Welcome to Karongwe!
Karongwe Game Reserve (KGR) was once made up of separate land owners and individual
farms. In 1998 a conservancy was formed to create an 8000 hectare wildlife reserve.
Currently there are eight eco-tourism operations. GVI was brought onto Karongwe in May of
2001 to work in conjunction with KERI (Karongwe Ecological Research Institute). Our current
partners include the KGR landowners, the reserve manager, the University of Pretoria, the
Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve, Queens University, Belfast, Mpumalanga Parks
Board (MPB), and Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF)
Research on KGR consists of determining and monitoring predator numbers, monitoring
feeding behaviour of large predators, determining the impact predators have on prey
densities and populations, monitoring spatial utilisation of predators and monitoring
intraspecific and intraguild competition/relationships. Other research will be conducted during
your time on KGR however it is dependent on what are partners request during your stay
with us.
While on Karongwe you may be asked to participate in the Mountain phase of the expedition.
Mariepskop is a geographically isolated mountain which is part of the Drakensburg mountain
range. Due to its isolation there is a high chance of endemic species. Working with the
University of Pretoria, DAFF, and MPB, GVI has been conducting a biodiversity study since
July of 2004. Mariepskop is about an hour and half from KGR. As the climate is different we
request volunteers to bring some extra warm clothes and rain gear throughout the year in
order to be comfortable (and dry!) in the mountains.
KGR is located near the town of Hoedspruit. It is located within the Kruger to Canyons
Biosphere Reserve, which represents only 1.4% of the land in South Africa but contains 55%
of the total natural life found on the subcontinent.
Hoedspruit is a fifty minute drive. Town trips are conducted every Monday and volunteers will
have a chance to either go into town themselves and/or have a friend pick up anything they
may need. Hoedspruit is small but has all of the basics you will need during your stay.
Volunteers will have one day off a week where they can explore the area by renting cars
from Hoedspruit or sign up for a trip through GVI. These extra-day trips include entering
Kruger National Park, and exploring the Panorama Route.
The base on Karongwe is basic. There is a sink and a washing line to wash and hang your
clothes. There is a generator which is run approximately four hours a day and a charging
station where volunteers can charge the basics. Power and space to charge is limited so we
request you only bring what is necessary, please do not bring items such as hair dryers or
straighteners as they require too much power and will overload our generator. During
generator time you will have the opportunity to use your lap top or the base laptop to access
the internet. Base also has our very own Base Dog, named Zuri. She is a
weinerhimmer/border collie mix and is very friendly. If you have any concerns about Zuri
before you come please contact someone from GVI so we can accommodate you.
Mammal and Herbivore Introduction
What is a mammal?
Mammals have unique features in that they all have hair, females have mammary glands and
give birth to live young and they are endothermic (can regulate their own body temperature
regardless of the environmental temperature). They also have three ear ossicles (bones in
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
1
middle ear) and their lower jawbone is one structure. Mammals have a four-chambered
heart, although this feature is also shared with crocodiles.
Types of Mammals
1. Monotremes are primitive, egg laying mammals. Milk is suckled through the skin of
the mother (e.g. platypuses and echidnas). There are no monotremes in Africa.
2. Marsupials have an abdominal pouch in which young are reared. The young are born
early in their development, travel to the pouch and attach to a nipple where they
complete their development (e.g. koala bear and kangaroo). There are no marsupials
in Africa.
3. Placentals have an advanced placenta, which means that the young remain in the
mother until the embryonic development is complete (e.g. humans). All African
mammals are placentals.
There are 343 mammal species in South Africa.
Communication
Visual
Visual communication is important for mating displays, parental care, submissiveness,
dominance, anti-predator behaviour etc. For example: the black and white markings on
animals’ tails or rumps are ‘follow-me’ signs for other individuals of the same species.
Predators and primates have eyes at the front of their head, which means they have a wide
field of binocular vision. This enables them judge distances better, for example, decide
whether to jump to the next branch or launch an attack. Herbivores, however, have eyes on
the side of their head, which means that they have a narrow field binocular vision. However,
they can almost see 270° around them in order to spot danger approaching whilst grazing or
browsing.
Nocturnal mammals have a reflective layer of crystals at the back of their eyes called a
‘tapetum’. This is what reflects in the spotlight at night.
Vocal
Vocal communication has numerous advantages in that it can be turned on and off quickly
and transmitted over large distances. Calls can be used to
attract prospective mates, maintain contact within social
structures and as contact communication between mother
and offspring. Alarm calls can also indicate danger. Vervet
monkeys, for example, have different alarm calls for dangers
such as an eagle from the sky versus a snake.
Olfactory or smell
Animals use skin gland secretions, urine or faeces to convey
information such as sex, age, social status, reproductive
condition, emotional state and/or group membership.
Olfactory communication is used mainly for territory
boundaries and assessing reproductive condition. Some
mammals have a Jacobson’s organ that is used to pick up
olfactory signals. The flehmen response is the name for the behaviour when a mammal uses
the Jacobson’s organ to smell. For example, the lion on the previous page is testing a
lioness’ urine for signs of pending oestrus.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
2
Tactile or touch
This type of communication is usually exhibited by social mammals and can take various
forms, for example, play behaviour, courtship, grooming or parental care. Mammals are the
only animals that play.
Social Structure
Animals can either be solitary or social, with different types of social structures. The most
common are:
1. Monogamous (e.g. klipspringers, steenbok, bat-eared foxes and jackals). These
animals pair bond for life.
2. Polygamous, such as the harem system where there is one male that has many
females (e.g. lions and many antelope species).
3. Matriarchal (e.g. elephants and hyenas). This system is where a group of females is
lead by one individual, who is often the oldest (in the case of elephants) or leadership
is passed on from mothers to their daughters (e.g. hyenas).
Territories versus home ranges
Territories are areas where resources are actively protected and defended against other
animals of the same species (i.e. other individuals of the same species are excluded from
using these resources). They are generally marked by a variety of methods; including dung
middens, roaring, anal pasting and urine spraying.
Home ranges are areas of resources that are utilized regularly by animals but are not
defended. For example, an elephant herd would have a home range or an area they spend
most of their time in because it includes resources that are necessary for their survival or
reproduction, but they do not exclude other elephants from using resources in their home
range nor do they defend it from other elephants. Home ranges may change seasonally in
response to changing supplies of water or food.
Herbivore Identification
An herbivore is any animal that feeds on green plants, algae or their products including
seeds, fruit and nectar. In order to correctly identify kills and take data, we need to be able to
accurately identify prey species, their age and sex.
Antelope
Species where the male antelope have horns while females do not include: impala, kudu,
bushbuck, nyala, waterbuck, grey duiker, steenbok and klipspringer.
Impala:
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
3
Kudu:
Bushbuck::
Nyala:
Waterbuck:
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
4
Steenbok:
Grey/Common Duiker:
Klipspringer:
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
5
Antelope where both sexes have horns include eland, blue wildebeest, red hartebeest and
gemsbok. Generally the females have thinner horns, while the males have thicker horns with
thicker bases.
Blue Wildebeest:
Blue wildebeest male
Blue wildebeest female
Buffalo:
Buffalo Bull
Buffalo Cow
Other herbivores
Warthog:
Warthog male
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
Warthog young (left) and female (right)
6
Plains Zebra:
Bushpig:
Southern Giraffe:
Primates:
Chacma Baboon:
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
Vervet Monkey:
7
Lesser Galago/Bushbaby:
Samango Monkey
The Samango monkey is found in
the afromontane rainforests on the
slopes of Mariepskop mountain
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
8
LION (Panthera leo)
Lions are the largest cats in Africa. Males weigh between 180-240 kg whereas females
weigh approximately 120-180
kg. Lions are unique in that
they are the only social cats
and live in prides. Males grow
a mane. The average lifespan
of a wild lion is 14 years;
usually females will live longer.
Social Structure
A typical pride consists of 2-18
females and their cubs. Often
this is a lifetime bond and the
females are related (e.g.
sisters). There is usually a male or a coalition of males associated with the pride. The benefit
of males forming coalitions is that they are able to take over a pride at younger ages and
hold tenure over prides for longer time periods ensuring that they sire more offspring. Pride
males can have territories for up to six years. They tolerate their own cubs, however, they kill
cubs when taking over a pride for the first time. This allows the females to come into oestrus
earlier and the new males to produce their own offspring earlier than would be possible if
they had to wait for the existing offspring to be weaned. There are numerous benefits to
being social for females, including the ability to bring down larger prey, communal suckling
and communal defence of cubs from other females and in some cases, avoiding pregnancy if
they have dependent cubs by chasing males off. Prides have dynamic, fluctuating territories,
with neighbouring prides always in competition with each other. The movement of prey also
changes boundaries of territories, as does the movement of strange males. Pride members
are not always together, especially the males who might spend extended periods of time
away from the pride patrolling territory boundaries.
Communication
Both males and females mark territories. Males scent mark by urine spraying, while both
males and females will roar to advertise territoriality and to maintain contact between pride
members. Vocal moans between pride members are used as short-range contact calls.
Social contact between pride members consists of licking and rubbing. The black tips on
lions’ tails and behind their ears are used by cubs to follow their mothers and by pride
members to maintain visual contact when hunting.
Oestrus
Like many cats, lions are induced ovulators, meaning they will only release eggs from their
ovaries if they are inseminated. Oestrus lasts four days and also occurs after females have
given birth. A male will use the flehmen response to test a female’s urine in order to
determine the reproductive status of that female. Lionesses begin
to breed at 43-54 months, while males reach sexual maturity and
have their own territories about one year later.
Mating
Once a female is in oestrus and accepts a male, they mate
approximately every 15 minutes for 4-5 days. Copulation is quick,
each lasting about 21 seconds, with typical cat aggression at the
end.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
9
Lion Cubs
Gestation is 110 days, where after the
lioness selects a secluded den site to give
birth. Cubs are born very small (1.5 kg)
and defenceless, with closed eyes. Five
cubs on average are born, with both males
and females being equal size at birth. High
mortality rates in the first few weeks are not
uncommon. Cubs are left alone for long
periods and stay at the den for 6-8 weeks
before joining the pride. At three months
cubs will chew meat if they are hungry but
don’t usually eat meat until they are 5-10
months old.
Juveniles and Sub-adults
Young lions experience rapid growth from 12 months old. Sexual dimorphism becomes
apparent with the development of manes in males and a size difference becoming apparent
between the sexes. Sexual mounting starts and they become interested in hunting. At 2½-3
years old they are the size of adult females.
Nomadic Phase
Females inherit territory (stay with the natal pride) or link up with other prides. Males often
form coalitions and wander between territories until they are large or strong enough to
challenge dominant males for a territory.
Hunting and Scavenging
Lions are diurnal and nocturnal hunters. In other words, they can hunt during the day or at
night. Most often they are active during the early morning and late afternoon. They kill small
to large prey, ranging from warthog to giraffe. Certain prides in Botswana have been
recorded specializing in hunting elephants. Lions rely primarily on stalking before launching
into a short sprint. Their maximum speed is 80 kph, but this can only be maintained for
approximately 100 m. Although the hunting success rate is low, it increases when pride
members all hunt together. Lions will scavenge readily on carcasses.
Conservation
The Red Data Book lists lions’ status as Vulnerable. Lions can be conserved within enclosed
areas.
Tracks and Signs
Lion tracks are the largest cat
track. They have the typical catlike three lobes on the back of the
pad and there are no claw marks.
They are on average 12.5cm long
from tip of the toes to back of the
main pad
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
10
CHEETAH (Acinonyx jubatus)
Cheetahs are the fastest land mammals and can
reach a top speed of 120 kph. Although there is little
sexual dimorphism in cheetahs, males are slightly
heavier than females, weighing 35–65 kg, while
females weigh 35–45 kg. Cheetahs have solid black
spots with white under parts and also have distinctive
“tear marks” on their faces. They are long legged,
slender cats with long tails and small heads.
Cheetahs’ claws are not fully retractable, which gives
them grip for fast running and manoeuvring. The
approximate lifespan of cheetahs is 12 years. There
are no cheetah sub-species. The king cheetah is a
mutant gene that coalesces the spots together to form
stripes. All cheetahs are genetically similar because of a genetic bottleneck, which the
species was exposed to approximately 10000-20000 years ago, where the population
decreased to less than a few hundred animals. This, however, has not lowered their
reproductive performance. Cheetahs are diurnal which means they are usually active during
the day.
Social Structure
Females separate from their mother at approximately 1½ years old, which coincides with
their first oestrus cycle. They then have no interaction with other females or males, except to
mate. Females are not territorial and can move up to 4 km a day. Offspring stay within their
mother’s home range. Males often form coalitions that consist of two to four individuals,
which are usually brothers. Breeding males have territories and kill other males to defend
them. Males can move up to 8 km a day.
Communication
Cheetahs have black markings behind their ears and a white tip to their tail to act as a “follow
me” sign for cubs. They use a high-pitched chirrup for short-range contact calls and greetings
and also purr when contented.
Mating
Females urinate more often when in oestrus in order to attract males. Mating is seldom seen
in the wild and copulation is quick. Cheetahs reach sexual maturity at approximately two
years old.
Cubs
Gestation is 90–95 days. Females give birth in cover and keep the cubs hidden for the first
month. However, they move their cubs frequently, sometimes as often as every second day.
Normally there are 3–4 cubs in a litter. When born, the cubs are blind and cannot walk.
Cheetahs lose approximately 50% of their young within the first three months. This low cub
survival rate is because they are solitary parents (only
the female raises the cubs), there is high predation of
cubs by other carnivores, there is no den and
cheetahs generally have a low hunting success rate.
Cubs younger than 12 weeks have a long mantle of
grey hair on their back that mimics honey badgers in
an attempt to deter predators. Until five and a half
months, cubs follow their mother except when the
mother hunts. After the mother has successfully
killed, cubs are led to the kill. When cubs are six
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
11
months old, their mother starts to bring live lambs or hares etc. for the cubs to practice and
hone their own hunting skills. Cheetah sub-adults are seldom successful on bigger prey until
they are 15 months old.
Diet and Hunting
Cheetahs hunt mainly during the day. They can hunt in any area, not just on open plains,
although they do have higher success rates when they can use their speed. When hunting,
cheetahs can only run at full speed for approximately 300 m before their body temperature
gets too high. The classic hunting technique is a high-speed chase, tripping the prey with
their front paws or dewclaws. Cheetah’s skulls are adapted to maintain a strangle hold on
their prey for up to 20 minutes.
This includes having enlarged
nasal passages for better
recovery from the exertion of
the hunt. Once the prey is
killed, cheetahs need to rest to
let their body temperature
recover. Cheetahs will typically
begin eating from the rear of
the prey and then move
through to the front. They are the weakest of the large predators and prefer to leave their kills
rather than risk being killed or injured when approached by other large predators. As a result,
they often loose their kills to other large predators. Once cheetahs have eaten their fill, they
will move away from the carcass to digest. Their usual prey is smaller antelope or the young
of larger antelope. Cheetahs do not scavenge and are independent of water.
Conservation
The Red Data Book lists cheetah’s conservation status as Vulnerable. Cheetahs are
protected in South Africa, and cannot be hunted neither can their skins be sold. Cheetahs
can be confined within enclosed areas and are therefore relatively easy to protect within
conservation areas.
Tracks and Signs
Cheetahs’ tracks are more oval
than other cats. They still have
the three lobes on their anterior
pads but the biggest difference is
that their claws are not retracted;
therefore, claw marks are often
seen.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
12
LEOPARD (Panthera pardus)
Leopards are long, low, stocky cats with wide heads and short powerful jaws. Their limbs are
short, thick and strong. Leopards are mainly nocturnal. Apart from size (males can weigh 4090 kg whereas females are 30-60 kg) there is little sexual dimorphism in leopards. The spots
on a leopard’s coat are arranged in ‘rosettes’. Leopards have vibrissae (or stiff whiskers) for
quiet navigation on their face and their legs above the paws. Leopards are arguably the most
successful felid in that they are very adaptable, versatile and elusive and can survive in many
areas where other cats cannot. Although there is discussion about whether sub-species exist
within Africa, no sub-species have yet been genetically determined.
Social Structure
Leopards are solitary and territorial. In
general, adults only associate long enough
to mate. Territories of females often overlap,
but those of males do not. Territorial males
have priority access to females, and
territorial females have priority access to
food.
Communication
Scent marking is used to both communicate
and mark territories. Bushes and trees are
urine sprayed and faeces are used on paths
that other leopards are likely to use. Males
often scrape the ground with their hind legs. Their distance call is a ‘sawing’ sound and
leopards mainly call at dawn and dusk. The white tip of their tail and the black behind their
ears is a ‘follow-me’ sign for cubs.
Mating
Leopards are sexually mature at 2-4 years. Females normally initiate the mating. The male
mounts briefly then leaps off as she turns snarling. Mating takes place every 15 minutes for
up to 4-5 days. Leopard males do not help raise their offspring.
Cubs
Gestation is approximately 105 days, with a typical litter
being 1-3 cubs. Cubs only weigh 0.5 kg at birth and are
dark-grey/black. The cubs are concealed in dense thickets,
koppies (rock outcrops) or caves and are moved by their
mother every few days. Their eyes open after 6-10 days,
but cubs only venture out of hiding after six weeks. Cubs
make their first kills at around 11 months old but only
become independent at approximately 22 months old.
Diet and Hunting
Leopards are opportunistic hunters. They are secretive and
elusive, relying on good camouflage. They use a ‘stalk and
ambush’ technique, stalking to between 5-20 m of prey
before pouncing; they rarely run after prey. Leopards
consume protein in any form, ranging from mice to baby
giraffe, however, they eat mainly medium sized antelope
(e.g. impala) and the young of larger species (e.g. zebra
and wildebeest). Although they readily scavenge and will
eat decaying meat, they pluck feathers and fur from kills. Often leopards will drag kills into
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
13
trees or cover kills with vegetation to avoid scavenging by lions and hyenas. Leopards do not
need to drink water often, as they get enough water from their food.
Conservation
The leopard’s conservation status is listed by the Red Data Book as Least Concern.
However, one needs a permit to hunt leopards. CITIES and destruction permits for problem
animals can be obtained in South Africa. They are hard to protect within conservation areas,
as they cannot be confined with fences.
Tracks and Signs
The leopard’s tracks are very
similar to lion tracks, although
they are smaller and typically
more circular in appearance. A
large male’s track will reach
around 9cm long.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
14
HYENAS
Hyenas only occur in Africa, where they are widely distributed. There are three species of
hyena, however, some consider the aardwolf part of the hyena family too. The spotted hyena
is an opportunistic hunter and a scavenger, while the striped hyena mainly scavenges and is
distributed only in north and northeast Africa. The brown hyena is only a scavenger and is
only found in southern Africa. The aardwolf is insectivorous and is found in south and east
Africa.
SPOTTED HYENAS (Crocuta crocuta)
Spotted hyenas have a massive build in front with sloping hindquarters. Initially hyenas were
thought to be hermaphroditic until as late as
1938 as both females and males appeared to
possess male genitalia. Hyenas are almost
identically in both sexes externally but females
have almost typical female mammal anatomy
internally. They can be identified by their single
set of abdominal mammary glands. Males weigh
less than females. Spotted hyenas range in size
averaging 40-55 kg, but have reached over 80
kg. Spotted hyenas can be active in the day but
are generally nocturnal. Their lifespan is 15-20
yrs.
Social Structure
Spotted hyenas usually live in clans ranging from 15–18 animals. The clan is lead by a
matriarch who is typically the largest and most aggressive female. She has unusually high
levels of testosterone in her body. Next in the hierarchy is the matriarch’s female offspring,
which will dominate her brother and be next in line to be the matriarch. All clan females are
dominant over clan males. Clan males also have a hierarchy; firstly the accepted immigrants,
then natal males (born into that clan) and then non-accepted peripheral males. Spotted
hyenas’ territories are maintained and defended against other clans. They are marked by
anal pastings, defecating and scratch marking using an inter-digital gland.
Communication
As well as the olfactory marking of territories, spotted hyenas are also extremely vocal and
have a repertoire of calls with different functions. A long drawn out ‘whoop’ is used as a long
range contact call. Around carcasses or in interactions with lions they giggle, whoop, scream,
growl etc. Clan members also greet each other in a unique way that includes genital licking.
Mating
Only the most dominant, accepted, immigrant male will have mating rights. All the females in
the clan will breed and den together but each mother suckles only her own young.
Cubs
Gestation is 90 days with litters of 12 born with eyes open and with
teeth. Siblicide is common
especially if both cubs are female.
Cubs are dark brown when they are
born, only showing spots at about
six months old. Weaning starts at
nine months old and is only
complete when the young are 12-16
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
15
months old. They start to go out with adults at 6-9 months. Spotted hyenas will generally not
bring food back to the den.
Hunting and Scavenging
Spotted hyenas are known for their ability to cover long distances during a night. They will
maintain a walking speed of 4 km/hr and are capable of a gallop at 40-50 km/hr for up to 5
km. Their killing method usually involves running down and disembowelling their prey. Their
maximum speed is around 60 km/hr. They are opportunistic hunters and scavengers and are
able to consume up to 15 kg of meat at a sitting. Spotted hyenas have a complex relationship
with lions, where individuals may be hunted down by male lions. However, a group of hyenas
can intimidate a lioness separated from her pride.
Conservation Status
The Red Data Book lists spotted hyena as Near Threatened due to hunting persecution and
cultural use for traditional medicine.
Tracks and Signs
Despite being closer related to cats than
dogs, their tracks resemble that of a dog’s
with only two lobes on the anterior pad
and visible claw marks. However, their
large toe pads are kidney bean shaped and
their walking gait gives their tracks an
outwardly skewed appearance.
BROWN HYENAS (Hyaena brunnea)
Brown hyenas are less well known than spotted
hyenas as they are more shy and secretive. They
have a medium, shaggy build and only weigh 40-50
kg, with females being larger than males. Their
coat is longer than the spotted hyena’s and their
ears are more pointed. Their lifespan is up to 16
years. Brown hyena are nocturnal but are often
seen at dawn and dusk.
Social Structure
Live in clans with up to 12 members or as solitary
nomadic males.
Communication
Territories are marked with anal pastings and dung latrines along borders. Brown hyenas are
generally silent.
Mating
Usually only one female breeds in the clan. She will mate with males that are nomadic or are
immigrants to the clan.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
16
Cubs
Gestation is 90 days with litters of 1-4 cubs born. Weaning starts at three months old and is
complete at 12 months old. This is possible due to the adult’s habit of bringing food to the
den.
Hunting and Scavenging
Brown hyenas are strictly scavengers, with a typical daily intake of 2.5 kg. Although they live
in clans they forage alone and can walk up to 30 km a night. They rarely interact with lions on
a kill, however, they have been known to steal prey from leopards.
Conservation Status
The Red Data Book lists Brown hyenas as Near Threatened due to persecution by farmers
as they are seen as vermin.
Diet of Hyenas
Hyenas eat everything, including scavenging the faeces of other carnivores, skin, bone,
teeth, offal and even their own dead. Spotted hyenas will hunt and eat rodents, birds, small
carnivores, reptiles, large to medium ungulates and old or injured lions. Hyenas also
consume grass, fruit and vegetable matter. Human rubbish, livestock and humans are also
occasionally eaten. In order to eat some of this food, hyenas are equipped with a heavy skull
with a pronounced sagittal crest to which massive masseter and temporalis muscles are
attached. They have heavy canines and their upper and outer incisors can hold and tear any
flesh while the conical premolars are capable of breaking the heaviest bones. They have well
designed carnassial teeth for slicing thick hide and gristle. Hyenas are also equipped with an
acute sense of smell to find food sources.
Tracks and Signs
Brown hyena tracks are difficult to tell apart from those left by a spotted Hyena. Occasionally,
brown hyena tracks have hair marks surrounding the toes and the difference is size between
front and hind feet is often markedly larger. Other hyena evidence includes faecal middens
that are used as territorial markers and anal pastings on grass stalks. Spotted hyenas’ leave
one brown pasting whereas brown hyenas leave two pastings– one brown and one black.
Hyenas’ faeces often turn white because of the large bone content in their diet.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
17
LARGE HERBIVORES
AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (Loxodonta africana)
African elephants are the largest land mammals. Males weigh 5000-6000 kg and females
3600-4000 kg. Males have a rounded forehead when viewed from the side and generally
have thicker tusks. Female have a flattened and pointed foreheads and their tusks are
generally more slender. Elephants are very
adaptable in their habitat requirements,
however, they are water dependant and
require about 200l of water a day. Life
expectancy is about 65 years and is
dependent on their dentition. Elephants
only have 6 sets of teeth during a lifetime.
Once all the sets of teeth have been used
and the last pair is too worn to break up
food material, old individuals will die of
starvation. The tusks of an elephant are
their incisor teeth. Although the only way to
accurately determine an elephant’s age is
by its teeth, there are numerous ways that some idea of their age can be determined in the
field. These include shoulder height, the depth of the indentations on the side of their
foreheads, the size of the hourglass shape of the head and the length and thickness of their
tusks. In older males, the thickness of the base of the trunk can also be used for ageing.
Field Age Criteria for Aging African Elephant
Thermoregulation
Elephants have no sweat glands and, therefore, have other ways to prevent overheating.
They have large ears with big veins that they flap to cool to the blood going to the brain. They
also engage in mud bathing, swimming, water spraying and dust bathing to cool themselves.
Sun protection and protection against ectoparasites are the other reasons they mud and dust
bath.
Social Structure
Females live in breeding herds that consist of related females (sisters or daughters). Males
leave their natal herd when they reach adulthood at approximately 15 years of age and may
spend most of their time in established bull areas separate from the herds. They form loose
associations with other bulls as well as breeding herds. Bulls join herds when in musth to
search for females in oestrus.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
18
Communication
Elephants communicate almost constantly. They vocalize mostly on a low frequency called
infrasound that is below the hearing of humans. The rumbles we can hear are part of the low
frequency communication. Elephants can trumpet loudly when excited. In herds they also
use touch and smell to greet and identify individuals.
Reproduction
Musth
Bull elephants go through periods of high testosterone levels called musth. This is indicated
by swollen temporal glands and temporal secretion. He has a distinct musth smell resulting
from fungal growth due to continuous urine dribbling and wet hind legs. Bulls in musth are
generally more aggressive and their behaviour can be very unpredictable. However, oestrus
females will prefer to mate with a musth bull. Musth periods can vary in length from a few
days to a few months dependant on bulls’ age. Generally the older and more dominant bulls
tend to be in musth for longer periods.
Temporal gland secretion level in an
elephant bull in musth
Temporal gland swelling in an elephant
bull in musth
Breeding
Females come into their first oestrous cycle at about 10-15 years old. Elephants have a long
gestation of about 22 months. Generally they give birth to a single calf that weighs
approximately 100 kg at birth. Calves stay close to their mother for their first year and are
generally weaned at three years old when the next newborn arrives.
Diet
Elephants are bulk feeders, consuming about 150 kg of food a day. They eat grass, leaves,
branches, bark, roots and fruit, using their trunk and tusks to feed.
Tracks and Signs
Elephants walk on their toes and have a
thick cartilage layer that allows them to
walk very softly. Each elephant print is
unique, just like a human’s fingerprint.
Elephant signs in the bush include
debarked trees, mud on trees from
rubbing and holes dug for water or
roots/bulbs.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
19
Conservation
On small, enclosed reserves, population control of elephant is important. Elephants are
destructive feeders and high numbers can be detrimental to the environment. Present
strategies to decrease this impact include: increasing the conservation area (dropping
fences), translocation, culling, hunting, immunocontraception, sterilization, and introduction of
older individuals to normalize the age structure of the population. Elephants are considered
of Least Concern in South Africa in the Red Data Book, an improvement on the global status
in 1996 of Endangered.
RHINOS
There are five rhino species left in world. In Africa there is the black and white rhino, while in
Asia there are the Indian, Javan and Sumatran rhinos. The most endangered rhino is the
Javan rhino, with only 60 surviving individuals.
WHITE RHINOS (Ceratotherium simium)
The white rhino is the second largest land mammal. Males weigh up to 2000 kg and females
about 1600 kg. Their lifespan is approximately 40-45 years. White rhino are grazers, feeding
almost exclusively on grass.
Social Structure
Males are normally solitary, with
dominant bulls usually
displaying territoriality by their
posture, dung middens and
urine spraying. Dominant bulls
will allow subordinate males into
their territory as long as they
show submission. Bulls usually
only associate with females in
order to check their reproductive
status. Adult females live in
overlapping home ranges that
usually encompass six to seven
bull territories. Females usually associate in pairs; typically a female with her most recent
offspring, although white rhino can be in groups called ‘crashes’ of up to 13 animals.
Reproduction
Gestation is 16 months, at the end of which a single calf is born weighing 40 kg. The calves
are weaned at one to one and a half years old. Ties between offspring and mother is only
broken when the female gives birth again.
BLACK RHINOS (Diceros bicornis)
Black rhinos are smaller than white rhinos, weighing
up to 1000 kg. Their lifespan is generally 30-40 years.
They are browsers, eating leaves and twigs.
Social Structure
Male black rhinos are solitary and territorial and mark
their territory in a similar way to white rhino males.
They might even share midden sites with white rhino,
with no competition between the two species. Female
black rhinos also use dung middens to defecate, but
only dominant males urine spray and drag their feet.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
20
Adult females live in overlapping home ranges. Black rhino are less social than white rhino;
groups seldom number more than four animals.
Reproduction
Gestation in black rhinos lasts 15 months with a single calf born weighing 40 kg. The young
are weaned at about one to one and a half years old. Ties between offspring and mother are
only broken when the female gives birth again; usually when the calf is two to four years old.
Differences between black and white rhinos
Black rhino
White rhino
Smaller size
Larger size
Hooked Lip
Square Lip
Browser
Grazer
Young behind mother when walking
Young in front of mother when walking
15 month gestation
16 month gestation
Aggressive
Less aggressive
More solitary
More social
Head held high
Head lower
Dung middens – twigs with 45° angles
Dung middens – dried grass
Saddle back (2 humps)
Three humps on back
Rhinos in General
Rhinos have very good hearing and an excellent sense of smell, however their eyesight is
very poor. They have no front teeth so their lips are used to gather browse and grass, taking
the place of incisors. Rhinos often drink twice daily but can go for two to four days without
water. While rhinos look heavy, they are extremely agile and have a top speed of 45 km/hr.
Tracks and Signs
Rhinos have three toes/hooves and are classed in
the same order as zebra (uneven toed ungulates).
White rhino tracks are larger and more oval with a
prounced ‘W’ at the back of the track. Black rhinos’
tracks are smaller and more rounded, and the outer
toes tend to stick out more. Rhinos are fond of mud
wallows and have favourite rubbing posts such as
trees, stumps, or termite mounds, which can
indicate their favourite spots. Rhino middens are
also a good indication there is a territorial bull in the
area.
Conservation
Poaching is still a big concern in southern Africa. Rhinos’ horn is made of compacted hair
and although it has been chemically tested and shown to have no aphrodisiac qualities, it is
still highly sought after in the East. Black rhinos are still hunted for Middle Eastern markets
as the horn is made into ceremonial knife handles. Presently white rhinos have made a come
back from 150 animals in the 1930s to over 10,000 animals at present and are considered of
Least Concern. There are two subspecies of black rhino, one (Diceros bicornis minor) which
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
21
is considered Vulnerable, while the other, the desert black rhino is still considered Critically
Endangered with only 30 animals remaining in 2002.
HIPPOS (Hippopotamus amphibious)
Male hippos can weigh up to 2000 kg, while females weigh up to 1700 kg. They are grazers
and consume up to 13 kg per day, quite a little considering their size. Typically hippos are
active and out of water at night. They will walk up to 30
km per night to reach grazing. Hippos have an
approximate lifespan of 35 years.
Social structure
Hippos live in groups called schools of up to 30. These
schools consist of females, young males and a single
dominant male. Hippos are territorial and territories are
marked by dung scattering and urine spraying by the
male and do not extend out of the water. Young males
are driven out by the dominant bull at about six years
old, while the females remain.
Reproduction
Gestation length is about eight months, which is short considering the size of the adults.
Females give birth to single calves weighing 30 kg, which can suckle underwater. Female
hippos mature at five years and the males at six to eight years. Mating takes place
underwater. Hippos can hold their breath underwater for up to six minutes.
General Information
Hippos are responsible for many human deaths; they are very aggressive and territorial.
They walk on the bottom of watercourses rather than swimming. Hippos’ sweat contains a
red pigment that acts as a sunscreen.
Tracks and Signs
Hippos leave an unmistakable four-toed, large,
round track. They also use paths routinely in
and out of water leaving a distinctive trail.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
22
SMALLER CARNIVORES AND OTHER INTERESTING MAMMALS
Carnivora
This order contains mostly meat eaters, however, some carnivora are omnivorous and others
insectivorous. Almost all have carnassial teeth which are big premolars adapted for slicing
meat. Carnivora includes felines (cats such as lion, leopard and cheetah), canines (dogs
such as wild dogs, jackals and foxes), hyenas, mustelids (such as badgers and otters) and
viverids (such as mongoose, civets and genets).
Felines
Caracal
Red cat with shortish tail
Long black tufts on ears
Striking black facial marks
Largest of the smaller cats – stands up to knee high
Widespread in southern Africa
Wide range of prey species up to smaller antelope
Generally solitary
Nocturnal
African Wild Cat
Looks like a tabby cat with long legs
Red-russet tufts on top of ears
Can crossbreed with domestic cats so the genetic
integrity of this species is threatened
Take prey species up to size of hares, the young of
small antelope and birds as big as guinea fowls
Usually active at night
Serval
Servals are a medium sized
spotted cat with distinct short tail,
long legs and very large ears for
its size. It uses these traits to
listen for prey and then
acrobatically pounce.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
23
Canines
Black-backed Jackal
Black tip to tail
Omnivorous, does scavenge
Can catch anything up to young antelope
Nocturnal usually
Long-range contact call is wailing and eerie
Very common
Territorial in pairs
Mate for life
Both parents care for pups – regurgitate food
Side-striped Jackal
White tip to tail
Pale ‘saddle’ on back
Similar social behaviour as black-backed
jackal
Generally distributed in more arid regions
More rare than black-backed jackal
Mustelids
Honey Badger
Stocky silver/white and black animal (this pattern is
a warning to other animals to stay away!)
Has a reputation for toughness and tenacity
Usually solitary
Mostly nocturnal
Very long sharp claws used for digging into ground
and rotten trees for food and for climbing trees for
food and shelter
Eats everything from beetle grubs to venomous
snakes, raids beehives, scavenges etc.
Status: Vunerable as habitat declines
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
24
Viverrids
African Civet
Hunched posture, black and white
spotted/striped
Nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial mostly
Omnivorous – fish, rodents, insects, fruit
and frequently grass (one of few
animals that can ingest millipedes)
Defecates in middens
Scent marks with anal gland – lasts up
to three months
Genets
There are two species: Large spotted and small spotted genet
Strictly nocturnal, usually solitary
Omnivorous
Mostly small mammals, birds, insects
Forage on ground usually, but very agile in trees
Large Spotted Genet
Also known as the rusty spotted genet
Larger more rusty spots
Tip of tail is black
White on chin
Small Spotted Genet
Smaller black spots
Tip of tail is white
Chin is usually dark
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
25
Herpestidae
Slender Mongoose
Solitary long mongoose
Many colour variants but usually grey brown.
Black tip on tail
Mostly insectivorous – with some reptiles and
small mammals in diet
Active in day
Banded Mongoose
Greyish mongoose with dark bands on back
Mainly insectivorous – especially beetles and their grubs
Active during the day
Live in groups up to 30
Forage together but each mongoose finds its own food
The group posts alarm sentries on look out for predators
Territorial and can have clashes between groups
Several females will breed in the group – all group members
care for young
Dwarf Mongoose
Smallest African carnivore
Small dark brown mongoose living in groups
Active in day, insectivorous
Only dominant pair breeds
Other Mammals of Interest
Other more rare animals we may see on the reserve
Aardwolf
Thought to be related to hyenas
Small – jackal sized
Nocturnal, solitary
Eats almost exclusively harvester
termites (up to 300 000 per night)
Teeth are too small to prey on
mammals
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
26
Aardvark
Unique animal - only one in the world in its
order
Large males weigh up to 65 kg
Eats ants and termites
Have massive claws for digging into termite
mounds
Nocturnal – digs burrows for shelter
Its disused burrows are used by at least 17
other mammal species – plus birds, insects
and reptiles Status: Vulnerable
Pangolin or Scaly Anteater
Covered in unmistakable hard
scales
Eats mainly ants and some
termites
Nocturnal, solitary
Rolls up to protect head and
soft under parts
Scales are sought after for
traditional medicine
Status: Vulnerable
Often roll up around electric fences and get killed, susceptible to insecticides
African Porcupine
Unmistakable
Largest rodent in Africa – 25 kg
Quills are not barbed and cannot shoot out
Will back into a threat and some quills are loosely attached in
skin so can fall out when they touch skin
Lives in groups but only the dominant pair breeds – mate for life
Nocturnal
Dig for roots
Springhare
Looks like a miniature kangaroo
Also a rodent, one metre long nose to tail
Black tip to tail
Move in long jumps/bounds
Grass eater
Strictly nocturnal
Dig their own burrows – up to 46 m long with 2-11 entrances
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
27
Rock Hyrax or Rock Dassie
Not a rodent
Distantly related to elephants
 Incisors are tusks
 Antibodies are similar
 Internal testicles
 Leg/foot structure similar
Used to be the dominant grazer on the continent
before ruminants/antelope
Lives in colonies on rock cliffs
Feeds on grass, leaves, mosses etc.
BIRDS
Birds are a major component of the food cycle. They are a food source for a number of
animals ranging from snakes to sharks. Some of the roles birds play in the environment
include insect population control, pollination of flowers, seed dispersal and they can also be
vectors of disease. By being aware of birds in the environment, it can help our research. For
example, vultures can indicate the presence of kills or red-billed oxpeckers can alert us of the
presence of large animals.
Identification of Birds
With close to 850-900 bird species in the southern African subregion (South Africa,
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia), it is quite daunting to try and identify one
bird. However, certain steps can be followed in order to narrow down the process and make
identification easier.
Factors used to identify birds
GISS – General Indication of Size and Shape (developed in
World War 2 for fighter pilots to identify enemy aircraft). Use
birds that you know the size of such as a chicken, a parrot or
dove. Ask yourself is this one smaller or larger? Is the bird more
slender or fatter etc?
Beak – consider the shape as well as colour. Various beak
shapes might describe the bird’s feeding behaviour (insect
feeders versus seed eaters versus nectar feeders).
Legs and feet – look at length as well as colour. Where is the
colour – e.g. Egrets – these birds are all white but some have
black legs with yellow feet and vice versa, while in some the
legs are all black. Perching birds have a tendon in their “palms”
that snaps closed around a branch when they land. Terrestrial
birds such as the ostrich do not have this ability. There are different foot structures for
different types of birds perching, wading, webbed etc.
Colour and Markings – Where does the coloration occur and what types of markings are
there? Speckles, arrow marked, barring etc. Are there any markings around eyes, etc?
Behaviour – What is the bird doing? Is it on the ground or in a tree? Is it social or gregarious?
What is its flight behaviour? Is it noisy?
Habitat – Where are you? You will not look for an ocean bird in the desert etc.
Distribution – This is especially useful when trying to distinguish between two similar birds.
Check if they both occur in the area.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
28
SNAKES, SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS
A venomous animal is an animal that bites or stings another and injects venom. Poisonous
refers to a toxic substance (poison) that is eaten or ingested by an animal. Generally poisons
are produced by plants. Most venomous animals can be eaten as the venom is digested by
stomach acid. Consequently, the correct term for dangerous snakes, scorpions and spiders
is venomous NOT poisonous.
Uses of venom
Although prey immobilisation is a common use of venom, venom can also be used to digest
prey before consuming it. Venom is also useful for protection and defence.
Types of venom
1. Cytotoxic venom leads to tissue destruction around the site of the bite and causes
localized bleeding. Animals that use cytotoxic venom include adders, violin spiders,
sac spiders and six-eyed crab spiders. No scorpions use cytotoxic venom.
2. Neurotoxic venom affects the nervous system and causes paralysis of the muscles.
Typically symptoms are nausea and vomiting, with difficulty breathing. Animals that
use neurotoxic venom include cobras, mambas, Buthidae and Parabuthus scorpions,
black button spider, brown button spiders and the lesser baboon spider.
3. Haemotoxic venom affects the ability of blood to coagulate causing continued,
spontaneous bleeding. Animals that use haemotoxic venom include the boomslang
and vine snake.
SNAKES
Snakes are classified by their dental structure.
Black fanged snakes
These snakes have 1-3 pairs of recurved,
grooved fangs situated towards the back of the
upper jaw. They tend to have hemotoxic venom if
they are venomous.
e.g. boomslang (photo) and vine snake
Fixed front fanged snakes
These snakes have specialized fangs with a tubular
structure that allows the injection of venom. Fangs of
spitting snakes are modified to spray venom. Most of
these snakes use neurotoxic venom.
e.g. cobras (photo), rinkhals and mambas
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
29
Hinged front fanged snakes
These snakes have a pair of large, functional fangs at the front
of the upper jaw. The fangs have a hinge mechanism that
allows them to fold flat when they are not in use. Most of these
snakes use cytotoxic venom.
e.g. adders (photo)
Solid toothed non-venomous snakes
These snakes have solid, recurved cylindrical and sharply pointed teeth. There is no
transport mechanism in these teeth for venom and most of these snakes rely on constriction
to immobilize their prey.
e.g. African rock python
Interesting facts about snakes:
 Some snakes can fake death as a defence mechanism (e.g. Rinkhals).
 Venomous snakes can sometimes only strike with a ‘dry bite’ (e.g. cobras) and
choose whether to release the venom when they bite.
 Newborn venomous snakes are just as venomous as adults.
SCORPIONS
Thin tailed Scorpions
These scorpions are non venomous to humans, however, they still possess weak venom.
They are characterized by a slender tail and big pincers. The reason for this is that they need
to grip their prey for longer as their venom is weaker and takes a longer time to take effect.
Thick tailed Scorpions
These scorpions are venomous to humans. They have a thick tail and small pincers. Their
powerful venom works faster on their prey. Therefore, there is little need to hold on for long.
Venomous Scorpions
Parabuthus transvaalicus
Parabuthus mossambicensis
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
30
Interesting Fact about Scorpions:
Scorpions fluoresce under ultraviolet light; the glow is a result of light reflected by the hyaline
layer in their exoskeletons.
SPIDERS
What makes spiders different from insects?
Spiders
Insects
Legs
8 legs
Breathing Booklungs
6 legs
Tracheae
Digestion
Takes place inside body
Poison
Silk
Takes place outside
body
Present in all but 1
family
Always present
Absent in most
Only present at stage of
cocooning
Venomous spiders:
Neurotoxic venom
Brown button Spider (photo)
Identified by a red hour-glass on ventral
side of abdomen.
Black button spider
Identified orange-red marking on the
dorsal side of the abdomen, however it
can be completely black.
Small Baboon Spider
The only medically important baboon spider species.
This spider is normally relaxed and slow moving, but can
become aggressive when taunted.
If any adult baboon spider is removed from its mature barrow
it cannot dig another one.
Cytotoxic venom
Violin Spider (photo)
This spider is free running and ground living. It has a characteristic
dark brown or black violin shape marking on the carapace.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
31
Sac Spider
The sac spider is also a free roaming spider. These spiders are responsible for 90% of South
African spider bites. Bites are painless but destroy a large amount of tissue.
Six-eyed Desert Crab Spider
One of the most venomous spiders in the world. These spiders do not use webs; they
ambush their prey. They hide by throwing sand over their bodies with their legs.
Red Roman Spiders / Solifugae
Red Romans are large eight-legged
invertebrates that look similar to spiders.
They are generally nocturnal and often
are attracted to light or fires. These
animals are not true spiders and are
harmless. They have no fangs, no venom
glands and no silk apparatus. They digest
food internally, whereas spiders use
venom to digest their food externally.
IN GENERAL
No expedition members are allowed to catch any snakes, spiders or scorpions, even if they
are qualified. Please call a staff member to remove them from unwanted places!
Identification of these invertebrates is difficult, therefore treat everything as if it is venomous.
Don’t fear them, but respect them!
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
32
TELEMETRY AND SPOTLIGHTING
This section covers the techniques and tools we use to do research. These techniques are
tested and expedition members need a 100% pass mark to be allowed to participate in these
activities on the reserve. These techniques are important in that, if done properly, they allow
us to do our work efficiently and safely.
Telemetry
There are a number of different types of collars/implants that can be used to monitor the
locations and movement of animals.
 Telemetry (VHF) collars are only tracked via radio waves with telemetry equipment.
 Cell phone collars use a combination of telemetry, but also download GPS positions
on a computer via cell phone towers. These collars have a counter weight so the
transmitter remains on the top of the animal.
 Satellite collars also use both telemetry and download GPS positions to a computer
via satellites. These collars are also counter weighted.
 Radio implants can also be used and can be implanted into stomach linings (cats), in
horns (rhinos) or onto tail feathers (birds such as ground hornbills).
Telemetry Procedure
 Set the correct frequency for the collar/implant you are searching for.
 Always start with a “vertical” search on frequency (signal or no signal). Vertical means
that the aerial looks like an ‘H’ when scanning. This is the position that can pick up
signal the easiest, but is not accurate for determining the signal’s direction
 Then try with a horizontal search on frequency. This is to pick up directional signal.
 When signal is heard:
o Get the general direction of the strongest range of signal
o Turn the fine-tune dial slowly off the frequency to determine the actual
direction (always turn it towards the negative). The closer you are to the
animal, the further you will be able to turn the fine-tune dial and hear signal
o Check behind you for “back signal”
o Tell the driver which direction the strongest signal is.
Vertical check
Horizontal check
Mobile tracking
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
33






Set the correct frequency.
Turn the fine-tune dial off frequency to determine direction.
Stop the driver when signal is at a 90° angle to the road (give direction in
chronological clock time e.g. 3 o clock to the vehicle).
While driving off road frequently update the driver and first give the direction (in
chronological clock time) and then the distance (as it stands on the fine-tune dial).
Give the information clearly to the driver, but without being too loud to scare animals
off (telemetry person to sit on front back seat of truck).
Telemetry person only gives the direction of the animal….the driver will pick the
appropriate route to get there.
Telemetry tips
 A vertical signal is a non-directional signal.
 A horizontal signal is directional.
 Only turn the fine tune dial when holding the aerial still
 The signal of a mobile animal “comes and goes” (the signal beeps are not evenly
loud).
 If one struggles to get direction between a back and front signal, wind the fine turn
dial down.
 If the signal suddenly disappears while tracking, wind the fine turn dial back to the
starting frequency.
 If one is too close to the collar to determine direction (a strong -5 signal) and one still
does not have visual, turn the volume down.
Telemetry Rules
 Always check that you are on the correct frequency for the animal you are tracking.
 Always stand up while doing telemetry except for while mobile tracking and when
close to or within sightings (i.e. a -2 frequency).
 Always hang the telemetry box around your neck while doing telemetry.
 Remember your head-torch as you may be doing telemetry after dark.
Spotlighting
The spotlight is ONLY to be used on nocturnal animals, animals that are active at night time.
- e.g. lions, leopard, springhare, bush-baby etc.
- nocturnal animals’ eyes generally reflect a reddish colour in the spotlight.
Please do not spotlight diurnal animals, that is animals that are active during the day.
- e.g. elephant, rhino, any antelope, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest etc.
- diurnal animals’ eyes generally reflect a greenish-white colour in the spotlight.
NB. Always check with staff if you are not sure if you can use a spotlight or not.
Spotlight Rules
 No diurnal animals to be spotlighted
 Do not shine towards oncoming traffic or at buildings
 Do not shine in the cab, shine over the roof
 Do not shout when you spot something, just flash your light ‘up and down’ on the road
in front of the driver to indicate you’ve spotted something
o the driver will stop and reverse
o point with your light on what you have seen
 Never shine the light into others eyes
 Avoid illuminating others that are on the back of the vehicle.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
34



Move the light from left to right and back at a regular, but slow pace
Beware of flying insects at the light and at your eyes – there are safety glasses to
wear if you prefer.
Do not shine directly in any animals’ eyes.
DATA
Generally data is collected in the field daily and recorded by an allocated data person under
the supervision of a staff member. This is to ensure that the data is kept as accurate and
consistent as possible. There are numerous data sheets which are used in the field. How
these need to be filled in will be explained to you in due course. One of the types of data that
we collect includes full ratings, which give us an idea of when an animal last ate. Below is an
example of a full rating guide to estimate as to whether a carnivore has had a recent meal or
not. This estimation can ONLY be made if the animal is standing.
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
35
VEHICLES
Vehicle Checks are done twice a day before research drive by the person on vehicle duty.
Morning checks are:.
Tyre Pressure
- Front / Rear 1.6 bar
- Spare 1.6 bar
Checking the items of the vehicle box and placing it on the vehicle. This box contains:
 First Aid Kit
 Spare batteries for telemetry sets and GPS units
 Spare Telemetry cables
 Tow rope
 Emergency Action Plans
 Vials and sticky labels for faecal and tick samples
 Suncream
 Toilet paper
 Towel
 Jumper leads
 Spot light
Afternoon checks are:
Under the bonnet:
Oil
Brake Fluid
Clutch Fluid
Coolant level
Powersteering Fluid
In the cab:
Jack
Wheel Spanner
Wooden Block
Fire extinguisher
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
General:
Clean vehicle thoroughly (inside and out)
Check Tyre Pressure
- Front / Rear 1.6 bar
-Spare 1.6 bar
Check contents of vehicle box and place
on vehicle
Nuts secure on each wheel
36
 Global Vision International
Updated November 2012
37