Timeline / 1850 to 1860
Date
Country
Theme
1850
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
January: the birth of Mihai Eminescu, who is considered to be the most important
Romanian poet of the 19th century.
1850 - 1860
France
Economy And Trade
Foundation of numerous banks: the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (1859), the
Credit Lyonnais (1863) and the Société générale (1864).
1850
France
Migrations
First wave of Italian immigrants to France.
1850 - 1860
France
Rediscovering The Past
Excavations of the French scholar, archaeologist and Egyptologist Auguste
Mariette (1821–81) in Egypt.
1850
Austria
Travelling
Archduke Maximilian visits Asia Minor and Egypt.
Date
Country
Theme
1850 - 1855
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
The painters of the School of Posillipo (Naples) develop a new style of more
natural observation of landscapes and everyday life.
1850s - 1860s
Italy
Travelling
Mountaineering on the Alps becomes a sport and tourism activity. Local people
had always climbed mountains. Since the end of the 18th century, scientists had
started exploring the Alps for scientific purposes (Mont Blanc was first climbed
in 1786). In 1857, Irish mountaineer John Ball starts climbing the Dolomites and
writing guidebooks about them.
1850s
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Britain also holds a stake in the development of railways in the Near East. Egypt,
as part of a global transport network and under British sponsorship, has a railway
network before Norway does.
1850s
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Crimean War brings thousands of British soldiers to Constantinople. After the
war, certain innovations can be traced back to it – such as beards! There is a craze
for things all things Turkish; the Turkish commander even becomes something of a
folk hero in Britain.
1850
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
First photography of Arab monuments such as the Alhambra and the Great
Mosque of Córdoba. The development of photography sheds new light on these
monuments and these first photographs are important documents on Arab remains
in Spain.
1850 - 1860s
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
Rafael Contreras begins to make models from the Alhambra that are shown in
international exhibitions and acquired by many museums and schools of design.
The models are used as examples of wall decoration in the Alhambresque style.
1850
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
First photography of the Islamic monuments and remains in Spain such as the
Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Alhambra palace.
1850
France
Fine And Applied Arts
A Burial At Ornans by the Realist painter Gustave Courbet.
1851
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
Date
Country
Theme
When the Great Exhibition of All Nations opens in London, as well as showcasing
technological progress, it also exposes the public to Egyptian, Mesopotamian and
other ancient cultures, thus fostering an appetite for museums.
1851
Romania
International Exhibitions
Wallachia and Moldavia participate in the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry
of all Nations, organised at the Crystal Palace in London. Their products are
exhibited in the Ottoman pavilion.
1851 - 1853
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Verdi composes the so-called popular trilogy (Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La
traviata), consolidating his fame and reaching full musical and dramatical maturity.
1851
Greece
International Exhibitions
Greece is represented by a small stand at the Great Exhibition in London among
the Levantine states.
1851
United Kingdom
International Exhibitions
At the Great Exhibition of this year are some examples of Islamic design
influenced by Owen Jones, who had “discovered” Al-Andalus (Andalusian) Islamic
architecture. Jones was brother-in-law to the architect J. W. Wild who designed St
Mark’s Church in Alexandria.
1851
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
While the Barcelona–Mataró railway is under construction, another line is in
progress between Madrid and Aranjuez, opened in 1851, and a third between
Langreo and Gijón, in Asturias. By the end of the 19th century most Spanish cities
will be linked by train.
1851
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Lendas e Narrativas published by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77), a collection of
historical short stories set in the context of medieval times and the “Reconquista”
process, the Iberian Christian military movement to recover Muslim-occupied
territories (10th–15th centuries).
1851
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Date
Country
Theme
Launch of an ambitious plan of modernisation and the stable Regeneration period
mostly led by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo (1819–87) (and named Fontism after
him) Infrastructure building, industrial production and business laws are promoted.
Porto wine production and trade thrives and exports increase until the 1860s.
1851
Portugal
International Exhibitions
At “The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations“ in London,
Portugal shows 1,293 products from almost all the regions.
1851
Germany
International Exhibitions
The First World Fair is opened by Prince Albert in London.
1851
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Ottoman steamship company #irket-i Hayriyye is founded. It provides regular
and rapid transportation from Istanbul to points along the Bosporus, replacing the
oar-drawn kay#ks that had monopolised this traffic since the 18th century.
1851
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Ottoman Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Dan##) opens.
1852
Italy
Political Context
Cavour (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, 1810–61), the architect of the diplomatic
strategies that allowed Italian unification, becomes prime minister of the Kingdom
of Sardinia (he will remain prime minister until his death).
1852
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Enactment of a code for Craft Guild regulations offers workers some protection in
the Austrian monarchy.
1852
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Date
Country
Theme
13 December: Under the framework of the Regeneration modernisation, the
adoption of the decimal metric system based on the legal mètre of France is
decreed by Queen Maria II. This decree establishes a ten-year deadline for its full
enforcement, but the whole process will take longer than that.
1852
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Ato Adicional de 1852 (Additional Act) abolishes the death penalty for political
crimes, which had not been enforced since 1834. In 1867, in the reign of King Luís
I, the abolition of the death penalty is extended to all kinds of crime, except for
those under military jurisdiction. Only in 1911 will total abolition be proclaimed by
the Republican regime.
1852
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
The steamship company #irket-i Hayriyye is founded.
1852
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
A museum of ancient costumes (Elbise-i Atika) is opened in Hippodrome (#stanbul)
where old costumes of Janissaries are exhibited on mannequins.
1853
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
14 February: installation of the first electric telegraph lines in the Romanian
territories, connecting Ia#i with Cern#u#i.
1853
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context
A Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity is concluded between Britain and the
Trucial Coast rulers. Britain assumes the right to police maritime peace and
commits to protecting the sheikhdoms from external interference and attack.
1853 - 1856
Greece
Political Context
The Crimean War starts in October 1853. On one side is the Russian Empire and
on the other the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, France and the Kingdom
of Sardinia. Greece participates with a volunteer corps of 1,000 men as one of
Russia’s few allies.
1853
Spain
Migrations
The ban on emigration to America is lifted. Under the Constitution of 1869 free
emigration for all the inhabitants is recognised on payment of a fee, which remains
until 1873.
Date
Country
Theme
1853
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
1 July: Portugal starts to use the first adhesive postal stamps on letters, postcards
and parcels, in the reign of Queen Mary II. Bearing the Queen’ s effigy they are
inspired by the first British stamp.
1853
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Victor Hugo’s Les Châtiments.
1853 - 1856
Turkey
Political Context
War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and its allies France, UK and
Piedmont-Savoy. The Crimean War is a consequence of rivalry over the Eastern
Question and France’s support of Catholic claims and Russia’s support of
Orthodox claims to control the holy sites in Jerusalem. Russia seeks to exploit
Ottoman political weakness to gain diplomatic rights for Orthodox subjects of the
Empire. Peace established by the Treaty of Paris (1856).
1853
Germany
Economy And Trade
Levi Strauss & Co founds the first company to manufacture blue jeans.
1853
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Antun Bey Najjar, a merchant who made his fortune in Constantinople, builds Khan
Antun Bey in 1853. It becomes a great business centre and the building is used by
many institutions such as Beirut’s foreign consulates, the Ottoman administration,
postal services, merchants’ offices and Beirut’s first bank, Imperial Ottoman.
1853 - 1856
Turkey
Migrations
The Crimean War causes an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of
whom move to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of immigration.
1854
Tunisia
Travelling
A contingent of the Tunisian army is called upon to participate alongside the
Ottoman Empire, France and England in the Crimean War.
1854
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Date
Country
Theme
20 August: inauguration of the first railway of Romania, linking Bazia# to
Oravi#a (in Banat). Used at first to transport coal, it was opened for passenger
transportation in 1856. In the United Principalities, the first railway line, built by the
British company J.T. Barkley and J. Staniforth, was inaugurated 31 October 1869.
1854
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Leopoldo Alinari, with his brothers Romualdo and Giuseppe, opens in Florence one
of the first photography workshope – Fratelli Alinari.
1854
United Kingdom
Political Context
Russia’s expansion to the Black Sea and the Caucasus encroach on, seize and
annex Ottoman possessions. Britain and France support Ottoman resistance,
targeting the Russian naval base in Crimea. Britain provides military and naval
support to the Ottoman armed force.
1854
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Semmering Railway is the first mainline railway to pass through mountainous
territory.
1854
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Sa‘id Pasha’s accession to the Viceroyalty of Egypt provides French businessman
Ferdinand de Lesseps new impulse to develop the Suez Canal.
1854
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Heinrich Göbel invents the light bulb.
1854
Turkey
Economy And Trade
Ottoman Empire obtains its first foreign loan.
1854
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
English amateur archaeologist Frank Calvert (1828–1908) begins excavations in
Troy.
1854
Turkey
Political Context
The Tanzimat Council appoints a City Ordering Commission (Intizam-# #ehir
Heyeti), comprising Ottoman and foreign residents, charged with developing new
regulation to transform the structure of Instanbul into a municipal government. It
recommends establishment of a commission to enforce urban regulations and
improve the city's physical make-up, financed through a separate tax structure.
1855 - 1856
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Date
Country
Theme
In Moldavia (22 December 1855) and then in Wallachia (20 February 1856) a law
for the emancipation of the gypsy slaves of private owners is passed. Gypsies
belonging to the church and to the state had already been liberated.
1855
France
International Exhibitions
The first World Fair/Expo (Exposition universelle) of industrial products takes place
at the Champs-Elysées, Paris, from 15 May to 15 November. More than five million
visitors attend and 25 states and their colonies are represented.
1855
France
Travelling
From 1855, the spa towns of eastern France are developed: at Vittel, and at
Contrexéville near Plombieres-les-Bains in the Pyrenees, where Napoleon III stays.
1855
Lebanon
Reforms And Social Changes
A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district).
1855
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
The Caffé Michelangelo in Florence becomes a meeting place for artists and
republican intellectuals close to Giuseppe Mazzini, in opposition to academic and
official environments.
1855
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the Egyptian Museum in Florence. The bulk of its holdings are the
items collected by Ippolito Rossellini during the 1828–29 Franco-Tuscan expedition
to Egypt, together with the Egyptian antiquities that the Medici family had collected
during the 18th century.
1855
Italy
Political Context
The Kingdom of Sardinia participates in the Crimean war as part of the AngloFrench alliance against Russia.
1855
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Date
Country
Theme
The railways law, Ley General de Caminos de Hierro (Law of the Iron Roads)
establishes principles for the railway and its public and private development. It
specifies a rail width that is wider than the European rail. Its continued use still
causes problems for rail connections between Spain and France today.
1855
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The government introduces a law establishing the telegraphic network in Spanish
territory, marking the beginning of telecommunications in Spain. Its objective is to
link every important city and the provincial capitals.
1855
Portugal
International Exhibitions
Portugal is present at “Exposition Universelle des Produits de l’Agriculture, de
l’Industrie et des Beaux-Arts”, with 441 stands, exhibiting agricultural products and
commodities. King Pedro V (1837–61) has a pivotal role in boosting the national
presence.
1855
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district).
1855
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The earliest railway line within the Empire is opened between Costanta and
Cernovoda (in present-day Romania).
1855
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
9 September: Telegraphic communication is introduced within the empire.
1855
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Cevdet Pa#a, historian, jurist and conservative Tanzimat reformer,
completes the first volumes of Târih-I Cevdet (History of Cevdet), which deals with
Ottoman history, 1774–1826.
1856
Romania
Political Context
At the Congress of Paris peace conference, Wallachia and Moldavia are put
under the collective guarantee of the Great Powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia,
Piedmont, the UK and France), while remaining under Ottoman sovereignty. The
Russian protectorate over the Romanian countries is ended. Moldavia receives the
southeast of Bessarabia.
1856
Romania
Economy And Trade
Date
Country
Theme
The internationalisation of the Danube through the Treaty of Paris has a positive
influence on the development of Romanian commerce.
1856
Morocco
Political Context
In 1856 a treaty is signed, initiated by Britain in order to strengthen its influence
over Morocco and to maintain its naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, which
hugely undermines Moroccan sovereignty. This treaty wrested control over the
extent of European penetration away from the governing institution of Morocco
the Makhzen. The advantages gained by European traders, combined with
their superior technique and the quantity of capital behind them, enabled then
to monopolise most of the sea trade and to reduce Moroccan players to mere
intermediaries.
1856 - 1860
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
Ildefonso Cerdá designs the "extension" of Barcelona in 1859. The orthogonal
design of the streets creates a new neighbourhood: El Ensanche/L’Eixample. The
development of wide streets such as Diagonal or Paseo de Gracia allows a new
construction style, Modernismo/Modernisme, with buildings by Antonio Gaudí and
Puig i Cadafalch.
1856
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
The Portugaliae Monumenta Historica is published. Acknowledged as a historian,
Alexandre Herculano is commissioned by Academia das Ciências de Lisboa to
compile this collection of old documents that are at risk of disappearing and being
dispersed throughout convent archives. He undertook this task in 1853–54.
1856
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Inauguration of the first Portuguese railway between Lisbon and Carregado,
36,454 km north of Lisbon, by King Pedro V and innumerable guests, transported
in 14 wooden carriages pulled by two locomotives. The first train trip lasts 40
minutes. A steam engine is adapted to move the locomotives.
1856
Turkey
Political Context
28 February: Under diplomatic pressure, the Sublime Porte is forced to declare the
Imperial Rescript of Reforms (Islahat Ferman#), giving the empire admission to the
Concert of Europe. The Rescript states the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims
before law, the right of non-Muslims to be admitted to government and military
service, and abolition of the poll tax and freedom in education for non-Muslims.
1856
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
Date
Country
Theme
A Neanderthal is discovered and examined by Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann
Schaaffhausen. Rudolf Virchow, friends with the famous archaeologist Heinrich
Schliemann, claims that the Neanderthal is not prehistoric man. He is wrong.
1856
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
#stimlak Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Expropriation) issued.
1856
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Fire in Aksaray district, #stanbul, destroys more than 650 buildings and is a major
turning point in the history of #stanbul’s urban form. Italian architect Luigi Storari is
appointed to carry out the re-building of the area, which is to conform to the new
pattern: hence it is to be regular with straight and wide streets.
1856
Turkey
Economy And Trade
The Ottoman Bank is established by English capitalists with capital of #500,000
(equivalent to about US$52 million in 2007). Established on a small scale, the bank
becomes an imperial bank by 1863.
1856
Turkey
Political Context
30 March: The Paris Treaty marks the end of the Crimean War (1853–56); the
Ottoman Empire is admitted into the Concert of Europe.
1857
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration
of Rights” in 11 points. The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their
civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law,
etc.
1857
Tunisia
Political Context
Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration
of Rights” in 11 points. The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their
civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law,
etc.
1857
Romania
Economy And Trade
Date
Country
Theme
March: the first oil refinery in Romania is built by Teodor Mehedin#eanu at Râfov,
Prahova.
1857
France
Travelling
Development of resorts and the creation of the seaside resort of Arcachon on the
Atlantic in south-west France, which is inaugurated by Emperor Napoleon III and
Empress Eugénie.
1857
France
Travelling
Visit by the Ambassador of Persia, Ferouk Kahn, to Napoleon III.
1857
Austria
Travelling
Sidi Muhammad Bey of Tunis presents a pair of pistols to Emperor Franz Joseph I
of Austria.
1857
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
The Ley de Instrucción Pública (Law of Public Education) establishes three stages
of education: primary, secondary and university. Primary school is compulsory for
all children (boys and girls) providing the basis for combatting illiteracy.
1857
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Museum of the Geological Commission currently called the
Museum of Geology of Portugal. It is established under the auspices of the
Geological Commission from specimens collected by the Portuguese pioneers of
geology Carlos Ribeiro, Nery Delgado, Pereira da Costa, Paul Choffat and others.
Date
Country
Theme
1857
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The public telegraph service becomes available, one year after its first official
connection between the Royal Palace and the Parliament. The Morse telegraph
system is also used in the international connection to the telegraphic network in
Spain, on the border of Elvas and Badajoz.
1857
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary.
1857
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Angelus, by the Realist painter Jean-François Millet.
1857 - 1859
Germany
Economy And Trade
The Great Depression, which starts in the United states with the panic of 1857,
represents the first global economic crisis.
1857
Turkey
Migrations
Ottoman Refugee Code/Immigration Law is issued. Forced migrants-turned-settlers
are given 70 donums (about 17 acres) to start farming.
1857
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
March: The Ministry of Public Education is founded.
1858
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
Under the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey a major reform is carried out: the capital,
Tunis, is established as a municipal town and a city council is elected. Further
municipal towns were created in other parts of the country: Sfax, Sousse and
Kairouan among others.
1858
Romania
Political Context
19 August: the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and
France sign the Paris Convention marking the creation of the United Principalities
of Wallachia and Moldavia, with separate rulers, legislative and executive powers,
and only two institutions in common (Supreme Court of Appeals and central
legislative commission). The convention replaces the Organic Regulations,
becoming the new constitution of the United Principalities.
Date
Country
Theme
1858
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Through the Paris Convention signed in August 1858 by Russia, the UK, France,
Piedmont, Prussia, Austria and the Ottoman Empire the privileges and ranks of the
Romanian aristocracy in Moldavia and Wallachia are abolished.
1858
France
Travelling
Development of pilgrimages in France, in particular to Lourdes, thanks to faster
modes of transport such as rail.
1858
Italy
International Exhibitions
An industrial exhibition is held in Turin.
1858 - 1859
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Telephone communication is established between the cities of Piraeus and Syros
(underwater), and Athens and Patras.
1858
Austria
Economy And Trade
A unified silver currency the Guilder (Gulden) is introduced throughout the
Austrian-Hungarian Empire.
1858
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of the Isabel II channel, the water system of Madrid diverting water from
the river Lozoya to the new fountain in San Bernardo street in the centre of Madrid.
1858
Germany
Political Context
King Wilhelm I – later Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second Empire – assumes his
regency.
1858
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
6 June: Promulgation of the Land Law regulating private property in agricultural
areas.
1859
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Date
Country
Theme
The Casati Law is passed in the Kingdom of Sardinia (and in 1860 extended to the
rest of Italy) that defines the organisation of the educational system, from primary
school to university. The system is aimed more at educating the ruling elite than
the illiterate masses. Humanities are given a much higher status than scientific and
technical education.
1859 - 1860
Morocco
Political Context
The Tétouan war of 6 February 1860: the Spanish, seeking to extend the borders
of Ceuta and Melilla, exploit a raid by a neighbouring tribe against a redoubt built
outside the walls of Ceuta to launch a major military action and occupy Tétouan. To
end the occupation of Tétouan, the Moroccan state was obliged to pay a significant
sum (20 million douros), which it was unable to do. As a result, it was forced to
seek a foreign loan that it was able to pay back using customs revenues.
1859
Serbia
Political Context
The Hatišerif (Turkish edict) is issued in 1838, allowing the Sovjet (Council) to
limit the powers of Prince Miloš Obrenovi#. Unwilling to accept this however,
Miloš abdicates and leaves Serbia in 1839. Prince Mihailo Obrenovi# reigns for a
short time before the Kara#or#evi# Dynasty regains the Serbian throne in 1842.
The 1858 Svetoandrejska skupština (Assembly convened on St Andrew’s Day)
decides on a change of dynasty, overthrowing Prince Aleksandar Kara#or#evi#
and reinstating Miloš Obrenovi#. A 37-strong deputation from the Assembly, with
a massive, heavily armed entourage, leaves Belgrade for Bucharest to bring the
newly elected prince back to the country, marking the beginning of Miloš’ second,
but short-lived reign, which ends when he dies in 1860.
1859 - 1860
Spain
Political Context
War declared on Morocco. Battles of Castillejos (Fnidq) and Wad-Ras. A peace
agreement is signed with the Moroccan Sultan leaving Tetouan under Spanish
rule.
1859
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Johann Phillipp Reis invents the telephone.
1859
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Sokaklara Dair Nizamname (Regulation for Streets) issued.
1859
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
#brahim #inasi completes his stage comedy #âir Evlenmesi (Marriage of a Poet),
the first theatre play written by an Ottoman Turkish author.
Date
Country
Theme
1859
Austria
Political Context
Defeat of the Austrians by a French and Sardinian Army at the Battle of Solferino
on 24 June sees terrible losses on both sides.
1859
Austria
Political Context
At the Peace of Zürich (10 November) Austria cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia,
to Napoleon III; in turn, Napoleon hands the province over to the Kingdom of
Sardinia.
1860
Tunisia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The restoration of the Aqueduct of Zaghouan is completed, running water arrives in
Tunis.
1860
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
7 November: on the initiative of painter Gheorghe Panaitescu-Bardasare, a School
of Fine Arts and an art gallery are founded in Ia#i.
1860
France
Travelling
First trip by Napoleon III to Algeria; the second will take place in 1865.
1860
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old city walls, which
have lost their defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in
order to build monumental architecture.
1860
Italy
Political Context
Date
Country
Theme
The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of
income and education: only 2.2% of the Italians can vote.
1860 - 1865
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Both Nikolaos Gyzis and Nikiphoros Lytras win scholarships to the Royal Academy
of Fine Arts, Munich.
1860
Austria
Migrations
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is born in Moravia; he emigrates from Moravia to
Vienna.
1860
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
The Manises pottery begins to produce objects in lustreware.
1860
Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
The icon “Seven Holy Teachers” (Sedmochislenitzi) is painted by the most
significant representative of Christian religious art in Macedonia, Dicho Krstevic
Zograph, at the peak of his creativity. It represents the Slav missionaries Sts Cyril
and Methodius and their disciples Clement, Nahum, Gorazd, Sabbas and Angelarij
in a solo composition. His icons are distinguished by bright colour and baroque
features.
1860
Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He
studied music in Russia and was conductor of several school choirs and of the first
city choir in Prilep.
1860
Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at
the annual poetry competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in
Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and translator was a dedicated advocate of
introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools. He was referred to
as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language.
1860
Lebanon
Political Context
Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860
civil war and leads a rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in
Date
Country
Theme
Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been interpreted as an early expression
of Lebanese nationalism.
1860
Lebanon
Political Context
A full-scale war erupts between Maronites and Druze. Napoleon III of France sends
7,000 troops to Beirut and helps impose a partition: Druze control of the territory
is recognised as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites are forced into an
enclave. This is ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861.
1860
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Under the liberal educational reforms, Lyceu Nacional de Aveiro (Aveiro High
School) is the first school in Portugal to occupy a building designed specifically for
this function. Previously schools occupied existing buildings, often old convents.
The school had been created as Colégio de Aveiro in 1848.
1860
Portugal
Travelling
Travelling became a great cultural and social phenomenon with Romanticism.
The “Grand Tour” through the countries of the known world, namely around the
Mediterranean, became a means of developing cultural and social skills. Travel
became refined and even a simple journey to the countryside required such
accessories as this travel case for meals.
1860
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
October: First private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists,Tercüman# Ahvâl, published by Agah Efendi and #brahim #inasi.
1860
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
October: Journalists #brahim #inasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private
Muslim newspaper Tercümân-# Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).