NicolausListenius
Musica
Translated&AnnotatedbySionM.Honea
Thistranslationisbasedontheeditionof
1549,Nuremburg:JohannPetreius
©2016
1
Introduction
RemarkablylittleisknownaboutNicolausListenius,consideringthathispresentbookbecame
oneofthetwomostusedandinfluentialinthesixteenth-centuryLatinSchools.Ifthatwerenotenough
ofanaccomplishment,thebookalsopresentedwhatwouldprovetobeamostimportantnew
conceptualizationofmusicactivityastripartite,replacingtheoldBoethian,rathercondescending
dichotomy.Yet,littleisknownapartfromhisbirthinHamburgbutthatbyhismatriculationatthe
UniversityofWittenbergin1529hewaslistedasfromSalzwedel.1HereceivedtheMasterofArtsin
1531andafterthatreturnedtoteachintheLatinSchoolatSalzwedel,presumablyuntilhisdeath.The
schoolatthattimewasstillunderthejurisdictionoftheRomanCatholicChurch,forin1536theElector
JoachimIIcensuredListeniusforintroducingtheLutheranliturgywithoutpermission,thoughin1539
JoachimgrantedfreedomtoLutheranisminhisterritory.Ironically,andsurelydeliberately,Listenius
dedicatedtheMusicain1537toJohannGeorg,thenaboyoftwelve,thesonofJoachimII.
Listeniusistodayprobablymoregenerallyrecognizedforhiscontributiontomusictheorythan
forhiscontributiontomusiceducation.InChapter1ofthefirstpartofthebookheintroducesanovel
three-partdefinitionoftheartofmusicasdividedbetweenTheory,PracticeandPoetics.Thiswasin
starkcontrasttothelong-standingBoethiandivisionbetweenthemusicus(thetheoristwhoknewand
understoodmusicintellectually)andthecantor(themerepractitionerwhounderstoodlittleornothing,
accordingtoBoethius).Listeniusnotonlyaddsathirdtype,thePoetical,butalsoredressesthebalance
amongthethree.ThePoeticalmusicianwasthecreator,thecomposer,andListeniuswasthefirstto
definecompositionasaseparatecategory,anideawithimportanttheologicalimplications.InListenius’
scheme,thetheoristwastheonewhomerelypassivelyunderstoodmusictheoretically,whereasthe
PracticalandPoeticalmusiciansweredirectlyandactivelyinvolvedinmusic.Thelattertwopossesseda
shareoftheformer,buttheformernoshareinthelattertwo,thusde-privilegingandreducingthe
statusoftheTheorist.
Listeniusdoesnotelaborateonthesignificanceofthisnewcategoryofthecomposerwithinthe
definitionitself,buthedoesimplicitlyalludetoitinhisdedicationtoJohannGeorg.Amonghisrather
standardallusionstobiblical,classicalandlegendaryfigureswhopracticedmusic,hedropsaphrasethat
mightwellbepassedoverasmereperfunctorywidow-dressing,“that[thespirit]mightbeexcitedtothe
contemplationofharmonyofthedivinegovernorandbebenttoappropriatemotionsofcelestial
doctrine.”ThisispureLutherantheology,forLuther,contrarytothehumanists,heldthatmusicwasof
divineoriginandthatitsmathematicalnature,conformingtothemathematicalharmoniesofcreation
asidentifiedbythespeculativetheorists,thuscouldrevealandmakeaudiblethenatureofGod.By
operatingonthehumanspiritmusiccouldraiseindividualstoahigherspirituallife;thus,thecomposer
becameaveryimportantpersonasthemeansbywhichGod’sdivinenaturecouldaffecthumanlife.
ThisideaofthePoeticalactivitywouldcatchholdandbecomeinvolvedinthedevelopmentofGerman
music,contributingtotheGermanbaroqueandtheconceptoftheAffektenlehre.2Inpassing,this
theologicalunderstandingofmusicexplainstheattitudeofJ.S.Bachtowardcomposition,whyhewas
1
Evenhisbirthplace,establishedbysolidauthorities,seemsoddbecauseinthebook’sdedicationhesayshewas
borninBrandenburg,butHamburgwasafreecityandnotintheElectorateofBrandenburg.
2
JohnBartel,MusicaPoetica(Lincoln,NE:UniversityofNebraska,1997),esp.Chapter1.
2
consideredsoold-fashionedbymanyofhiscontemporaries,andwhyasecular,rationalistfigureofthe
enlightenmentlikeFredericktheGreatfoundhismusicsorepugnant.
EvenmoreinterestinginthepresentconnectionisthedefinitionofthePracticalmusician,
particularlyascomparedtotheTheorist,“UndePracticusMusicus,quiultraartiscongnitionemcaeteros
docet”“WhencethePracticalmusician[isone]whobeyondaknowledgeoftheskill[i.e.,ascompared
withtheTheoreticalmusician]teachesothers.”Thisappearstobeaclearandspecificintegrationofthe
musiceducator,Listenius’ownchosenfield,withinhistripartitesystemasatypeofpractitioner.
ThoughIamfamiliarwithafairamountofthemajormusicpedagogicalliteraturepriortothis,Iamnot
omniscientinit;nevertheless,Idonotrememberanyothersuchconcerntounderstandtheroleofthe
musicteacher.
Thetextitselfisnotdesignedasastudent’stextbookbutasateacher’stext.Assuchit
possessesbothstrengthsandweaknesses,thelatterespeciallywhencritiquedonlyinisolation,but
fewerwhencomparedwithothercontemporarytexts.Fromtheperspectiveofthetranslator,first
amongitsweaknessesisListenius’commandofLatin;itisusuallyquitesufficientwhenthesubjectis
fairlysimpleanduncomplicatedbutdeteriorateswhenconfrontedwithacomplexsubject.3The
deteriorationissuchinsomecasesastomakemesuspectthatListeniusdidnothaveacomplete
understandingoftheparticularsubject.Mostoftheseproblematicpassagesappearinthesecondpart
onmensuralmusicandinthemoredifficultaspectsofit.Ascomparedwithotherauthorsinthesame
fieldataboutthesametime,Listenius’Latindoesnotdisplaythesamelevelofcompetenceasthatof
GeorgRhau,MartinAgricola,orevenHermannFink.Listeniusisgiventoellipsisandtobothabsolute
andquasi-absoluteconstructions,suchasparticipialphrasesandfree-standingsubordinateclausesthat
cannotbeclearlybroughtintosubordinationwithanymainindependentclause.Myimmediate
inclinationistoattributethistothefactthatwhentheideaiscomplexanddifficult,Listeniusfallsback,
probablyunconsciously,onthelesshighlystructuredprosestyleofGermanofhisday,similartothe
stateofproseinallvernacularsofthetime.Forseveralreasonsthisprobablydidnottrouble
contemporaryreaderssomuchasitdoesustoday:(1)manyidiosyncrasiesseemtobeinfluencedby
thevernacularGermanthathisreadersshared,(2)theteacherisassumedalreadytopossessthe
knowledgeinthebook,ormostofit,andtoexplainittothestudents,and(3)readingatthistimewas
notassumedtobethefacileactivitythatweassumetoday;rather,thereaderwasexpectedtograpple
withthetextinordertowrestthemeaningfromit.4
Thereweresomeoccasionswhenmyabilitytotranslateresultedmorefrommyownprior
understandingofwhatListeniusistryingtoexplainratherthanfromListenius’language.Particularly
prominentexamplesarehischapteronAugmentationandportionsofthatonProportions.His
discussionofSemiditieunderDiminutionissimplywrongasitis,whetherthroughignoranceor
oversightisunclear,thoughheisatthatpointmanifestlydependentonRhauorOrnithoparchus,who
arequiteclear.ProfessorSeayacknowledgedthathealsofounddifficultieswiththetextandquite
properlyalertedthereaderthat“thetranslationgivenissomewhatfree.”Thisisanadmirably
professionalstatementsuchasfewtranslatorsmakeevenwhentheytakefargreaterlibertieswiththe
textthandidSeay.Asinallmytranslationsinthisseries,Ipreferatranslationthatisclosertothe
3
4
AsAlbertSeaytactfullyputit,“Listenius’Latinisnotalwaysofthebest.”
JosefBalogh,VocesPaginarum(Leipzig:Dieterich’scheVerlagsbuchhandlung,1927).
3
original,evenatthepriceofsharingsomeoftheoriginal’sdifficulties,manyofwhichIhavetriedto
reducebymeansofbracketedexpletivewordsorphrasesandbynotes,sometimesextensiveones.
Thebookalsoexhibitsstrengthsthatwillnotbeadequatelyapparentfromtheperspectiveof
today.Certainlythefactthatitsurvivesinforty-sixknowneditions(1537-1583)andwasusedwellinto
theseventeenthcenturyatteststothefactofitsperceivedquality.Wetodaymaywelllookatthebook
andwonderwhyfromourvantagepointofcenturiesinthedevelopmentofmusicpedagogy,butifsoit
isbecausewehavelostsightofanimportanthistoricalfact.ThemusicteachersintheLatinSchool
tradition,andespeciallyintheLutheranLatinSchools,werecreatingwhatwouldbecomemodern
classroommusiceducationandpedagogicalmethod.Thefactthatmusicpedagogyhadevolvedtothe
levelofListenius’MusicainonlythetwentyyearsafterLuther’sthesesisatestimonytotheschools,
theirteachersandpedagogy,andtoListeniusindividually.
Thefirstthingthatshouldbenoticeableisthatthebookisnotorganizedprogressivelyexceptin
thebroadestterms.Thetwo-partstructureofchoralmusic(plainchant)andmensuralmusic
(polyphony)wasestablishedbeforeListenius.Theorganizationofthematerialinsuccinctintelligible
unitsisamajorreasonforthebook’ssuccess,butitisnotstrictlyprogressiveinourmodernsense.Itis
onlynecessarytoglancethroughafewpagesofGeorgRhau’sEnchiridion[Pt.1(1517),Pt.2(1520)]5and
especiallyCochlaeus’Tetrachordon(1511)toseethattheyrelymuchmoreheavilyonlengthydiscursive
information.AteachermightwellseeListenius’book,ontheotherhand,asaseriesoflessonplans.
Textiskeptalmosttoaminimum,exceededinbrevityonlybyFaber’slaterCompendiolum(1548),which
introducedthecatecheticalstyletomusiceducation.Further,illustrativemusicalexamplesandmusic
forstudyarecontinuallycoordinatedandintegratedwiththetextinareasonablypedagogicalmanner.
AnevidenceoftheabsenceofthemodernprogressiveapproachappearsInthefirstparton
plainchantwhenListeniusanticipatesmensuralnotationwithbriefexamplesofpolyphony.Thismay
seemlike“jumpingthegun”intolerablytoateachertoday,butitisnecessarytounderstandthatour
conceptofmethodisdiachronicallyprogressiveandthatofListeniusandhistimewas“synchronic.”The
bookwastobeusedasawholeasneededunderthedirectionoftheteacher.Mensuralmusicappears
intheplainchantchaptersbecausestudentsatamoreadvancedstageweresupposedtoreturntoitfor
furtheramplificationofthematerialasitrelatedtopolyphony.Sometimesinformationfromlater
chaptersisnecessarytounderstandearliermaterial,asinthecaseofthetactus,whichdoesnotappear
untilPart2,Chapter10butwouldcertainlyhavebeenusefulfromthebeginningofPart2.
Listenius’Musicawasoneofthetwomostsuccessfulmusictextsforclassroomteachinginthe
LatinSchoolsofthesixteenthcentury.TheotherwasFaber’sCompendiolumthatutilizedthe
catecheticalmethodnewlyrevivedandreinvigoratedbyMelanchthonandLuther.Thetwobookswere
apparentlyoftenusedinconjunction—FaberfortheearlyyearsandListeniusforthelateryears.Georg
SchünemannandFriedrichSannemannlistthemultiplicityoftextsthatthedemandoftheLatinSchools
stimulated.Ihaveacquiredafairnumberofthemforcomparison,andthereasonforthepopularityof
FaberandListeniusisclear,theauthorsclearlyaskedthemselvesthefirstoftwocriticalquestions“what
domystudentsneedtoknowatthisstage?”Theydidnotthenencumbertheirtextswithexcessive
discursiveexplanationsofmoreadvancedmaterial,asmanycollegeundergraduatemusictextbooksstill
dotoday.AcomparisoncanbeseenwithCochleausTetrachordon(1511),whichisanexcellentexample
5
ThesearethedatesasgiveninRISMBVI.
4
ofthehumanisttraditionofrationalorganizationandpresentation,buthaslittletodowithpedagogy.
Thesecondquestion,“howdoIpresentthematerialinasequencebestsuitedforlearning,”wouldhave
towaituntilearlyinthenextcenturywhenauthorslikeHizlerandGengenbachbegantoaddressit.The
strengthofListeniusandFaberisthattheyapparentlylargelysucceededinasking(andanswering)the
criticalfirstquestionofwhatwasnecessarytopresentatthelearner’sspecificstageofdevelopment.
ThistranslationbeganbecauseofmyinterestinLutheranschoolmusicofthesixteenthand
seventeenthcenturies.EvenaftercontinuedsearchesoverseveralyearsIwasunabletoobtainacopy
ofSeay’s1975translationand,strangelyenough,foundSchünemann’s1927facsimileeditionrather
plentifullyavailable.6SoIsetaboutmakingmyowntranslation,thebenefitsofwhichforunderstanding
andappreciatingListenius’achievementhaveprovenfargreaterascomparedtoreadingatranslation.
InthepreparationofthetranslationIhaveconsistentlytriedthroughnotestoalertthereaderof
problematicpassages.SometimesmytranslationhasbeenachievedmorebyknowledgeofwhatIknew
Listeniuswastryingtosaythanbyhowheattemptedtosayit.Thosepassagesareusuallyfairlyobvious
eitherthroughnotesorbytheheavyoccurrenceofbracketedamplifications.7Intheevent,Ifeel
reasonablyconfidentthatthetranslationisreasonablycorrect.InpreparingthetranslationIfoundthat
itwasnecessaryformetostudyandimprovemyownknowledgeonmanypointscoveredbyListenius,
mainlythroughtheexaminationoftextsthathemighthaveused,andwasrewardedbyfindingseveral
clearconnections.Idecidedtosharewiththereadertheresultsofmyownstudyinexplanatorynotes
thatoffereitheramplificationofthesubjectmatterorreferencesastohistoricalcontinuityoftradition.
Thishasoccasionallyresultedinnotesofextremelength.
IreceivedSeay’stranslationjustintimetoreviewitbeforecompletingmyown.Asismy
practice,Ididnotcollateitwordforwordbutonlyspot-checkedproblempassages.Ifoundthatinmost
casesourunderstandingofListeniuswassufficientlysimilar.InaveryfewcasesIbelieveSeay’smore
flexibleapproachledhimslightlyastrayandhaveinallthosecasespreferredmyownreading.Icall
thosecasestothereader’sattentionwhentheyoccur.
Ihaveincludedalltheoriginalmusicalexamplesandperformancepiecesinthetextuntranscribed.Thisisnotmerelazinessonmypart.Ihadoriginallyconsideredtranscribingthemsince
theyoffernoinsurmountabledifficulties,butinthecourseoftranslationIchangedmymind.Irealized
thatmodernnotationwouldonlyservetoobscurethelearningpointsthatListeniuswastryingto
illustratebymeansofthem.Modernnotationcannotreproducethecomplexitiesofmensuralnotation,
andIbelievetheplainchantnotationissufficientlyfamiliarandeasynottoneedtranscription.So,fora
translationviewedfromtheperspectiveofthehistoryofmusiceducation,Idecidednottotranscribe
anymusic.Thereis,however,anotherlegitimateviewoftheissue,thatListenius’bookalsocontributes
tothehistoryofmusicingeneral,forwhichtranscriptionsaresuitable.Thosewhodesirethemwillfind
transcriptionsinSeay’stranslation.
6
Ironicallyandamusingly,onthedaythatIfirstwrotethisitoccurredtometosearchagainforSeay’stranslation,
onlyonecopyofwhichIfoundatlastandordered—fromGermany!
7
Ithasbeenmyexperienceindealingwithtranslationsfrommanydifferentlanguagesthattranslatorsseldomdo
this—probablybecausepublisherswillnotapprovetheadditionalexpenseitcreates,whichisanadvantagetothis
University-publishedtranslationseries.
5
Ihaveadistinctantipathyforthetypicalfulsomelyobsequiousdedicationsthatarecommonin
booksofthisperiod.Ihadnotintendedtotranslatethisone,butinscanningitIfoundenoughof
interesttofeelitwasjustified.Iwasnotabletobringmyselfsimilarlytoundertaketheopeningand
closingcelebratorypoemsbyotherauthors.Asuperficialscandidnothingtoconvincemethatitwould
beaprofitableuseoftimeoraddtothereader’sknowledgeofthecentralissues.Thosewhoare
aficionadosofforcedmetaphors,stiltedclassicalallusionsandhyperbolewillfindthemtranslatedin
Seay’sedition.ItisanotherreasontoadmireprofessorSeay’sdevotedscholarshipthathedidtranslate
them!
6
PrefatoryPoem
7
TotheIllustriousPrinceandLordJohannGeorg,
OldestsonoftheIllustriousPrinceandLordIoachimII
ElectorofBrandenburg,etc.MostgraciousLord.
NicolausListenius.
Ihavegatheredtheelementsofmusic,thepublicationofwhich,sincefriendshadentreated
fromme,Ibringforthasalittlebookmostuseful,illustriousprince,tobededicatedtoyouthatitmay
goouttothepublicmorefortunatelywiththeauspiceofyourname.Ibelieve,indeed,thatthisworkis
notgoingtobewithoutpleasuretoyou,sincealsoitisfittingthatprincescultivatethestudyofmusic,
andthisperiodofyourlifeandnatureisalreadytakenwiththesweetnessofsongandisgoingtobe
imbuedwiththeprinciplesoftheskill.8Manygreatandseriousreasonsarecollectedbylearnedand
wisemenwhyallintelligent,andespeciallypowerful,princesshouldbeeducatedinmusicandmade
familiarwithit.Itinclinestheirsoulstohumanity,gentleness,impartiality,preventsallimmoderate
emotions,soothespain,anger,eliminatesharshnessandobscenedesires,andfinallyaccustomsthatas
insoundsandsongsoinallactionsoflifewepreserveacertainharmony.9Forwhichreasonweseein
theancientdocumentsthatthehighestkingsnotonlyforadiversionforsoothingtheearsbothsang
themselvesandgainedcredit,butbymuchmoredidtheypracticemusicasaseriousskillinorderto
produceaharmonyofthesoul.10Davidpracticedmusicinordertoexcitethemostseriousandspiritual
affections,forwhichsamereasontheuseofmusichasbeeninsacredritesamongallpeoplesandall
ages,notasauselesspleasureaswhatisconsideredplay,butinordertorestoremoretranquilspiritsby
songandthattheymightbeexcitedtothecontemplationofharmonyofthedivinegovernorandmay
bebenttoappropriatemotionsofcelestialdoctrine,11andfinallythatthesesamefeelingsmightmove
thespiritsmoreeffectivelywhensongdrawsnear.HomerdescribesAchillesasplayingthecithara,and
indeedaddsevidenceandsayshewastheforemostprincetohavesungthepraiseofbravemenin
which,whenbothinwordsandsong,hisspiritwasmoved,bywhichmoreardentlyvirtuewasenkindled
withadmirationandlove.Butfinally,inordertobringyoufromtheexampleofthesegreatestkings,I
haveseenbothyourgrandfatherJoachimIandyourfatherJoachimIIbothunderstandmusicwelland
admirablypossessedbythestudyofit.ForwhichreasonIwasresolvedthatthismylittleworkwould
besuitableforyou,whichindeedevenifforthatreasonIhavededicatedittoyou,inordertodeclare
8
JohannGeorgwouldhavebeenabouttwelveyearsold.Itisinterestingthatasayoungmanhefoundhisfather’s
policiesandpoliticalconductunacceptableandapparentlyvoluntarilywithdrewintoakindofsemi-seclusion.
Whenhecametopoweruponhisfather’sdeathhereversedmuchofwhathefoundobjectionableandbecame
generallyacceptedasagoodruler.Perhapsmusichadaneffectafterall!HealsobecameaLutheran,whereashis
fatherhadstraddledthefence,neverquitegivingupCatholicismbutbreakingfreefromtheauthorityofthepope.
9
Thisconnectionofeducationinmusicwiththedevelopmentofwhattodaywewouldcallemotionalhealthand
maturityisinfluenceddirectlyorindirectlybyAristotle’sphilosophyofmusiceducationattheendofhisPolitics.
10
ThisisthePythagoreanconceptofmusic,mostlikelycomingtoListeniusthroughBoethius.
11
ThisisreallyasuperbexampleofLuther’stheologicalconceptionofmusicasBarteldescribesit.Luther
constantlyremarkedthatmusicwassecondonlytoscriptureinthepowertotransformthespiritandturnittothe
divine;thus,musicwasofdivineorigin.Thenumericalnatureofmusicanditspowerinhumanlife(musica
humana)heldbymedievalspeculativemusictheorydescendingfromPythagorasLutherinterpretedtheologically
assupportingevidenceformusic’sdivineoriginandspiritualpower.Lutherthussucceededincombiningtheolder
GreekandmedievalspeculativetraditionofmusicwithChristiantheology.
8
myzealfortheprinceofmyfatherland,sinceIwasborninyourrealm,12neverthelessIdiditfreely,also
because—sincethehighestgloryofyourfamilyisitspresenttalents13--Iwashopingthatthebookwould
bemoreacceptabletoallonaccountofyourname.Thenalso,Iseeminsomewaytodeservewellof
mycountrywhenIencourageyoutomusic.Forthisinvitesasoultovirtue,especiallyifyouwould
begintolovethatAchilleanmusic,inwhichnotonlysoundscaresstheearsbutmuchratherthepraises
ofgreatprincesrevealexamples,whichitbefitsyoutofollowandbringintoeffect,andkindleyourmind
tothestudyandloveofvirtue.14Ihearyoualreadysuccessfullyarecreatingverseinwhichthedeeds
ofgreatmenareplacedbeforeyou.Ifyoucultivatethismusic,youwillbeworthyofyourancestors,
andyouwillincreaseinthegreatgiftsofyourfather.15Therefore,Ibeseechthatyounotspurnthismy
workbutreceiveitasaspecimenofmyregardforyou.Finally,Ipraythatsinceitisfittingforan
honorableprincetopracticeskills,youmayholdmealsocommendedbecauseofthisstudy.Farewell.
12
IamuncertainwhatListeniuscanmean,ifmodernscholarsarecorrectinassertingthathewasdefinitelybornin
Hamburg.HamburgdidnotlieinBrandenburgandhadlongbeenanindependentcity,reinforcedbybeing
declaredafreeimperialcityin1510byMaximilianI.PerhapsheisthinkingonlyinbroadtermsasborninGerman
lands,ormeansonlythatheresidesinBrandenburg,orperhapsitisapoliteandingratiatingexaggeration.
13
Iassumethisisaflowerymetaphormeaning“itspresentrepresentative”intheformofJohannGeorg.
14
ThiswasanimportantpurposeofmusiceducationinclassicalAthens.Itwasconsideredthatboysbysinging
songsthatcelebratedheroicactsofcivicvirtuewouldbecomeimbuedandimitatethosevirtues.
15
Thereadermayfindtheconnectioninterestingthatthebookwasfirstpublishedin1537,theyearafterJoachim
IIhadcensuredListeniusforhisunauthorizedLutheraninclinationin1536.In1539Joachimpermitted
LutheranismtoenterhisterritoryonequalstandingwithRomanCatholicism.
9
[a3v]Chapter1
Music istheknowledge(scientia)ofsingingproperlyandwell.17Tosingwellistoproduce
songsuitablyaccordingtosomecertainrulesandmeasurebymeansofitspitches(vox)andnotes
(figuras).18Itistripartite:Theoretical,Practical,Poetical.19
Theoreticalisthatwhichinvolvesthecontemplationofthemindandtheknowledgeofthe
subjectonly,whoseendistoknow.Whenceatheoreticalmusicianisonewhoknowstheskill(ars)
itself,butcontentinthisonly,producesnospecimenofitbyactivity.
Practicalisthatwhichnotonlylieswithinthedepthofthemindbutissuesintotheworkitself,
withnothingofthework,however,remainingaftertheact,whoseendisinthedoing.Whencea
practicalmusicianisonewhobeyondaknowledgeoftheskillteachesothersandinthiswayemploys
himselfabouttheproductofanother’swork.20
Poeticalisthatwhichiscontainedneitherintheknowledgeofthesubjectnorinitspractice
alonebutleavessomethingoftheworkafterthelabor,justaswhenbysomeonemusicorapieceof
musiciswritten,whoseendistheworkperfectandcomplete.Foritconsistsinmakingorfabricating,
thatis,insuchlaboraswouldleaveevenafterit,whenthecreatorisdead,aworkwholeandperfect.
Whenceapoeticalmusicianistheonewhoremainstosomedegreeinthesurvivingwork.Theselatter
16
16
Listeniusdoesnotoftenusethewordmusicabutdoessotoindicatemusicingeneral.Allreferencesinthisfirst
chapteraretomusica.
17
ThedefinitionrecallsthelonglineageofdefinitionsbeginningwithAugustine’s“musicaestscientiabene
modulandi,”heremademorespecificbythesubstituteof“canendi,”singing.
18
CertainLatinterms,bothwithinthehistoryoftheLatinlanguageandinthehistoryofmusictheory,canbe
misleadingtothemodernEnglishreader.Forthisreason,Ioftendirectthereader’sattentiontotheoriginalterm,
whichIalwaysciteinthenominativesingularformdespiteitsnumberandinflectioninthetext.Intheopening
chaptersthreetermsareparticularlyimportantandarenotalwaysusedidenticallybydifferentauthors,nor
sometimesevenbythesameauthor.Thesethreeare,asListeniusmostoftenusesthem:
• Vox—Thisreferstothesyllable(s),whenusedwithoutthepitchletter,thatdefineapitchwithinthe
Guidonianhexachordsystem,e.g.,ut,re,solreut,singlyorincombination,asrequired.
• Clavis—Thisreferstotheletternameofthepitch(sometimestoitalone)plusitsdefiningsyllable(s),e.g.,
Γ-ut,C-faut,G-solreut.
• Clavissignanda(orsignata)—thisreferstothefiveclefsignsderivedfrompitchletters:Γ,F,c,g,dd.
Listeniusincludestheoutertwo,eventhoughtheyareobsoletebyhistime.
Thereaderalsomustbeaware(1)thattheparticulartermvoxalsohasothermeanings,e.g.,musicalsoundand
humanvoice,andthatListeniusisnotcompletelyconsistentinhisusage,especiallyastoprecisionintheuseof
voxandclavis.
19
ListeniususesGreekforthesetermsprintedintheGreekfont,thusdisplayinghisconnectiontohishumanistic
training.TheformertwowerelongtraditionalinhistimeandreflectBoethius’olddistinctionbetweenmusicus
andcantor.Thethird“Poetical”maymisleadthereader;itisfromtheGreekverbmeaningtodoormake,create,
andsohasnothinginthisinstancetodowithpoetry.ThisisnodoubtListenius’greatestcontributiontothe
historyofmusictheory,forheusesittoadd“composition”asathirdmembertothehistoricalpair.Thishad
profoundinfluencesonthecourseofmusictheoryandsecondarilyonmusichistoryforthenexttwocenturies,
especiallyinGermanlands.Foradiscussionofmusicapoeticaanditslinktomusictheoryandpractice,see
DietrichBartel,MusicaPoetica(1997),aswellastheremarksintheintroductiontothistranslation.
20
AlthoughtheLatinwordscanembraceabroadermeaningthanteachingalone;nonetheless,Ibelievethat
Listeniusisdeliberatelylinkinghisprofessionaseducatortothepracticeofmusicandtherebygivingitstatus.
10
two[PracticalandPoetical]have[a4r]theformer[Theoretical]perpetuallyjoinedtothem,butnotthe
contrary.21
Buttoresume,Practicalisdividedintotwoparts:choralandnotated.22“Choral”isthatwhich
producesandmeasuresitsnotesuniformlywithoutanyincreaseordecreaseindurationandiscalledby
anothername“Gregorian,”“plain,”“old”becauseitwascultivatedveryextensivelybyGregory,
Ambroseandtheancients.“Notated”isthatwhichvariesthemeasureandquantityofnotesbymeans
oftheinequalityofsignsandnotes,withincreaseanddecreaseofduration.Thislatteriscalled
“mensural”byanothernameandbyanother“new”becauseitpermitsvariousmeasuresandnotes.
Thereisneedofboth,bothininstrumentsmuteinthemselves,sothatImaybrieflyincludealltypesof
thisskill(ars),aswellasinthelivinghumanvoice(vox).
Chapter2:OntheScale
Intheoutsetthescalemustbetreatedonaccountofthediversityofnote-names(clavis)and
syllables(vox).Anyonewhoisignorant[ofthescale]islikeablindmandwellinginanunknownregion;
hepossessesnocertaintyaboutthenatureofanymusic(cantus)23andthedistinctionofitsparts,
likewiseofsolmization,asitiscalled,ofthemutationofthesyllables(vox)andtheirprogression.
Accordingly,itisveryimportanttolearnthiswellfromthestart.Thenote-names(clavis)areactually
twentyinnumber,clearlyΓ-ut,A-re,etc.beyondwhichithasexceeded[a4v]inmensuralmusic(for
choralnevergoesbeyond).Note-names(clavis)andsyllables(vox)maybeaddedeitherupwardor
downwardinthelowerorupperoftheoctaveandclass.Note-names(clavis)however,differamong
themselvesbylocation,character(figura)andmanner,forsomeareallottedalow,someamediumand
someahighplace[i.e,theirlocation].
Somebeartheformofsinglecapitalletters,somearelowercase,andothersaredoubleletters
[i.e.,theircharacter].
21
ThiswouldseemclearlytoreverseBoethius’priorityofthetheorist(musicus)overthepractitioner(cantor).
Thisisatraditionaldivisionintheteachingtexts,betweenmusicachoralis(plainchant)andmusicalfiguralis
(mensuralpolyphony).Astudentwouldconcentrateinearlyyearsonlearningchantanditsmonophonicnotation
beforemovingoninlateryearstopolyphonyanditsmorecomplexmensuralnotation.
23
Thetermcantusraisesthefirstopportunitytoalertthereadertoyetanotherterminologicalissue.Listenius’
useofthetermscantusandcantilenaisnotclear,particularlytheformer,whichheseemstouseasthebroader
term.Tinctoris’lexiconmayprovidesomehelp.Itwasfirstpublishedca.1473andwasstillinprintattheendof
thecentury.ListeniuswouldcertainlyhaveknownofTinctoris’workingeneral.Inthelexiconappearthetwo
termsthatpresentthemostconfusioninListenius’text.CarlParrishinhisEnglishtranslationofTinctorisproposes
themas(paraphrased):
Cantus—musicingeneraleithermonophonicorpolyphonic.
Cantilena—asmallsongonanysubject.
CarlParrish,DictionaryofMusicalTermsbyJohannesTinctoris(NewYork:DaCapo,1978).JoannesdeTinctoris,
TerminorumMusicaeDiffinitorium(Ca.1494,reprint,NewYork:BroudeBrothers,1966).Cantusissometimesin
otherauthorstranslatedas“song,”whichisnotatallincorrectbutwouldcreateaproblemherebecauseListenius
alsousesthetermscantilenaandcarmen,whicharemorespecifically“song.”
22
11
Likewise,somearelowasA-re,n-mi,24etc,somearefinals,sometransposedfinals(affinales),
whicharecalledbyvariousnames[i.e.,manner],asiseasytoseeinthetablebelow.
Plainlythereisthesamedistinctionoftheoctaves,whicharedesignatedwithsimilarletters,for
Gisanoctavedistantfromg,etc.
[a5r]Chapter3:OntheClefs(clavissignanda)inbothtypesofSong
24
Thenaturalsignreallyisthecharacterforsquare-b,b-natural,thenotethatformedtheMiinthehalf-stepinthe
intervalmi-fa.Aswillbeseentheroundletter“b”indicatedb-flat,round-b.
12
Althoughthenote-names(clavis)wouldbetwentyinnumberaccordingtoGuido,ortwenty-two
accordingtoFranchinus[Gaffurius]25,theiruse,asfaraspertainstoformingandassigningsyllables
(vox),isnecessaryinallpartsofasong(cantilena),neverthelessinthebeginningofthemusic(cantus)
foritsidentificationandreferenceweusenomorethanfive,namelyΓ,F,c,ganddd.Foritwouldbe
cumbersome,nottosayannoying,toplaceindividualonesinsuccession,26nototherwisethanif
grammarianswouldsignifywithtonesallthesyllablesofspeeches,butastheymakethejudgmentof
theremainingsyllablesfromsomeoneaccentplaced,soalsowefromsomeonenote-name(clavis),
writtenconveniently,discernthosenotwritten.Thesewecalldesignatedordesignating(signataor
signanda)becausewiththemallmusic(cantus)isindicatedatthebeginning.Foraclef(clavis)27is
nothingotherthanasingleordoublelettercharacterprefixedtothemusic(cantus)forthereferenceof
themusic(cantus)andsyllables(vox).Butlessdesignatingorspecialdowesaytheround-b[b-flat]and
square-b[b-natural]are,becausetheuseofthemwouldnotbesofrequentandnecessary.Weuse
them,tobesure,inmusic(cantus)onlyforsignifyingforeignandfictapitches(vox)occasionally
introduced,sinceb-flat(bFamollem)takestheplaceofb-natural(vox)(Mi-duram)initsplaces,
contrarytothepitch(clavis)pertainingthereandthenatureofthemusic(cantus).28Unlessbothsinger
andcomposer29ofthesongdiscerntherediligentlyandwithdiscrimination,withoutdoubtitwill
producedissonanceandconfusioninthework.[a5v]Youwillobserve,however,[that]b-flatindicated
underthec-clef(clavisc)anditsoctavesimposesadifferentnatureofthemusic(cantus),asweshow
belowconcerningscalesandgeneraofmusic(cantus).
25
Gaffuriusenjoysawidevarietyofspellingsandformsofhisname.ForthistranslationIhavechosentheformof
themainentryinGroveexceptwhereitappearsinamoderntitleorquote.
26
HeisfollowingGaffurius’commentinthePracticaMusiceBk.1,Ch.3.Bythishemeansifoneweretoputapitch
indicationattheheadofeverylineandspaceofthestaffitwouldbeconfusingandpointless.
27
ThisisthefirstinstanceofListenius’casualattitudetowardterminology,forthesenseisclearly“clavissignanda”
=clef,andnotthesimplepitch-name.
28
IseenowaytoresolveinexactEnglishthedifficultiesofListenius’Latinconstructioninthisproblematic
sentence,butthisseemstobethesenseofit.Itisalsoanexcellentexampleofthedifficultiesoftranslation,given
theterminologyandListenius’somewhatcasualattitudeinitsuse.
29
Thephraseis“cantilenarumconditor,”whichlookssomethinglikeconductorbutisreally“founder,”i.e.,the
composer.
13
Thesearedistantinpositionbyafifth,FtoΓexcluded.30
Lettheboys,31thendirecttheirattentiontotheseclefs(clavissignanda)asiftoatarget,andlet
themaccordinglylearnthosenotindicatedbytheintervaloftheseandgraspbyacertaincalculation.
30
ItisremarkablethatListeniuscouldcreateobscurityinsoshortasentence.ThesentenceisHaedistantpositu,
perquintamtolliturF,Γ.First,thecommaintrudesinthewrongplaceandshouldbe,bymodernpunctuation,
“haedistantposituperquintam,”“thesestandapartinpositionbyafifth.”Thenextmisfortuneishisuseof
tollitur,whichmeansboth“toraise”and“todoawaywith.”Theformerseemsrelatedtothefirstidea,butit
canotbeincludedinthesameclause.Thus,ItaketolliturFΓtomeansomethinglike“FtoΓexcluded.”
31
Themasculinegenderisexclusive.OnlyboysattendedtheLatinschoolsofthedaywheremusicwastaught.
Therewerealsohumblevernacularschoolsthatdidacceptgirlsasstudentsforamoreutilitarianeducation.
14
[a6r]Chapter4:OntheSyllables(vox)
Sincetherationaleofallmusic(Musica)involvesvocalquantity,32itispropertosaysomefew
thingsconcerningthesyllables(vox).Thesyllable(vox)isthenomenclatureofthenotes,ofwhichthere
areonlysix,namely:33
32
Thephrase“QuumomnisMusicaeratiocircavocalemnumerumversetur....”hasthesoundofaquote—
possiblyfromOrnithoparchuswhodoesusethequumform—strengthenedbythefactthatListeniusdoesnotuse
thisalternatespelling“quum”for“cum,”butIamunabletolocateitinTictoris,Gaffurius,OrnithoparchusorRhau,
whoalongwithAgricolaseemtobeListenius’mostidentifiablesources.Thephraseissotransparentlycloseto
Englishsynonymsthatthetranslation“sincetherationaleofallmusicturnsuponvocalnumber”isespecially
tempting,butitrendersthesubsequentclausesomethingofanonsequitur.Whyshouldvocalnumberbean
introductiontotheGuidoniansyllables?Seayreadsvocalemnumerumas“thenumberofsyllables,”butthis
cannotbebecausevocalemisanadjectiveinobviousagreementwithnumerum.Seay’sreadingwouldrequirethe
genitiveofvoxasvocumnumerum.Ibelievethetwokeytermsareratioandnumerum,theformerawordof
extremelydiversepossiblemeaningsandthelatternotfarbehind.Further,asahumanistListeniusiswellaware
ofmusic’spositionasthefourthmemberofthemathematicalquadrivium,andsoanumericalassociationisfar
moreevidenttohimthattous.Thetranslationhereattemptstoembraceaswideameaningforthephraseas
possiblewhilekeepingwithintheboundsofrelevancetomusictheartandmusicthemathematicalstudy.The
relevancetothesecondclause,Ibelieve,derivesfromtheconnectionwith“vocal.”Ontheotherhand,itmaybe
thatSeayiscorrectastowhatListeniusmeantbutfailedtocommunicatebecausehemisunderstoodthepassage
thathe,thelatter,foundinsomeoneelse’stext.
33
TheearliestformofthisideathatIhaveyetfoundappearsinCochlaeus’Tetrachordon(1511),Tract2,Chapter
6,followedinthosetextsthatIhavebeenabletoexaminebyRhau,Enchiridion(1517),[Part1]Chapter1,thenin
Ornithoparchus,Micrologus,(1517),Part1,Chapter3,whoaddsachart,theninListenius’earlierRudimenta
(1535)inchartform,theninFaber’s,Compendiolum(1548),Chapter2,andcontinuestoappearin
Gumpelzhaimer’sreworkingofFaber’sbookasCompendiumMusicae(1591),Chapter2,alongwiththechart.
Significantly,itdoesnotappearinAgricola’sRudimentaMusices(1539),theLatintranslationofhisearlierMusica
choralisdeudsch,norinSebaldHeyden’searlierMusicae(1537),norinthebetterknownDeartecanendi(1540),
norinDressler’sMusicaepracticaeelementa(1574),norinGengenbach’sMusicaNova:NeweSingekunst(1626),
norinHizler’sNeweMusicaoderSingkunst(1628).Ornithoparchuslistsasthesourcesforhisdiscussionofthe
syllables(vox)asGaffuriusTheoricaBk.5,Ch.6andPracticaBk.1,Ch.2,inneitherofwhichcanIfindaconcept
similartothisbriefternarydescription.Dowland’sEnglishtranslationofOrnithoparchus(p.6)offersnofurther
elucidation.Rhau’spassagetranslatesas:
“Thesaidsixdifferentsyllables(vox)arelocatedbythrees,forcertainonesofferaverygentle(mollissimam)
resonanceandareUtandFa;certainonesreportaveryhard(durissimam)sound,suchasMiandLa;certainones
causeanatural(naturalem)andmedium(mediocrem)melody,namelyRe,Sol,Whence[inverse]:
UtwithFaisgentle(mollis)pitch(vox)sinceitsoftenssongs.
MiwithLaishard(dura)foritproduceshardOdes.
SolandRemakenatural(naturales)onessincetheyareneutrals.
Thisverydifferenceofthepitches(vox)whenwell-observedmakeseverysong(cantus)sweet-sounding,forwhich
reasonboysdonotneglecttheuseofthem,butexercisethemselvesconstantlyinthem.”
Thisclearlyinlanguageandcontextinalltheauthorswhomentionitreferstopitchesandnotthethree
generaofthescale.Nextandbriefly:(1)itcannotrefertoqualitiesofabsolutepitchesbecausetherewasno
standardpitchatthetime,and(2)itcannotrefertovowelqualitybecauseboth“verygentle”Faand“veryhard”
Lasharethesamevowel.Icanonlyseethisasapassagefromanearlierworkthatwaseitherpoorlystatedor
simplymisunderstoodandpassedonasaresultofthesheerpowerofolderauthorityandtradition.Itisnot
uncommontofindthesixsyllablesreferredtoasintwogroups:lower=Ut,Re,Mi,higher=Fa,Sol,Lawiththe
statementthatthelowerareusedwhenascendingandthehigherwhendescending.HeydeninDeartecandendi,
Book1,Chapter2istheonlyonewhomIhavefoundwhomakesthisadmirablyclear,whichisworthquotingin
fullfromClementMiller’sexcellenttranslation.“WecalltheloweronesUt,Re,Mi;ifonkeysoftwoorthree
15
Upper
Lower
La
Sol
Fa
Mi
Re
Ut
Theseareintriple
series
ForUtandFacalledb-molle,fromthegentlesound,ReandSolnaturalbythetemperedsoundofhard
andsoft,MiandLab-duralis,fromthehardsound.
Thesearesufficientforthesolmizationandmodulatingofanymusic(cantus).Further,the
beginningofeachnote-name(clavis)isaletter,butthesyllablesfollowingitarethesolmization
syllables(vox).34AsanexampleGistheletterandthenote-name(clavis)[sic],representingthesyllables
(vox)SolReUt.35
Further,Ithinkitmustnotbeoverlookedthatanynote-name(clavis)ofthreesyllables(vox)in
solmizationofanymusic(cantus)alwaysexcludesoneofthose[syllables].AsinasonginGb-mollaris
excludesUt[but]inb-duralisretainsitandexcludesRe.Soalsoa-lamirerejectsRe,c-solfautrejectsFa,
vocables,theycannotcontinueupwardthroughFa,Sol,La,asfarasnecessary,thentheyusuallysubstituteforthe
missingvocables.WecalltheupperonesFa,Sol,La:inthesamewaytheysubstituteforlowervocableswhenever
inkeysoftwoorthreevocablestheycannotbeloweredthroughMi,Re,Ut,asfarasthemelodyrequires.”This,
however,doesnotyetsolvetheproblem,butIbelieveitisinvolvedintheotherauthors’confusion.Ipropose
quitespeculativelythatanasyetunidentifiedfirstauthororiginallyconfusedthisideawithothersperhaps
involvingthenatureoftetrachordsandtheircharacteristicintervalpatternswhenbegunoncertainpitches.Inthe
hexachordsystemtetrachordsonUtandFayieldTTS,onReandSolyieldTST,andonMiandLayieldSTT.Itwould
certainlybenecessaryforboystoanchorthesecharacteristicintervalpatternsintheearthroughpractice,butthe
analogyofsoft,hardandnatural—probablyobtainedfromthethreescalegenera--seemsfanciful,atleasttoday,
butmuchinearliertheoryislinkedtofancifulanalogy.Ifthisunderstandingiscorrect,ofwhichIamfarfrom
certain,thenithasavaguesimilaritytoGuido’sdiscussionoftheaffinitiesinChapters7&8oftheMicologus,but
itisdefinitelynotthesameasGuido’sconcept.Thatsomeconfusionisinvolvedseemssupportedbythefactthat
AgricolaomittedanyfurtherreferencetoitinhisRudimentaMusices(1539),thatitisnotpresentinSebald
Heyden’sinfluentialDeartecanendi(1540),andthatwithnoexceptionsasyetidentifieditdisappearsafterFaber
exceptforGumpelzhaimer.
34
HereListeniusmakesaclearadistinctionbetweenclavisandvox,whichhedoesnotalwaysmaintain.
35
TheonlywaythatIcaninterpretthisapparentimmediatecontradictionofusingtheletteraloneastheclavis,is
thatinhissystemofoctavesexpressedbyupper-case,lower-caseanddouble-letters,only“G”canpossessthe
syllables(vox)SolReUt,asalsocanitsoctave“g.”Thus,Listeniusappearstopresentthepossibilityofconsidering
either“G”aloneor“G-SolReUt”asequalrepresentationsofthenote-name(clavis).Thiswouldaccountforsome
ofthesubsequentconfusionoftermsinthetext.
16
d-lasolrerejectsSolwheninb-mollaris,[but]inb-duralistheypreserve[thesesyllables]and[instead]
rejectMi,Sol,La[respectively],etc.Thesame[istrue]intheoctaves.36
[a6v-7v]AnExerciseofSyllables(vox)
Acanoninunison.Thetenor[enters]afteronetempus,thediscantaftertwo,thealtusafterthree,
theseconddiscantafterfourtempora.
Another[Exercise]inMensural[Notation]
36
Listeniusisprovidingadescriptionwithoutanexplanation.Hispointisthatinthenatureofmutationbetween
twohexachords,itisnotpossibleforallthreesyllablestofunction.InthisparagraphListeniusrevealsclearlywhat
Schünemannobservedintheintroductiontohis1927facsimileofthetext—thisisnotintendedasastudent’s
textbookbutratherasateacher’stext.SuddenlyinthisparagraphListeniusjumpsfaraheadintheorytodiscussa
pointthatastudentcouldnotyetpossiblyunderstandwithouttheteacher’shelp,forListeniushasnotyet
presentedtheunderlyingtheory.Theteacherhowever,isassumedalreadytopossesstherelevantknowledge,for
whichthisisonlyapedagogicalreminder.Thisalsoprovidesaninterestingexampleofaweaknessinpedagogical
conception.Adescriptionisnotanexplanation,forwhichwecannotfaultListeniusbecausethefaultisstillmuch
inevidencetoday.
17
AnotherExampleContaininganExerciseand
DistinctionoftheSixMusicalSyllables(vox)
[a8r]Chapter5:OnMutation
Mutationisthecon-sonantvariationofasyllable(vox)toasyllable(vox),suchaswhenonD-Sol
[it]properlymutateseithertoLaorRe.37Itisdoneonaccountofthelackofsyllables(vox)and
multiplicityofpitches(nota).38Inmusic(cantus)inB-duralis(B-natural)itismadeonDanda[i.e.,the
syllableRe]butwhendescendingonE,a[i.e.,thesyllableLa]andtheiroctaves.Inmusic(cantus)inBmollaris(b-flat)itismadewhenascendingonDandG[i.e.,thesyllableRe]andwhendescendingonD,a
[i.e.,thesyllableLa]andtheiroctaves.39
37
Listenius’tenuousgrammarandsyntaxdonotprovidemuchhelpwiththisreading.Theonlypossiblesenseis
thatDofthelowestoctave,asindicatedbyuppercase,whosefullnote-name,omittedbyListenius,isD-solre,as
suchcanproceedinitsownhexachordtoLa,oritcanmutateintotheC-fauthexachordwhereitbecomesRe.The
factthatthisexplanatorysentenceofabout50wordsisnecessarytoclarifyListenius’ownexplanationof18words
doessomethingtodemonstratetheproblematicellipticalnatureofhisstyle.
38
FiftyyearsormorebeforeListeniuswrote,RamisdePareiainhisMusicaPractica(1482)hadcogentlyargued
againstthedeficienciesofthehexachordsystemandproposedafulloctavesystem.FranchinusGaffurius,who
appearstobeListenius’primarytheoreticalauthority,bitterlyarguedagainsttheaudacityofthesuggestion,with
theresultthatthecumbersomehexachord,dysfunctionalforthemusic,persistedanother300years.
39
TheremainderoftheparagraphsuffersfromListenius’obscurestyle,notleastbythefactthatthenexttwo
sentencesbothlackafiniteverbtodeterminetheirproperconstruction.Tomakewhatsenseofthepassagecan
bemade,Ihavesupplied“fit,”“ismade,”retroactivelyfromtheparagraph’slastsentence.Thereadermust
consultthefollowinghexachordchartinChapter2andalsotheexplanationinChapter6anditsscalechartsin
ordertounderstandthispassage.
18
Rule1
Everymutationwhenascendingisproperlymadeonthesyllable(vox)Re,whendescendingon
La.Improperly[theyaremade]onneighboring[syllables],andthis[isdone]whentheproperare
lacking.Thenote-names(clavis)andlocations,however,mustbeobservedwithwhichmutationsare
contiguous.
Rule2
Ifanynoteexceedsthesyllable(vox)Labyonlyoneinterval,thatissungasfawithoutmutation,
mostlyinmusicofthefirstandsecondmodes(tonus).40[a8v]
40
Therewasanoldtheorist’sjingletotheeffect“UnanotasupraLasemperestcandendumFa.”Inotherwordsit
istobesungasahalf-step,seeGaffurius,PracticaMusice,trans.IrwinYoung,p.xxxv.Gaffuriuscoversthepresent
subjectatlengthinPracticaMusiceBk.1,Ch.2.
19
[b1v]Chapter6:OntheScalesandGeneraofMusic
AscaleisnothingotherthanacertainunderstandingofMiandFaonb-flat/fa-b-natural/mi
[bb-Fa/bn-Mi]41anditsoctaves.Asthatnote-name(clavis)isdouble,thusalsoisthescale,forsome
areb-flatandothersab-natural,andeachisrecognizedbymeansoftheb-flat(round–b)orb-natural
(square-b).Furthermore,mutationsofthesearemadeasthescalesindicate.
[b2r]Fromthisthedispositionandarrangementofthescalesandsyllables(vox),itisclearthat
music(cantus)isnotofonekindbutofthreekinds,forasitsnatureandrangevary,soalsodoesthe
music(cantus).42
I.
ForoneiscalledNaturalis,whoseoriginfromthenote-name(clavis)C,iscalledUtbecause
ofthesyllable(vox),themiddleonFisFaandhasitsfinalona.
II.
[Another]iscalledB-Mollaris,whoseinitialis[thesyllable]onF,itsmiddleFaisonb-flat,
anditsfinalLaond.Itisrecognizedbymeansofthelessspecialnote-name(clavis)“b
[flat],”immediatelyatthebeginningunderthenote-name(clavis)canditsoctaves.43
41
Listenius’“term”isverydifficulttorenderinmoderncharacters.Thesemitoneinthehexachordsystemalways
occurredbetweenMiandFa.Intheb-duralishexachordtheMi/FahalfstepisbetweenB-CandE-F.IntheBmollarishexachordtheMi-Fahalf-stepisbetweenA-B-flatandE-F.
42
Thisisactuallyeasiertoexplainintermsofmoderntheory.Thereareonlythreebasichexachords,allwiththe
intervalstructureofthefirstsixnotesofthemajorscale.ThesehexachordsbeginonC,FandG.ChasnoB-flator
b-naturalandsonaturallyhasthemajorscaleintervals;thatonGmusthaveaBnaturaltopreservetherequired
intervalstructure;thatonFmusthaveab-flatinordertopreservetherequiredintervalstructure.Theentire
Guidoniansystemofsevenhexachordsincludes3onG,2onC,and2onF.
43
Listenius’subsequentmusicalexamplemakescompletelyclearthatheismisusingthetermclavisinreferenceto
“c”andreallymeans“clavissignanda,”clef.Otherwise,theexampleshowsexactlywhathesays:rightatthe
20
III.
[b2v]B-Duralisis[thescale]whoseUtisonG,itsFaonc,anditsLaone.Therecognitionof
itisbytheabsenceofb-flatundertheclef(clavis)canditsoctaves,whencetheoldverse:
InC[itis]natural,Fitisflat,andGitishard[i.e.,b-natural].
Iassert,however,thatitmustbynomeansbeomittedthatveryfrequentlymusic(cantus)is
foundthatassumesadoubledistinctionandmovement.Itiscalledmixtuscantus44becausethenatural
goestogetherwiththeb-flat[form],asitwere,sometimes—asitpleasessome—intermixedwithboth,
whichtomeisnotentirelyproven,andIthinkcannotpossiblyadequatelybe[proven].[Thisis]not
becauseIamunaware45thatoftenb-flatandb-naturalintheprogressofsomesong(cantilena)[appear
together]contrarytothescaleinwhichthemusic(cantus)proceeds,thatthenaturalisfoundto
introduceaforeignpitch(vox),neverthelessapitch(vox)ofthiskinddoesnotimmediately—asit
pleasessomepeople—effectanewscale,justthesameasoneswallowdoesn’t[make]asummerorone
syllableorwordaspeech.Rather,such46[aone]andmanylikeitpermit47[that]atonetime48necessity
oftheharmoniesrequiresit,atanothertimethesweetnessandgravityofthemusic(cantus)requires
[it],asisto[be]seen49inmanyresponsoriesandantiphons.50
beginningundertheC-clefappearsab-flat,i.e.,whatinmoderntermswecallthekeysignature.InChapter3he
hasalreadysaidthatb-flatandb-naturalarelessspecialclavessignandae.
44
IthinkitisbesttopreserveListenius’terminologyhereratherthangiveatranslationthatwouldprobably
introduceconfusion.
45
FromthispointtotheendoftheparagraphListenius’syntaxbecomesincreasinglyproblematic,complicatedby
thenon-syntacticalrhetoricalpunctuationofthetime,whichconstantlyinterruptsandconfusesthestructureof
clauses,theirsequenceandmeaning.Throughoutthebook,itseemsthatwhentheideaismostdifficultto
describe,Listenius’Latinbecomesmoreimpreciseandobscure.
46
Thereisnoclearreferentherefortheaccusativetalem,“such.”
47
Thereisnoclearfiniteverbonwhichtheinfinitiveadmittere,“permit”depends.
48
Theaccentonaliàsindicatesitsadverbialuse,astranslatedhere,whichListeniususesfairlyfrequently,andnot
itspronominaluse.
49
Asmallpoint.Listenius’nativeGermanseemstoslipinoccasionallybytheuseoftheinfinitivetomeaneither
activeorpassive,whereasLatindistinguishesthetwoformally.
50
Thisseemstorelatetotheage-oldalternativejustificationformusicaficta:causanecessitates(becauseof
th
necessity)andcausapulchritudinis(becauseofbeauty).SeeHarvardDictionary4 ed.s.v.“MusicaFicta.”
21
22
[b4v]OnFictiveMusic[MusicaFicta]
Thereremainsfictivemusic(cantusfictus)ormusicaficta,aboutwhichIwillspeakasbrieflyasI
can.Surelynothinginvolvestheuseofsomanyandsogreatambiguitiesinasubjectnotwholly
obscure,northeuseofwhichissoverygreat.51Musicafictais,therefore,music(cantus)executed
contrarytothescaleofitsstructures,52itis[as]suchinwhichsyllables(vox),whichhaverightful
positions,arenotallotted[tothem],53aswhenUtisonE,ReonF,MionG,etc.,orissungotherwise.
Oneproducesthisonanynote-name(clavis)whatever,andwhateverforeignsyllable(vox)onewishes,
contrarytothenatureandhexachord,54whosechangeandavoidanceinmanysongs(cantilena)is
transposition.55Incertainonesitcannotbechangedentirelywithoutanalteration.Onemeets
exampleseverywhere,onaccountofwhichIpresentonlythis56exampleforitsclarificationandchange.
51
Listenius’attemptatrhetoricaleloquenceproducesapassageratherconfusingtomodernears.Whatheis
sayingis“thereisnootherpracticesoimportantandextensivelyusedthatpossessessomanyandlarge
ambiguities,whichambiguitiesdonototherwiserenderthatotherpracticewhollyobscure.
52
Thecriticalphrase“cantuscontrascalaesitumaeditus”isunfortunatelyperplexed.Mytranslationisbasedon
thefollowingdecisions.
(a) Thesenseofcantusasapredicatenominativeisclear.
(b) ContraregularlyandasListeniususesittakesthedative,somustgovern“scalae.”
(c) Situmisthefourthdeclensionnounsitūs,whoseaccusativesingularsitumcannotbeconstruedhere.The
onlyalternativeisthatthisisthepoeticformofthegenitiveplural–uminplaceoftheregular–uum.
(d) Aeditusappearsinthededicationinitsmorefamiliarsenseof“edition,”butitisderivedfromtheclassical
verbēdo,bringforth,produce.Hereitisa“hyperform”createderroneouslybythehumanists.Inthe
MiddleAgestheclassicalLatindiphthong“ae”hadbeenreducedto“ē.”Thehumanistssoughttorestore
thesebutwenttoofar,alteringoriginaē’stoerroneous“ae”insomecases,ashere,andincaeterafor
cetera.
IseenowaytoresolvethisphraseexceptthroughtheawkwardconstructionofsitumwithscalaeStructuresItake
torefertotheorganizationsystemsofhexachords,scalesandmodes.Atthispointthereadermayhavebegunto
glimpsetheproblemsthatcanariseintranslatingListenius’text.
53
Giventhelengthofthepreviousfootnote,Iwillforthereader’ssakeeschewanothersuch.
54
IassumethatTinctoris’useofproprietasforhexachordisstillvalid.GaffuriusinPracticaMusiceBk1.Ch.4gives
alongdiscussionofpropriety,oneofwhosemeaningsishexachord.“Verumproprietatemhuiusmodimodulationis
dicimusessesingularemuniuscuiusqueexachordiinintroductoriodispositideductionem.”Indeed,wesaya
proprietyofthiskindofmodulation[i.e.,stepwise/diatonic]isasinglepatternofaspecifichexachordsituatedin
anarrangement.
55
Musicafictaisalsoawayofachievingtransposition,particularlydevelopedduringthesixteenthcentury.
56
Hicinsteadofthecorrecthocexemplum.
23
[b5r]Chapter7:OnSolmization
Solmizationistheappropriateutteranceofthenotesbymeansofspecificsyllables(vox).For
whichfirstofallanunderstandingofthemodeisrequired,which,whenonedoesnotknow,itis
necessarythathewilloftenconfusethesyllables(vox)andtheirpositions,andsomixupandchange
hardwithsoftandsoftwithhard[i.e.,b-mollariswithb-duralisandviceversa].Sincethisrelatestothe
scaleandnatureofthemusic(cantus),namelyfifthandsixth[modes]b-mollaris—allthoseleftarebduralis—whichwhenunderstood,therangeofthesong(cantilena)alsoisunderstood—foravoiding
shoutingandscreeching[this]isofnolittleimportance.Forthefifthwithitsremainingodd-numbered57
companionsprogresseshigherthanthesixthandthesethattheycalleven-numberedandplagal,they58
onthecontraryarelower.Nextitmustbeseen,whetheritisregularorirregular,thatis,whetheritis
transposed59ornot,fortranspositionmostfrequentlyalsotransposesthescale.Lastofall,itmustnot
beoverlookedthattheforeigntones(vox)—ifanyintrudeonthesolmization—andtheremaining
subsequentonesgoalongtogetheruntiltheymayconvenientlychangeintheproper[hexachord]60or
areabletochange,ormaybeplacedinanothernote-name(clavis).
ExamplesofMode(Tonus)orMusic(Cantus)Transposition
[b5v]
57
Heisspeakingoftheodd-numberedauthenticmodes(1,3,5,7)andtheevennumberedplagalmodes(2,4,6,8).
Bydefinitiontherangeoftheformerextendshigherthanthatofthelatter.
58
Theoriginalisilliapronouncommonlycorrelatedwiththeformsofhic,asinhic...ille...meaning“thelatter.
..theformer.”HereitisnotsocorrelatedbutcouldleadastrayonereferringtotheLatin.Listeniususually
adherestothismeaningofthecorrelateswhenheusesthem.InPart2,Chapter6,however,heapparentlyforgets
ordepartsfromthepracticewiththeresultofapossiblegreatandimportantconfusion.
59
TheonlywaythatthisuseoftranspositioncanmakesenseisifitisnotasdefinedinChapter8,transpositionby
clef,whichlattertypedoesnotresultinanychangeofthepitches.Itisnotourmodernideaoftransposition.
Listeniusdoesnotfurtherexplainwhatchangehereferstohereastranspositionapartfromthenextsentence.
60
IamassumingthathisuseofthewordpropriasimplieshexachordonthebasisofTinctoris’usageasalludedto
above.
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[b6r]Chapter8:OnTranspositionofClefs(Clavis)61
Transpositionisthetransferofapositionalclef(clavis)fromalowerpositiontoahigher,or
fromahighertoalower,whichisdonebecauseofanexcessiveascentordescentofthemusic(cantus)
becauseofthelackoflines[ofthestaff].62Ofwhich[anexample]isgiven.
Rule
Asfarasaclef(clavis)ascendsordescendsfromitsposition,soalsodothenotes,althoughthe[clef]in
themusicascendsasfarasthenotedescendsinposition,andthereverse.63
61
Listeniusonceagainavoidshisspecificterminology,usingthetermclavisalonetomeanclavissignanda,clef.
Thatthelatterisintendedthesubsequenttextamplydemonstrates.
62
Theideaisforthemusictoappearsofaraspossiblewithintherangeofthestaffsothattheperformerneednot
betroubledreadingledgerlines.Clearly,thisisnotthemodernconceptoftransposition.
63
Listeniushasawayofmakingtheclearobscure.Thefirstpartoftheruleiscrystalclear,butthenListeniusadds
thesecondsupposedlyamplifyingclause,whichinitiallysoundslikeacontradictionofthefirstsentence.The
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[b6v]Chapter9:OnModes(modus)orIntervals(intervallum)
Modeisthedistanceofonepitch(vox)toanotherbyacertaininterval.OrasBoethius[says],it
isthedistanceofahighandalowsound.Bywhichdefinitiontheunisonisexcludedasfirstofthe
intervals,[being]inoneandthesameposition.Havingalinkingmadewithintheraisingorloweringof
thesound(vox)bymeansoftwoormorenotesisaninterval.64Musiciansvary,however,onthe
numberoftheintervals.Severalcountfifteen,othersnine,someonlysix.Nevertheless,themore
commonlyusedonesinourtimeare:tonus,hemitonus,ditonus,hemiditonus,diatessaron,diapente,
tonus-diapente,hemitonus-diapente,diapason[whole-step,half-step,majorthird,minorthird,fourth,
fifth,majorsixth,minorsixth,octave].65Thereisnogreatuseintheremainingones,asIalsowillnot
mentionthoseprohibited.66
secondsentencemeansthatifthemelodiclinedescends,thentheclefmustascendto“pullitup”backintothe
staffandviceversa.ItakethistobeanotherinstanceofthecontinuedmedievalinfluenceonListenius’style.It
wasacommonpracticeinmedievalpedagogytopresentanexplanationinmultiplewaysandbyanalogies,which
sometimesbecomeratherforced.
64
Thisisclearlytheintendedsense,thoughitismostlyexpressedinaseriesofgrammatically“absolute”phrases,
thatis,withoutclearsyntacticrelationshiptoeachother.
65
ListeniusfollowsRhauintheuseoftheGreeknames.Thataloneisnotsomuchaself-consciousexpressionof
thehumanists’renewedinterestinGreektheory,buthisuseoftheGreekcharactersis.Thetermshadlongsince
passedintoLatin.
66
PresumablyListeniusmeanssuchastheaugmentedfourth/diminishedfifthandthesevenths.
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27
[b7v]Further,ifanyintervalsextendmorefullyormoredistant,namelyninth,tenth,twelfth,
addawhole-step,majorthird,fifth,etc.andsoundanoctavealongwiththeformer.
Chapter10:OnModes(Tonus)
Inthisplacemusiciansareaccustomedtomentionmanythingsconcerningthenumberofthe
modes,theirrecognition,combination,etc.SothatImaynotseemtoobscuremorethanclarifythe
subjectbymeansofsuperfluouswords,67Iwillbrieflysaywhatpertainstothesubjectandbusiness
partlyinproseandpartlyinverseforthesakeofaidingthememory.Now[b8r]firstastothenumber
ofthemodes:thereare,then,eightmodes,althoughtheancientscountedonlyfour,ofwhichfourare
calledplagalonaccountofthegreaterfreedomindescending,fortheydescendtoafourthorfifth
belowthefinal,stretchingupwardtoafifthorsixth[abovethefinal],andtheyareeven-numbered.The
remainingfourarecalledauthenticbecauseoftheirgreaterfreedominascending,fortheyascendto
theoctaveabovethefinal,andattimestothetenth,downwardscarcelyextendingtoasecond[below
thefinal],andtheyareodd-numbered.Further,thatascentanddescentconsistmoreinthepotential
thaninreality.Indeed,somesongs(cantilena)arefoundinwhichneitherauthenticnorplagalfulfillsits
number.
TheDefinitionofMode,fromwhichitappears
Tobeatripleidentificationofthemodes
Letthisbearuleofthefirst,middleandfinal[pitches]
IdentitiesoftheModes
Thefirstnoteascendingtothefifthidentifiesanoddmode,
Everyevenoneusuallydescendstothethirdorfourth[below].
Oddonesaresuitedtogototheoctaveinthemiddle,
Althoughevenonesareidentifiedbythereturnoftheirpitches(vox)inthatplace.68
OddandEvenwillproperlyrestonDEFG:
Thefirst[mode]withitspartneronD,Eendsthethirdandfourth,
Thefifthandsixthfollow,thusinordertheseventhandeighth.
Examples
67
Listeniusiswellknownasoneofthefirsttodevelopamoresuccinctapproachtothetextinsteadofthelong
discursivelecturestypicaloftheearlierhumanists.SuchconcisionwasencouragedintheLutheranLatinSchools.
68
Ibelievehemeansthattheplagalsdonotrisesohighasanoctavebut“return”downwardbeforegoingsohigh.
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