms are
PHUHO\DXWRPDWLFDQGWKHUHIRUHRIULJKWRULQDQ\HYHQWLQWKHLQWHUHVWV
RI HIÀFLHQF\ QHHG WR EH VKLHOGHG IURP PRUDO GLUHFWLRQ ´7KH HFRQRPLF
sphere,” he writes, “is neither ethically neutral, nor inherently inhuman
DQGRSSRVHGWRVRFLHW\,WLVSDUWDQGSDUFHORIKXPDQDFWLYLW\SUHFLVHO\
EHFDXVHLWLVKXPDQµSDUD4
,QDFOLPDWHRIPXWXDOWUXVWWKHmarket is the economic institution
WKDW « LV VXEMHFW WR WKH SULQFLSOHV RI VRFDOOHG commutative justiceZKLFKUHJXODWHVWKHUHODWLRQVRIJLYLQJDQGUHFHLYLQJEHWZHHQ
SDUWLHVWRDWUDQVDFWLRQ%XWWKHVRFLDOGRFWULQHRIWKH&KXUFKKDV
XQFHDVLQJO\KLJKOLJKWHGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI distributive justice and
social justice IRUWKHPDUNHWHFRQRP\5 not only because it belongs
ZLWKLQ D EURDGHU VRFLDO DQG SROLWLFDO FRQWH[W EXW DOVR EHFDXVH RI
WKHZLGHUQHWZRUNRIUHODWLRQVZLWKLQZKLFKLWRSHUDWHV,QIDFWLI
WKH PDUNHW LV JRYHUQHG VROHO\ E\ WKH SULQFLSOH RI WKH HTXLYDOHQFH
LQYDOXHRIH[FKDQJHGJRRGVLWFDQQRWSURGXFHWKHVRFLDOFRKHVLRQ
WKDWLWUHTXLUHVLQRUGHUWRIXQFWLRQZHOOWithout internal forms of
VROLGDULW\DQGPXWXDOWUXVWWKHPDUNHWFDQQRWFRPSOHWHO\IXOÀOOLWV
proper economic functionSDUD
,QWKHUHDOZRUOGH[FKDQJHDQGGLVWULEXWLRQSUHVXSSRVHKXPDQIUDWHUQLW\
DOEHLWDORQJDEURDGDQGGLIIHUHQWLDWHGVSHFWUXP)ULHQGVKLSVKHVD\VDUH
FRQGXFWHGZLWKLQDQGQRWPHUHO\RXWVLGHRUDIWHUHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\
$V , VDLG HDUOLHU , DP UHOXFWDQW WR DVFULEH WKH +D\HNLDQ QRWLRQ RI
catallactic market order to CSD. Perhaps the notion is compatible with
&6'SHUKDSVQRW:KDWZHFDQFRQÀGHQWO\VD\LVWKDW%HQHGLFWDQGKLV
predecessors do not imagine a pure catallactic cosmos, but by the same
WRNHQWKH\GRQRWGLVSDUDJHDUREXVWVHFWRURISULYDWHODZ,IWKLVVHFWRUFDQ
EHFDOOHGVSRQWDQHRXVLQ+D\HN·VVHQVHRIWKHWHUPWKHQWKH&DWKROLFVLGH
RIWKDWXQGHUVWDQGLQJZRXOGEHWKDW´VSRQWDQHRXVµLVQRWWKHRSSRVLWHRI
HLWKHU´LQWHQWLRQDOµRU´VRFLDOµ5DWKHULWLVWKHRSSRVLWHRI´SODQQHGµRU
“commanded.”
Hittinger 39
I read Benedict in this way. Exchange and distribution do not, and
FDQQRW FUHDWH IURP VFUDWFK ZKDW KH FDOOV ´LQWHUQDO IRUPV RI VROLGDULW\µ
7KH DEVHQFH RI MXVWLFH LQ H[FKDQJH RU GLVWULEXWLRQ FDQ FHUWDLQO\ GHVWUR\
VRFLHWLHV:RUNVRIORYHDQGIULHQGVKLSUHTXLUHZRUNVRIMXVWLFHEXWZRUNV
RIORYHDQGIULHQGVKLSDUHQRWUHGXFLEOHWRFRPPXWDWLRQDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ
)URPP\SRLQWRIYLHZWKLVLVDGHOLYHUDQFHRIPRUDODQGVRFLDOUHDOLVP
DQGFRXOGMXVWDVZHOOEHIRXQGLQ$ULVWRWOHRU$XJXVWLQH
In this light, we can interpret Benedict’s assertion that “the exclusively
ELQDU\ PRGHO RI PDUNHWSOXV6WDWH LV FRUURVLYH RI VRFLHW\µ SDUD 7KDW PRGHO GHSLFWV KXPDQ DFWLRQ DORQJ WZR IURQWV DQG UHGXFHV MXVWLFH
WR WKH PRUDO LVVXH RI WKHLU FROOLVLRQ $ORQJ RQH IURQW ZH ÀQG KXPDQ
DFWLRQRUGHUHGWRH[FKDQJHSURGXFWLYLW\DQGSURÀWDORQJDQRWKHUIURQW
KXPDQDFWLRQRUGHUHGWRFOHDQLQJXSWKHPHVVE\ZD\RIGLVWULEXWLQJRU
UHGLVWULEXWLQJ SDUDV 7KLV FRQIXVHG FROOLVLRQ LV WKH VSHFWHU WKDW
haunted Polanyi.
)RU %HQHGLFW·V SDUW ZKDW LV EHLQJ OHIW RXW RI WKLV SLFWXUH LV WKH IDFW
WKDW IULHQGVKLS LV DQWHULRU DQG SRVWHULRU WR WKH ORJLF RI H[FKDQJH DQG
GLVWULEXWLRQ,QDQDUWLFOHRQ&9-RKQ%UHHQKDVFDSWXUHGWKHSRLQW
quite nicely and succinctly: “Solidarity is not something that is exchanged,
QRUFDQLWEHFRPSHOOHGµS$PDUULDJHFDQEHUXLQHGE\GHIHFWV
LQ FRPPXWDWLRQ DQG D IDPLO\ E\ GHIHFWV LQ GLVWULEXWLRQ <HW QHLWKHU RI
these internal solidarities can be created or recreated by justice without an
LQWHQWLRQWRIRUPDXQLRQRQWKHSDUWDFWLQJSHUVRQVZKRUHDOO\GRJRRQ
WRSHUIRUPMXVWWKHNLQGRIDFWVZKLFKKDYHXQLRQDVWKHLUHQG
Common Goods and Common Good
,QWKHWLPHUHPDLQLQJ,ZDQWWRVD\DIHZWKLQJVDERXWWKHQRWLRQRIWKH
´FRPPRQJRRGµDQGKRZLWGLIIHUVIURP´FRPPRQJRRGVµ5RXJKO\WKLVLV
WKH&6'YHUVLRQRIWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQDFRPPRQJRRGDQGFRPPRQ
XWLOLWLHV,DSRORJL]HLQDGYDQFHIRUKDYLQJWRGRPRUHZRUNGHÀQLQJDQG
VWLSXODWLQJWKDQSKLORVRSKLFDOO\XQSDFNLQJDOORIWKHIHDWXUHVRIWKLVYHU\
complicated distinction. But it is important, because here we see most
FOHDUO\ ZK\ &6' UHMHFWV PHWKRGRORJLFDO LQGLYLGXDOLVP³QDPHO\ WKDW
social unities and relations among members can be reduced to nonsocial
SURSHUWLHVRIPHPEHUVRUFRPSRVLWHVWKHUHRI
:KHQWZRRUPRUHSHUVRQVHQJDJHLQDFRPPRQVWUXFWXUHRIDFWLRQIRUD
FRPPRQHQGDQGZKHUHWKHFRPPRQDFWLRQZKDW$ULVWRWOHZRXOGFDOOWKH
´IRUPRIRUGHUµLVDQLQWULQVLFJRRGZHKDYHVRPHWKLQJOLNHDFRPPRQ
JRRGLQWKHVWULFWVHQVHRIWKHWHUP7KHXQLRQRIWKHPHPEHUVLQFRPPRQ
DFWLYLW\LVQRWDQHQGWKDWFRPHVDIWHUVRPHRWKHUSXUSRVHEXWLVWKHJRRG
40 FAITH & ECONOMICS
being aimed at all the way along. The scholastic philosophers called such
a union a bonum communeDOZD\VLQWKHVLQJXODU7KHVDOLHQWPDUNRID
bonum commune is that it cannot, just as such, be distributed or divided
LQH[FKDQJHEXWRQO\SDUWLFLSDWHGE\LWVPHPEHUV7DNHWKHH[DPSOHRID
PDUULDJH7KHFLYLOODZPLJKWHQWLWOHWKHVSRXVHVWRDZULWRIGLYRUFHDQG
WKHQGLVWULEXWHWKHSURSHUWLHVEXWWKHODZFHUWDLQO\FDQQRWGLVWULEXWHWKH
PDUULDJHLWVHOIVHQGLQJHDFKVSRXVHRQKLVRUKHUZD\ZLWKÀIW\SHUFHQWRI
the matrimonial common good.
In divisible things, justice requires that the right things be apportioned to
the right people. A common good might includeGLYLVLEOHWKLQJV³PRQLHV
SURSHUWLHV DQG RWKHU LPSRUWDQW LQVWUXPHQWV³EXW WKH FRPPRQ JRRG LV
indivisible 7KHUHIRUH LW UHTXLUHV D GLIIHUHQW VRFLDO ORJLF DQG VFKHPH RI
MXVWLFH$FRPPRQJRRGLVLPSHGHGRUGHVWUR\HGZKHQIRULQVWDQFHWKH
state attempts to distribute what can only be shared or participated. This
LVYHU\OLNHO\WRKDSSHQLQWLPHVRIHFRQRPLFFULVLVZKHQWKHSDVVLRQIRU
GLVWULEXWLYHMXVWLFHUHDFKHVWRRIDUDQGGLVWXUEVWKHRUGHURIWKH´FRPPRQVµ
The common good is an analogous notion. The “common” that is
participated rather than distributed varies considerably, depending upon
WKHHQGDQGWKHPRGHRIRUGHUWKURXJKZKLFKWKHHQGLVVRXJKW0DUULDJHV
WHDPVSROLWLHVGLIIHUHQWO\LQVWDQWLDWHDFRPPRQJRRG+HQFHDFRPPRQ
JRRG FDQ DOVR EH LPSHGHG RU GHVWUR\HG E\ WU\LQJ WR IRUFH D IDPLO\ IRU
instance, to instantiate a common good that pertains uniquely to the polity,
and vice versa.
It is important, too, to distinguish common good, in the way we have
MXVW RXWOLQHG LW IURP FRPPRQ goods³LQ WKH ROGHU VFKRODVWLF SDUODQFH
bona communia, DOZD\VLQWKHSOXUDO)URHOLFK7DNHIRUH[DPSOHD
ZDWHUV\VWHPRUDJURXSSRUWIROLRRIPXWXDOIXQGV+HUHZHKDYHFRPPRQ
HQGVOLNHKHDOWKRUWKHDFFXPXODWLQJYDOXHRIDFRPPRQLQYHVWPHQWDORQJ
with a shared structure through which those ends are attained. To be sure,
´WKH FRPPRQµ LQ VXFK FDVHV LV GHVWLQHG IRU SULYDWH \LHOG SHUKDSV³EXW
QRWQHFHVVDULO\³LQXQHTXDOSRUWLRQV7KHFRPPRQZDWHUV\VWHPDIWHUDOO
must terminate in my or your kitchen spigot and into this or that glass, to be
consumed and enjoyed by each one privately. Such utilities have an aspect
RI LQGLYLVLEOH RUGHU7KH UXOH RI ODZ JRYHUQLQJ FRPPHUFLDO WUDQVDFWLRQV
LV ORJLFDOO\ QRW WKH NLQG RI WKLQJ WKDW FDQ EH GLVWULEXWHG³IRU RQH DJHQW
FDQQRW EH JLYHQ PRUH RI WKH UXOH RI ODZ WKDQ DQRWKHU (YHQ VR WKH ODZ
is about divisible things, which is to say goods that can be exchanged or
distributed.
7KHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIWKLQJVLQDFRPPRQ´SRROµWDNHVFRQVLGHUDEOHVRFLDO
FRRSHUDWLRQDQGLPDJLQDWLRQ,WLVQHLWKHUDVRFLDORUDQWLVRFLDO,QIDFWLW
Hittinger 41
LVLPSRVVLEOHRUDWOHDVWYHU\GLIÀFXOWWRLPDJLQHDhuman common good
LQWKHDEVHQFHRIFRPPRQJRRGVGHVWLQHGIRUSULYDWHHQMR\PHQW%XWWKH\
do need to be distinguished and mutually ordered. A bonum commune
DOZD\V LQ WKH VLQJXODU GHQRWHV D VRFLHW\ HQMR\LQJ D FRPPRQ HQG DQG
DQ LQWULQVLF FRPPRQ JRRG RI VKDUHG DFWLRQ ,W LV IXOO\ FRPSDWLEOH ZLWK
LQGLYLGXDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQEXWQRWZLWKSULYDWHSRVVHVVLRQ,QDIXOO\FRPPRQ
good, each member can say: Mihi sed non propter me—´IRUPHEXWQRWIRU
P\VDNHµ7KLVLVDIXOO\VRFLDOLQVWDQWLDWLRQRIWKH´FRPPRQVµ7
%DVHG XSRQ IULHQGVKLS DQG QRW MXVW D FRRSHUDWLRQ WKURXJK D FRPPRQ
LQVWUXPHQWZHDUHVSHDNLQJQRZRIVRFLHWLHVWKDWFDQQRWUHDFKWKHLUHQG
ZLWKRXW WKHLU DSSURSULDWH PRGH RI FRPPXQLRQ8 7DNH WKH H[DPSOH RI D
TXHXH LQ IURQW RI D FUHGLW XQLRQ WKH LQGLYLGXDOV DUH parts RI WKH TXHXH
partners in the credit union, and membersRI6W5LWD·VSDULVK7REHVXUH
human persons related as parts and partners exhibit sociability, but it is
only in their relation as membersWKDWLVSRVVLEOHWRVSHDNRI´VRFLHW\µ$
VRFLDOXQLRQDV-RKQ3DXO,,SDUDLQVLVWHGLVVRPHWKLQJPRUH
than a relation alter apud alteram, a side-by-side intersubjectivity. It is also
VRPHWKLQJ GLVWLQFW IURP FRRSHUDWLRQ LQ FUHDWLQJ D FRPPRQ SRRO ,W ZLOO
HQMR\DFRPPRQJRRG³DIRUPRIUHFLSURFDODFWLRQ³WKDWLVLQWULQVLFDOO\
YDOXDEOHWRHDFKRILWVPHPEHUV
Precisely when “society” most strenuously demands that certain results
EHDFKLHYHGE\ZD\RIGLVWULEXWLRQLVZKHQZHDUHOHVVDEOHWRWKLQNsub
specie societatis´XQGHUWKHDVSHFWRIVRFLHW\µ9 Wars and economic crises
DUHXVXDOO\WKHH[FXVHIRUVWDWHDFWLRQWKDWSURGXFHV´UHVXOWVµLQFRPSDWLEOH
ZLWKWKHKXPDQOLEHUW\HVVHQWLDOIRUWKLVZLGHUDQJHRIFRPPRQJRRGVDV
ZHOODVDWUXO\FRPPRQJRRGWKHFDWDOODFWLFRUGHURIDPDUNHWWKHIUHH
FRRSHUDWLRQLQWKHHFRQRPLFVSKHUHWKHUXOHRIODZDQGDKRVWRIVRFLHWLHV
HQMR\LQJDWUXHFRPPRQJRRG3UHFLVHO\LQWLPHVRIFULVLVWKHSHRSOHDQG
WKHLUJRYHUQPHQWZLOOEHOHVVFDXWLRXVLQUHVSHFWLQJWKHIUDJLOHJRRGVRIWKH
“commons.”
This is the problem that animates Caritas in veritate. It is not the end
RIWKHVWRU\:KDWZHKDYHRXWOLQHGDUHSULQFLSOHVRIVRFLDOFRPPXQLRQ
WKDW ´HPHUJH IURP WKH FRPPRQ KXPDQ H[SHULHQFHV RI ORYH DQG WUXWKµ
SDUD7KHUHLVPRUHWREHVDLGLQWKHOLJKWRIWKHVSHFLÀFDOO\&KULVWLDQ
XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIGLYLQHUHYHODWLRQ
Endnotes
&DOYH]DQG3HUULQZHUHLQÁXHQWLDOLQWKLVUHJDUGDQGZHUHWRP\
NQRZOHGJHWKHÀUVWLQWHUSUHWHUVWRXVHWKHWHUP´UHVWULFWHGVHQVHµ7KH
42 FAITH & ECONOMICS
term “social” should be limited to “those human relationships which
JURZRXWRIWKHHFRQRP\µSS7KLVLVWKH\QRWHD´UHVWULFWHGXVH
RIWKHZRUG¶VRFLDO·µEXWQRQHWKHOHVVRQHWKDWLVKLVWRULFDOO\MXVWLÀHG
(YHQVRPDQ\RIWKHVRFLDOHQF\FOLFDOVZKLFKFRQWULEXWHWR&6'HPSOR\WKHWHUP´VRFLDOµLQDEURDGHUVHQVH1RWHIRUH[DPSOHWKDWLQWKH
Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church3RQWLÀFDO&RXQFLO
IRU -XVWLFH DQG 3HDFH HFRQRPLF LVVXHV UHSUHVHQW RQO\ WZR RI
twelve chapters.
$JHQHUDWLRQDJR+HQULGH/XEDFZRUULHGWKDWWKHVRFLDODVSHFWV
RIGRJPDZRXOGEHORVWLQGRFWULQHVDERXWVRFLDOWKLQJV´,WLVVRFLDO
LQWKHGHHSHVWVHQVHRIWKHZRUGQRWPHUHO\LQLWVDSSOLFDWLRQVLQWKH
ÀHOGRIQDWXUDOLQVWLWXWLRQVEXWÀUVWDQGIRUHPRVWLQLWVHOILQWKHKHDUW
RILWVP\VWHU\LQWKHHVVHQFHRILWVGRJPD,WLVVRFLDOLQDVHQVHZKLFK
VKRXOGKDYHPDGHWKHH[SUHVVLRQ¶VRFLDO&DWKROLFLVP·SOHRQDVWLFµS
,QKLVLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKLVHGLWLRQ&DUGLQDO5DW]LQJHUZURWH´7KH
VRFLDOGLPHQVLRQZKLFKGH/XEDFVDZURRWHGLQGHHSHVWP\VWHU\KDV
RIWHQVXQNWRWKHPHUHO\VRFLRORJLFDOVRWKDWWKHXQLTXH&KULVWLDQFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHULJKWXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKLVWRU\DQGFRPPXQLW\KDVGLVDSSHDUHGIURPVLJKW,QVWHDGRIDOHDYHQIRUWKHDJHRULWVVDOWZHDUH
RIWHQVLPSO\LWVHFKRµGH/XEDFS
7KHFULWLTXHRI+D\HNDWOHDVWLQSDUWLVGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWKH
DVVXPHVWKDW´VRFLDOMXVWLFHµLVQRWKLQJRWKHUWKDQGLVWULEXWLYHMXVWLFH³
and what is worse, an inauthentic one. It is, he avers, a “slogan used
E\DOOJURXSVZKRVHVWDWXVWHQGVWRGHFOLQHµS7KXVFRQFHLYHG
VRFLDOMXVWLFHLVWKHRSSRVLWHRILQVWLWXWLRQDOMXVWLFHDQGLWDPRXQWVWR
QRWKLQJ PRUH WKDQ VSHFLDO LQWHUHVWV DQG VSHFLDO SOHDGLQJ RI D ´SDUWµ
DJDLQVWZKDWLVJRRGIRUWKHHQWLUHVRFLDORUGHU
2QWKLVVFRUHZHDUHUHPLQGHGRIWKHGDQJHURIHTXDWLQJVRFLDOMXVtice, considered as Hayek does, with what Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas meant by “general justice.” General justice, later dubbed social
MXVWLFHLQ&DWKROLFWHDFKLQJPHDQVWKHYLUWXHRIUHIHUULQJDFWLRQWRWKH
FRPPRQJRRG,WLVQRWVROHO\WKHYLUWXHRIOHJDODXWKRULWLHV:KHUHDVLQ
SDUWLFXODUMXVWLFHDFWVDUHRUGHUHGWRWKHJRRGRIDQRWKHUVLQJXODUSHUVRQ
UHODWLRQVHTXDOL]HGE\H[FKDQJHRUGLVWULEXWLRQJHQHUDOMXVWLFHRUGHUV
DFWLRQV WR WKH FRPPRQ JRRG ,W FRQVLGHUV LQGLYLGXDOV RI FRXUVH EXW
LQVRIDUDVWKH\DPHPEHUVRIDZKROHDERXWZKLFKZHFDQVD\ZKDWLV
JRRGIRUWKHZKROHLVJRRGIRUHDFKRILWVSDUWV$TXLQDV,,,,
DG
2QFH FRQIXVHG ZLWK GLVWULEXWLYH MXVWLFH LW EHFDPH DOO WRR HDV\ WR
UHJDUGVRFLDOMXVWLFHDVFKLHÁ\FRQFHUQHGZLWKHFRQRPLFFRPPXWDWLRQV
Hittinger 43
DQGGLVWULEXWLRQV3LXV;,·VGLFWXP´LWLVRIWKHHVVHQFHRIVRFLDOMXVWLFH
WRGHPDQGIURPHDFKLQGLYLGXDODOOWKDWLVQHFHVVDU\IRUWKHFRPPRQ
JRRGµ 3LXV ;, SDUD FRXOG RQO\ EH REVFXUHG )RU P\ DFFRXQW RI WKLV LVVXH LQ &DWKROLF VRFLDO GRFWULQH VHH +LWWLQJHU 5RJHU$XEHUWFKVXUYH\VVRPHRIWKHPRUHLPSRUWDQWRSLQLRQVRQMXVWLFH)RUIXOOWLOWVWXGLHVVHH/HR:6KLHOGVDQG:LOOLDP-)HUUHH>@
,I LW ZHUH WUXH WKDW PDUNHW HFRQRP\ LV D URERWLF RUGHU WKHQ VRFLHW\
ZRXOG MXVWLÀDEO\ GHPDQG WKDW WKH VWDWH FRQWURO LI QRW RSSRVH LW EHFDXVHVXFKDQRUGHUZRXOGEHXQZRUWK\RIIUHHDFWLRQ
1RWLFHWKDWWKHZRUG´DQGµLQWKHÀUVWSDUWRIWKLVVHQWHQFHLVDFRRUGLQDWLQJ FRQMXQFWLRQ WKDW IXQFWLRQV GLVFUHWLYHO\ 6RFLDO MXVWLFH LV QRW
HTXDWHG ZLWK GLVWULEXWLYH MXVWLFH IRU LWV REMHFW LV WKH ´VRFLDOµ IURP
DQRWKHUSRLQWRIYLHZ3UHVXPDEO\%HQHGLFWPHDQVWRVD\RIDFWLRQV
FRQVWLWXWLQJ DQG PDLQWDLQLQJ ´LQWHUQDO IRUPV RI VROLGDULW\µ$ODV WKH
H[SRVLWLRQLVIRJJ\DQGFRQIXVLQJ
:H DUH VSHDNLQJ RI ZKDW WKH FDQRQLVWV VRPHZKDW ZRRGHQO\ GLVWLQguish as a universitas personarum rather than a universitas rerum. The
SULQFLSOHRIXQLW\FRQVLVWVSULPDULO\LQWKHXQLW\RIWKHSHUVRQVUDWKHU
WKDQLQWKHXQLW\RIWKHWKLQJVZKLFKDUHRUJDQL]HGRUDVZHMXVWVDLG
“pooled.”
´,Q WKLV ZD\ ZKDW ZH QRZDGD\V FDOO WKH SULQFLSOH RI VROLGDULW\ WKH
YDOLGLW\RIZKLFKERWKLQWKHLQWHUQDORUGHURIHDFKQDWLRQDQGLQWKH
international order I have discussed in the encyclical Sollicitudo rei
socialisLVFOHDUO\VHHQWREHRQHRIWKHIXQGDPHQWDOSULQFLSOHVRIWKH
&KULVWLDQ YLHZ RI VRFLDO DQG SROLWLFDO RUJDQL]DWLRQ 7KLV SULQFLSOH LV
IUHTXHQWO\ VWDWHG E\ 3RSH /HR ;,,, ZKR XVHV WKH WHUP ¶IULHQGVKLS·
DFRQFHSWDOUHDG\IRXQGLQ*UHHNSKLORVRSK\3RSH3LXV;,UHIHUVWR
LW ZLWK WKH HTXDOO\ PHDQLQJIXO WHUP ¶VRFLDO FKDULW\· 3RSH 3DXO 9,
H[SDQGLQJWKHFRQFHSWWRFRYHUWKHPDQ\PRGHUQDVSHFWVRIWKHVRFLDO
TXHVWLRQVSHDNVRID¶FLYLOL]DWLRQRIORYH·µ-RKQ3DXO,,SDUD
6RFLHW\IRU7KRPDV$TXLQDV,SDUDLVQRWDWKLQJEXWD
communication. He quotes Augustine’s De Doctrina Christiana: “EvHU\WKLQJWKDWLVQRWOHVVHQHGE\EHLQJLPSDUWHGLVQRWLILWEHSRVVHVVHG
without being communicated, possessed as it ought to be possessed.”
7KXV GRHV 3RSH %HQHGLFW ;9, LQ Deus caritas est %HQHGLFW ;9,
LQVLVWWKDWVRFLDODVVLVWDQFHLVQRWMXVWDTXHVWLRQRIJHWWLQJWKH
MREGRQH&DWKROLFFKDULW\LV´DQDFWLRQRIWKH&KXUFKDVVXFKµSDUD
+HUH%HQHGLFWUHFRQQHFWVZLWKRQHRIWKHPDLQSRLQWVRIQuadra-
44 FAITH & ECONOMICS
gesimo Anno3LXV;,6RFLDODVVLVWDQFHLVQRWDQXQGLIIHUHQWLDWHGGHOLYHU\V\VWHP,WPXVWUHVHFWWKHJRRGRIGLVWLQFWVRFLDOIRUPV³
IDPLO\FKXUFKDQGVRIRUWK
References
Aquinas, T.An apology for the religious orders-3URFWRU23
7UDQV/RQGRQ6DQGV&R
Aquinas, T. Summa theologica)DWKHUVRIWKH(QJOLVK'RPLQLFDQ
3URYLQFH7UDQV1HZ<RUN%HQ]LJHU%URWKHUV
Aubert, R. Catholic social teaching: An historical perspective
'$%RLOHDX(G. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press.
Benedict XVI.(QF\FOLFDO/HWWHUDeus caritas est'HFHPEHU
5HWULHYHG2FWREHUIURPKWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHU
EHQHGLFWB[YLHQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBEHQ[YLBHQFBB
deus-caritas-est_en.html.
Benedict XVI. (QF\FOLFDO /HWWHU Caritas in veritate -XQH 5HWULHYHG2FWREHUIURPKWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHU
EHQHGLFWB[YLHQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBEHQ[YLBHQFBB
caritas-in-veritate_en.html.
Breen, J.M./RYHWUXWKDQGWKHHFRQRP\$UHÁHFWLRQRQ%HQHGLFW
;9,·VCaritas in veritate. Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy,
33
Calvez, J.-Y. SJ, & Perrin, J. SJ The Church and social justice:
The social teachings of the popes from Leo XIII to Pius XII (18781958). /RQGRQ%XUQV2DWHV
Cogley, J.0D\+RZWRUHDGDQHQF\FOLFDOAmerica, 108, 709.
Ferree, W.J. SM. >@Introduction to social justice. Arlington,
9$&HQWHUIRU(FRQRPLFDQG6RFLDO-XVWLFH
Froelich, G.7KHHTXLYRFDOVWDWXVRIbonum commune. The New
Scholasticism, 63, 38-57.
Hayek, F.A. Law, legislation, and liberty, volume 2: The mirage of
social justice&KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV
Hittinger, F.R. 7KH FRKHUHQFH RI WKH IRXU EDVLF SULQFLSOHV RI
Catholic social doctrine: An interpretation. In M.S. Archer & P.
'RQDWL (GV 3RQWLÀFDO $FDGHP\ RI 6RFLDO 6FLHQFHV SURFHHGLQJV
of fourteenth plenary session SS 9DWLFDQ &LW\ 3RQWLÀFDO
$FDGHP\ RI WKH 6RFLDO 6FLHQFHV 5HWULHYHG 2FWREHU IURP
KWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDURPDQBFXULDSRQWLÀFDOBDFDGHPLHVDFGVFLHQ
GRFXPHQWVQHZSGIDFWDSDVVSGI.
Hittinger 45
John XXIII. (QF\FOLFDO /HWWHU Pacem in terris $SULO 5HWULHYHG2FWREHUIURPKWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHU
john_xxiii/encyclicals/index.htm.
John Paul II. $SRVWROLF /HWWHU Mulierus dignitatem $XJXVW
5HWULHYHG 2FWREHU IURP http://www.vatican.va/holy_
IDWKHUMRKQBSDXOBLLDSRVWBOHWWHUVGRFXPHQWVKIBMSLLBDSOBB
mulieris-dignitatem_en.html.
John Paul II (QF\FOLFDO /HWWHU Centesimus annus 0D\ 5HWULHYHG 2FWREHU IURP http://www.vatican.va/holy_
IDWKHUMRKQBSDXOBLLHQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBMSLLBHQFBB
centesimus-annus_en.html.
Koslowski, P. Ethics of capitalism and critique of sociobiology:
Two essays with a comment by James M. Buchanan. Berlin: Springer.
Leo XIII(QF\FOLFDO/HWWHURerum novarum0D\5HWULHYHG
2FWREHU IURP KWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHUOHRB[LLL
HQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBO[LLLBHQFBBUHUXPQRYDUXPB
en.html.
Leo XIII.(QF\FOLFDO/HWWHUGraves de communi re-DQXDU\
5HWULHYHG2FWREHUIURPKWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHU
OHRB[LLLHQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBO[LLLBHQFBBJUDYHVGH
communi-re_en.html.
de Lubac, H. Catholicism: Christ and the common destiny of man
/&6KHSSDUG6U((QJOXQG7UDQV-5DW]LQJHU)RUHZRUG6DQ
Francisco: Ignatius Press.
Paul VI. (QF\FOLFDO /HWWHU Populorum progressio 0DUFK 5HWULHYHG2FWREHUIURPKWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHU
SDXOBYLHQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBSYLBHQFBBSRSXORUXPB
en.html.
Pius XI. (QF\FOLFDO/HWWHUQuadragesimo anno0D\5HWULHYHG
2FWREHU IURP KWWSZZZYDWLFDQYDKRO\BIDWKHUSLXVB[L
HQF\FOLFDOVGRFXPHQWVKIBS[LBHQFBBTXDGUDJHVLPRDQQRB
en.html.
Polanyi, K. >@ The great transformation: The political and
economic origins of our time-(6WLJOLW])RUHZRUG%RVWRQ%HDFRQ
Press.
3RQWLÀFDO &RXQFLO IRU -XVWLFH DQG 3HDFH Compendium of
the social doctrine of the Church. Washington, DC: United States
&RQIHUHQFHRI&DWKROLF%LVKRSV
Rhonheimer, M. &DSLWDOLVP IUHH PDUNHW HFRQRP\ DQG WKH
FRPPRQ JRRG7KH UROH RI VWDWH DXWKRULWLHV LQ WKH HFRQRPLF VHFWRU
46 FAITH & ECONOMICS
In 06FKODJ-$0HUFDGR(GVFree markets and the culture of
common good. New York: Springer.
Shields, L.W. The history and meaning of the term social justice.
3K''LVVHUWDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI1RWUH'DPH1RWUH'DPH,1Q