An Appraisal of Hydrogeological and Hydrochemical Parameters
from Basalt and Granite Aquifers, In Parts of Ranga Reddy and
Mahabubnagar Districts, Telangana State, India
Pandith Madhnure1; P.N.Rao2 and A.D. Rao3
1,2
and 3 Central Ground Water Board, Southern Region, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of
India, GSI Post, Bandlaguda, Hyderabad-500068.
(91)040-24225203, 24227112 [email protected]; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
To appraise various hydrogeological and hydrochemical parameters, studies were carried out
in ~3040 km2 area covering south western part of Telangana State during 2011-12. The area
receives a normal annual rainfall of 700 mm and ~97% of irrigation water requirement is met
through groundwater extracted through shallow dug wells (~20 m depth) and bore wells (~125 m
depth). Geologically the area is underlain by basalt and granite formations. Water levels were
monitored two times during pre and post-monsoon seasons and varies from 2-35 and 1-34 meter
below ground level respectively. Long term hydrograph studies (2002-11) shows rising trend
between 0.06-1.4 m/yr in most of the area during pre-monsoon and a mix trend during postmonsoon season due to excess rainfall than normal in most of the years. By studying borehole
lithologs, hydrogeological and geophysical data, the area can be can be conceptualized as two
aquifer systems namely; Aquifer-1 (down to 30 m (weathered basalt/granite followed by first
fracture) with yield range of 0.01 to 1.1 and 0.01-1.7 lps respectively and Aquifer-2 (bottom of
aquifer-1 and deepest fracture depth) from 30 to 125 m with yield range of 0.01-11.5 and 1.7-6.1
lps in basalt and granite respectively. Higher values of transmissivity (T), storativity (S) and specific
yield (Sy) are observed in recharge areas than in discharge areas. The stage of groundwater
development varies from 44 to 103% and more than 40 villages are notified and banned for further
groundwater development by State Government. Groundwater quality during pre-monsoon season
indicates Ca-HCO3-Cl Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Cl and Ca-HCO3 type of groundwater and most of the
samples are unfit for human consumption due to high F - or NO3- content. US Salinity diagram
shows, salinity hazard ‘Medium to Very High’ category and sodium (Alkali) hazard ‘Low’
category.
Key Words: Appraisal, Hydrogeological, Hydrochemical, Basalt, Granite, Conceptualization.
wells were by and large, the only method of
groundwater extraction till late 1960’s and
the advent of water well drilling techniques in
1980’s, revolutionized the development of
groundwater (Ballukraya 1997; Ballukraya
and Sakthivadivel 2002). Interconnected
vesicles in vesicular basalt and weathered
mantle, jointed and fractured zone form
important water bearing zones in basaltic
rocks. Granites/Gneisses, lack primary
1. INTRODUCTION
Basalts of Upper Cretaceous to early
Eocene age and granites/gneisses of
Archaean to Proterozoic age are wide spread
geological hard rock formations in Southern
India (Krishnan 1982, Karanth 1987). These
hard rock’s provide vital yet finite
groundwater resources supporting India’s
food and livelihood security (World Bank
1999). In these areas, large diameter dug
1
porosity and groundwater occurrence is
limited to secondary porosity developed by
weathering (~32 m) and fracturing (within
100 m) (CGWB 1975; 2013).
Several studies (regional and site
specific) have been carried out on individual
characteristic/processes, like petrology (Sen
1995) geochemistry (Vijaya Kumar et al.
2010), hydrogeology (Agashe, 1994; CGWB
1975; CGWB 2007, Madhnure, 2011)
groundwater potential (Dubba 1974; Ahmed
et al., 1995; Pradeep Raj 2004; Chandra et al.
2006, 2008; Rao and Madhnure 2011; Reddy
2012, Sonkamble et al., 2012) exploration
(Madhnure, 2001, 2014; CGWB, 2013)
drainage analysis (Pakhmode, et al., 2003)
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has
carried out Systematic Hydrogeological
Surveys (SHY) during 1964-66, Reappraisal
Hydrogeological Studies (RHS) during 197576, 1996-97, 2003-04 in some or other parts
of the area and detailed hydrogeological
surveys during 1974-75 under Canadian
Assisted Groundwater Project (CAGP). In
order to delineate deeper aquifers, CGWB
drilled about 61 bore wells to a maximum
depth of 125 m in the area. To identify the
regional changes in groundwater quantity and
quality Ground Water Management Studies
(GWMS) were carried out during 2011-12.
The paper is the outcome result of this
integrated study and will be of immense use
to the planners, financial institutions dealing
in groundwater sector and farmers.
2. STUDY AREA
The study area covering ~3040 km2 with
a population of ~9.5 lakh lies between East
Longitude 77º 59' to 78º 37' and North
Latitude 16º 40' to 17º 25' ( Fig.1). Its
northern part is drained by Musi and southern
part by Dindi sub-basins of the Krishna river
basin covering 14 watersheds and 21 mandals
(partly or fully) in Ranga Reddy (8/12) and
Mahabubnagar (6/9) districts of Telangana
State. Rectangular drainage pattern due to
influence of geologic structures is observed.
The area is characterized by semi arid and
tropical savanna climate with normal annual
rainfall of 700 mm, of which 78 % is
contributed by south west monsoon, 14% by
north east monsoon. More drought years are
observed in Mahabubnagar district as
compared to Ranga Reddy district in the last
58 years. Forests cover only 5.4 % of the total
area and net area sown varies between 1% to
58% (average:33%). Pediplains and valley
fills are major landforms covered by red and
black cotton soils. Two cropping seasons,
Khariff (April to September) and Rabi
(October to March) are practiced. The
principal crops namely paddy, vegetables,
sunflower, safflower are irrigated crops while
maize, castor, cotton, bengal gram, jowar,
ragi and bajra are rainfed crops. Rotation of
crops is a well-established practice and
usually no crop other than paddy is sown in
the same land in 2-3 successive seasons.
Irrigated area from tanks has reduced from
50% during 1966-67 to less than 1% during
2008-09 and presently ~97% of the irrigation
water need is met through groundwater. Due
to proximity to Hyderabad City, gradual
change in land use pattern is observed from
agriculture to urban dwelling, leading to more
stress on groundwater.
Fig.1: Location and Hydrogeology Map of
Study Area.
3.
HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETUP
The area is mainly underlain by
unclassified crystalline rocks, namely
granites and gneisses of Archaean to
Proterozoic age, volcanic basalt rocks
(Deccan Traps) of late Cretaceous to early
Eocene age. The other formations include
laterite of Pleistocene age, basic dykes
(dolerite,
pryroxenite/gabbro
of
Mesopreteozoic age with other intrusive
bodies like quartz veins, migmatites and
amphibolites (Fig.1). Granites and gneisses
2
which occupy ~ 87% of area are the oldest
rock formations and have negligible porosity;
however secondary porosity is developed due
to weathering and fracturing. The weathering
thickness varies from 1 m (in upland areas) to
32 m (topographic lows) with average of 22
m. As the depth increases secondary porosity
reduces and due to which groundwater
storage and circulation reduces with depth (of
the explored depth of 125 m). Basalt rocks
which are layered, having step topography
are represented by both vesicular and massive
formations and occupy ~13 % of the area. The
thickness of basalt increases from north east
to south west direction and three flows are
observed with maximum depth of 70 m. The
flows are lateratized to a maximum depth of
37 m near Podur village. Structurally the area
is criss-crossed with 3 sets of lineaments
trending SSE- NNW, E-W and NE-SW
directions with major fault in NW-SE
direction (south of Shankarpally) (Fig.1).
Groundwater occurs under unconfined,
conditions in lateritic basalt and weathered
granites, under semi-confined to confined
conditions in fractured basalt and fractured
granites. Groundwater moves through interconnected pores and cracks of saturated
materials below the phreatic surface under the
influence of fluid-potential force field from
higher to lower levels within flow system
boundaries (CGWB 1975). Under natural
conditions, recharge boundaries coincide
with topographic highs and discharge
boundaries with topographic lows (CGWB
1975). In basaltic terrain, the maximum depth
of flow system observed is up to 37 m and in
granitic terrain, the average depths of flow
system ranges up to 50 m except in linear
shear zone belts, where fractures yielding
water have been encountered at a depth > 70
m. Depth of dug wells in basaltic aquifer
varies between 14-20 m (avg: 16.4 m) and in
granite aquifer between 8-22 m (avg: 14 m).
The depth of bore wells varies between 27-60
m in basalt and 20-100 m in granite aquifers.
The water table elevation varies from 450670 meter above mean sea level (m amsl) and
generally water table has configuration
similar to that of land surface; however, depth
to water table is greater in upland areas than
in valley bottoms. General groundwater flow
is from central part towards NE and southern
direction (Fig.1). Dolerite dykes which are
vertical to sub-vertical discontinuities may
also act as semi to impermeable barriers for
the movement of groundwater. Due to
progressive groundwater development, most
of dug wells have gone dry but few wells in
topographic low areas exist.
4.
MATERIALS
AND
METHODOLOGY
For appraising the hydrogeological and
hydrochemical parameters, a comprehensive
approach involving hydrometeorological,
hydrogeological and hydrochemical studies
have been carried out. Hydrometeorological
study includes rainfall analysis and climate,
hydrogeological study includes detailed well
inventory, water level measurements and
groundwater exploration. Total 139 key
observation wells (KOW) which includes18
dug wells and 121 bore wells were
established. For knowing the variations of
water levels in time and space, water levels
from KOW were monitored during pre (early
June) and post-monsoon season (November)
of 2011. In order to see long term change in
groundwater levels (2002 to 2011), data from
17 hydrograph stations of CGWB were
studied by using GEMS software. More than
110 existing irrigation wells were inventoried
from two watersheds, namely Palmakul and
Kottur and collected information in respect of
depth, thickness of weathered zone, fractured
zones, yield etc. The data from existing 63
exploratory wells of CGWB has been utilized
in deciphering the sub surface geology and
their hydraulic properties. Additional 15
exploratory wells were constructed down to
maximum depth of 100 m in two watersheds
(Palmakul and Kottur) (Fig.1) and their
hydraulic properties were determined by
conducting step drawdown tests (SDT) and
aquifer performance test (APT) using
standard pumping test methods in analyzing
the data (Theis 1935; Cooper and Jacob 1946;
Remson and Lang 1955; Boulton 1963;
Neuman 1974; 1975 and CGWB 1982).
Groundwater yield potential map is prepared
by using the KOW data, detailed well
inventory data and exploration data. For
3
(defined as departure from mean between –
25% to –50%) in 4 years in Ranga Reddy
district, and 10 years in Mahabubnagar
district, hence Mahabubnagar district is
considered as “drought prone district”.
December and May are the coldest and
hottest months of the year with mean daily
maximum and minimum temperature of 28.7
°C & 16.5 °C and 38.9 °C and 26.3 °C
respectively. Relative humidity is high (7080%) during south-west monsoon and low
during summer months (30-35%). Storms
and depressions which originate in Bay of
Bengal causes widely spread heavy rains and
gusty winds during September and post
monsoon months.
5.2 Depth to Water Levels (DTW): During
pre-monsoon season, DTW varies between 2
(Rajendranagar) to 35 meter below ground
level (mbgl) (Chegur) with an average of 14
mbgl. The general water levels (WL) are in
the range of 10 to 15 m (34% of the wells),
followed by 5 to 10 m (23%), 15 to 20 m
(22%), 20 to 25 m (10%) more than 25 m
(6%) and less than 5 m in 5 % of wells (Fig.2
and Table-1). During post-monsoon Season,
DTW varies between 0.8 (Gandipet) to 34
mbgl (Chegur) with average of 13.8 mbgl.
The general WL being in the range of 10 to
15 m bgl (32% of the wells) followed by 15
to 20 m (27%), 5 to 10 m (19 %), < 5 m (8%)
and > 25 m in 6% of wells (Fig.3 and Table1). It is observed that WL in basaltic aquifers
are at shallower depth (9.3-15.3 and 8.220.38 mbgl) than that of granite/gneiss
aquifers (1.96-34.55 and 0.78-33.4 m bgl)
during pre and post-monsoon season
respectively, this may be due to locations of
the KOW in basaltic area being in
topographic low.
quantification of groundwater resources, the
area is divided into 14 watersheds and
resources are calculated as per the guidelines
laid down in Groundwater Estimation
Committee Report (GEC-97) (CGWB 1997;
1999) for the groundwater year 2010-11.
Hydrogeological profile in NNW-SSE
direction covering 50 kms distance is
prepared by using 8 exploratory data points
falling on line or in proximity.
Hydrochemical studies were carried out
by collecting 53 samples (50 groundwater, 3
surface water (Major reservoirs)). Out of
these 50 samples majority (47 nos) are from
granite aquifer and 3 from basalt aquifers.
Samples were collected in Polyethylene
bottles of one liter capacity each during premonsoon season of 2012 (Rainwater and
Thatcher, 1960; Handa 1974). Samples are
analyzed as per the guidelines led down in
American Public Health Association (APHA)
(1998) in the regional chemical laboratory of
CGWB recognized by National Accreditation
Board for Testing and Calibration
Laboratories (Certificate No. T-2787). The
chemical parameters analyzed are pH,
Electrical Conductivity (EC), major ions
(Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl- SO42, NO3- and F-), and total hardness (TH) with
percentage error within permissible limits of
± 5% (Deutsch 1997). Groundwater
suitability for drinking purposes is assessed
based on BIS (2003) standards and irrigation
suitability as per USSL diagram (1954). To
evaluate type of groundwater, most popular
method, trilinear diagram Hill (1940, 1942)
modified by Piper (1944, 1953) is used.
5.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Rainfall: The area receives annual
rainfall between 580 to 900 mm with average
700 mm (Fig.1) of which southwest monsoon
season (June-September) contributes ~590
mm (78 %) in 35 rainy days and northeast
monsoon contributes ~100 mm (14%) in 6
rainy days. The non-monsoon season
contributes ~62 mm (8%) in 4 rainy days.
During 2011, area received less rainfall (35%
to 50%) than the normal annual rainfall, while
it received normal or more than normal
rainfall during the last decade. The last 58
years data reveals that, drought occurred
4
between post-monsoon season and premonsoon season is positive unless until there
is drastic change in cropping pattern or
reduction in rainfall. Due to less rainfall than
the normal during the year of observations,
nearly 73 wells have shown a fall in water
levels in the range of < 2 m (45 nos), 2 to 5 m
(18 nos), followed by 5 to 10 m and > 10 m
in 6 and 4 wells respectively (Fig.4 and
Table-1) with maximum fall in centraleastern part. 66 wells have shown a rise in
water levels in the range of 0 to 2 (30 wells),
followed by 2 to 5 (22 wells), 5 to 10 (9 wells)
and > 10 m in 5 wells (mostly from discharge
area). Positive fluctuations are observed in
basalt aquifer and negative fluctuations in
granite/gneiss aquifer of the area.
Fig.2: Depth to Water Levels (Pre-monsoon2011).
Fig.4: Water Level Fluctuation during Postmonsoon Season with respect to Premonsoon Season (2011).
5.4 Change in water levels over the last ten
years (2002-2011): Groundwater being
dynamic in nature needs to be studied in
detail and periodically to detect changes
brought in regime due to rainfall or
groundwater development affects the system.
The declining trend in WL during premonsoon season reflects developmental
activities in the area, whereas rising trend
indicates either reduction of developmental
activities, or recharge due to sources other
than rainfall such as irrigation. In case of
Fig.3: Depth to Water Levels (Postmonsoon-2011).
5.3 Water Level Fluctuations (WLF):
Seasonal fluctuations in water levels are due
to variation in recharge and discharge
components of groundwater regime,
topographic configuration and geological
setup of aquifers (Karanth 1987; Agashe
1994). In general the fluctuation in WL
5
post-monsoon water levels, a declining trend
suggests that a part of aquifer is being
dewatered every year, due to either deficient
rainfall or due to more developmental
activities. The rising post-monsoon water
level trend shows that additional water is
stored in the aquifer due to either increased
rainfall or seepage through applied irrigation
and no significant variations suggests,
recharge is approximately equal to discharge
(Karanth 1987). Out of 17 Monitoring wells
data, it is found that all wells except one
(Podur) show a rising trend between 0.06
m/yr to 1.42 m/yr during pre-monsoon season
and during post-monsoon three wells shows a
fall (0.06 to 0.28 m/yr) while rest shows rise
in water level @ of 0.03 m/yr to 1.59 m/yr
(Table-2). Rising trend in most of the wells
(in both seasons) is attributed to excess
rainfall than the normal during the last
decade.
5.5
Groundwater Yield: The GW yield in
weathered basalt aquifer varies from 0.1 to
0.7 liters/second (lps), in fractured basalt
from 0.95 to 3.2 lps, in weathered granite
aquifer between 0.07 to 5 lps and in fractured
granite from 0.1 to 7 lps (Fig.1 and Table-1
and Table-3). From groundwater yield point
of view fractured basalt and fractured granite
are better prospecting zones due to
development of high secondary porosity as
compared to weathered basalt and
granite/gneiss rocks. Low yield in weathered
basalt and granite attributed to desaturation of
aquifer and presence of high clay content.
Table-3). Out of these 78 wells 10 wells are
drilled in basalt aquifer and 68 in granite
aquifers.
Important findings
 The thickness of basalt increases from
north east to south west direction.
 Three flows are observed with maximum
depth of 70 m and the flows are
lateratized to a maximum depth of ~37 m
near Podur village.
 Depth of weathering varies from 5 to 32
m with an average of 18 m. The thickness
of weathering is maximum in
topographic low areas and minimum in
topographic high areas.
 The weathered basalt/granite aquifer
followed by first fracture zone in
basalt/granite aquifer down to a depth of
30 m can be considered as Aquifer-1
(Aq-1). Bottom of Aq-1 and bottom of
deepest fracture zone in basalt/granite
aquifer below 30-125 m bgl can be
considered as Aquifer-2 (Aq-2).
 The average yield of Aq-1 and Aq-2 in
basalt and granite varies from 0.4 to 0.7
lps and 1 to 1.1 lps respectively.
 Low transmissivity (<2 m2/day) is
observed in basalt aquifers as compared
to granite aquifers (avg 45 and 48 in Aq1 and aq-2), Average storage coefficient
(S) in confined granite aquifer is 0.004,
average specific yield (Sy) from unconfined granite aquifer is 2.5%, vertical
permeability in granite aquifers (Kv)
varies from 1.35 x 10-4 to 2.1 x 10-2
m/day.
 Higher values of T, S and Sy are
observed in recharge areas due to highly
weathered shear zone and fracture zone
than in discharge areas where weathering
is quite high (up to 32 m) is mixed with
clay content.
5.7 Groundwater resources (2010-11):
Groundwater being a replenishable resource
and its quantification is a basic pre-requisite
for efficient resource management on
sustainable basis (CGWB 1997; 1999). The
net annual dynamic groundwater recharge is
27758 hectometers (ham), gross groundwater
draft is 19451 ham, the net balance available
5.6 Groundwater Exploration: The
groundwater exploration in hard rock
terrain, mainly involves delineation of
aquifers, with secondary porosity developed
due to weathering and fracturing.
Lineaments,
which
are
surface
manifestations of linear features like fault or
fracture plane, shear zones, dykes, represent
a zone of weakness. During study period, 15
exploratory wells (EW and Pz) were drilled
down to maximum depth of 100 m in two
watersheds, namely Palmakul and Kottur
(Fig.1 and Table-3). Prior to study period
CGWB drilled total 63 bore wells down to a
depth range of 20 m to 125 m (Fig.1 and
6
conceptualized as aquifer-1, 3rd layer (deep
fractured basalt/fractured granite) as aquifer2 and bottom 4th layer as compact
basalt/granite). On left side Musi valley,
basalt aquifer (Aq.-1 with maximum
thickness of 20 m and Aq.2 with maximum
thickness of 40 m) occur. A veneer of thin
weathered granite and shallow fractured
granite occurs (Aq.1) with an average yield of
1.3 lps and Aq.2 from granite occurs with an
average yield of 1.2 lps. On right side of Musi
valley, basaltic aquifer is eroded and
weathered granite followed by first fractured
granite (Aq.1) occur with maximum
for future utilization is 7338 ham after
allocating 3649 ham for future domestic and
industrial use (SGWD and CGWB, 2012).
Out of 14 watersheds, 1 watershed
(Palmakul) falls in over-exploited category
where stage of groundwater development
(SGD) is > 100%, 1 fall in critical category
(SGD:90-100%), 5 in semi-critical category
(SGD: >75-<90%) and remaining 7 falls in
safe category (SGD:<75%) (Fig.5). As per
APWALTA-Act more than 40 villages are
notified and banned for further GW
exploitation except for drinking purposes
(SGWD and CGWB, 2012).
thickness of 39 m with an average yield of 0.7
lps. The deeper fractures (Aq.2) in granite
occur between 30 to 72 m depth with average
yield of 1.4 lps.
Fig.5: Groundwater Resources (2010-11).
5.8
Hydrogeological Profile (NNWSSE): By studying the profile (Fig.6),
basalt/granite contact inferred at the elevation
of about 590 m amsl on left bank of river
Musi (north of Nagarguda village). The
profile can be conceptualized in to 4 layers of
which top
two
layers
(weathered
basalt/granite
and
shallow
fractured
basalt/fractured
granite)
can
be
7
most natural waters; the Mg2+ concentration
is much lower than the Ca2+ concentration.
The sodium (Na+) concentration varies
between 21 mg/L to 244 mg/L and Potassium
(K+) between 1 mg/L to 254 mg/L and high
K+ (> 200 Mg/L) is noticed in three wells
located at Kollapadkal, Chilakamadiri and
Mahadevpur in granite aquifers and this may
be due to more use of K-rich fertilizers.
Contribution of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+ to
total cation is about 22.7%, 27.7%, 45.5%
and 4% respectively.
Fig.6: Hydrogeological Profile (NNW-SSE
Direction).
5.9
Hydrochemistry:
In
any
hydrogeological investigations, information
on quality of groundwater is as important as
quantity as this information helps in
managing the available resource in better
way. The quality of groundwater generally
varies even at short distances due to
variations in hydro chemical processes acting
on it and by other factors like climate,
topography,
hydrological
conditions,
chemical and physical characteristics of soil,
geology and anthropological activities
(Subba Rao, 2002, 2006).
In general, groundwater is found neutral
to mildly alkaline with pH ranging from 7.1
to 8.0 in both basalt and granite aquifers. EC
ranges from 440 to 3580 μS/cm and high
EC’s (3580 μS/cm) were noted from
Gaganpahad bore well sample. More than
3000 EC is observed in north-eastern part,
<750 EC in south-western part covering
basalt aquifer, 2000 to 3000 EC occurs as
patches in central part, whereas, in most part,
EC is in the range of 750-2000 (Fig.7 and
Table-4) and total hardness varies between
150 mg/L to 1240 mg/L. Lower Ca2+
concentrations are observed in basalt aquifer
as compared to granite aquifers with average
of 63 and 74 respectively. Magnesium
concentration varies from 5 to 117 and as in
Fig. 7: Distribution of Electrical
Conductivity (Pre-monsoon-2011).
The HCO-3 concentration varies from
165 to 610 mg/l, Cl- from 12 mg/l to 666 mg/l,
SO42- from 5 to 552 mg/l, NO3- from 0 to 360
mg/l and nearly 59 % samples were found
beyond permissible limit (45 mg/l) of
drinking water standards BIS (2003) (Fig.8).
The causes of high nitrate are due to
anthropogenic activities such as excess
application of fertilizers for agriculture or
sewage contamination. The F- concentration
ranges from 0.4 to 2.2 mg/l (Fig.9) and in 8
% samples it is beyond maximum permissible
limits of 1.5 mg/l (BIS, 2003). In most of the
area, F- concentration is within the maximum
permissible limits of
8
concentrations of Cl-, SO42- and F- and higher
concentration of NO3- are observed in basalt
aquifer and granite aquifers respectively. The
contribution of HCO3-, Cl-, SO42-, NO3- and Fto total anion is about 30%, 44%, 10%, 10%
and 6% respectively. Nearly 59 % of samples
are not suitable for drinking purposes where
either EC, TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-, NO3-, or Fare beyond the maximum permissible limits
of BIS (2003). Temperature of groundwater
during this season varies between 28.5 0 C to
31.5 0 C with average of 30.18 0 C and higher
temperatures are observed in recharge areas
and lowest in discharge areas or shear zone.
Surface
water
(Major
Reservoirs)
temperature is in the range of 32.5 0 C and
water quality from surface water is good for
drinking purposes.
Productivity and quality of agricultural
crops largely depends on quality of water
supplied for its irrigation (US Salinity
Laboratory Staff, 1973). In the present study
the groundwater suitability for irrigation is
discussed based on USSL (Wilcox diagram)
diagram (USSL, 1954). The plot shows 64%
(32 no.), 24 % (12 no.), and 12 % (6 no.)
samples fall in the field C3S1, C2S1, and C4S1
type respectively, indicating salinity hazard
‘Medium to Very High’ category and sodium
(Alkali) hazard ‘Low’ category. Salinity
hazard ‘Medium’ to ‘High’ category
necessarily requires treatment before
irrigation applications, lest it reduces the soil
nutrition capacity for plant growth. The low
sodium (alkali) hazard and high salinity
(conductivity)
hazard represents the
suitability for salt tolerant plants but restricts
its suitability for irrigation, particularly in
soils with restricted drainage (Karanth,
1989). Groundwater during pre-monsoon
season is of Ca-HCO3-Cl (30%), Ca-NaHCO3-Cl (24%), Ca-Cl and Ca-HCO3 (16%
each) and Ca-Na-HCO3 (2%).
Fig.8: Distribution of Nitrate (Pre-monsoon2011).
Fig.9: Distribution of Fluoride (Premonsoon-2011).
6.
BIS (1.5 mg/L), while in small patches
(southeastern and central-western part) high
concentration (>1.5 mg/L) is observed. It is
also observed that average F- concentration in
basalt aquifer is lower (avg: 0.8 mg/L) than in
granite aquifers (avg: 1.0 mg/L). Lower
CONCLUSIONS
The study area is underlain by basalt and
granites and most of drinking and ~97% of
irrigation water demands are met through
groundwater and this high dependence on
groundwater coupled with low rainfall led to
9
drying of shallow aquifers and falling water
levels, raising questions on sustainability of
existing groundwater structures. Therefore to
appraise the present groundwater scenario,
hydrogeological and hydrochemical studies
were undertaken as part of groundwater
management studies.
use of geological soft data. J
Environ Hydrol 3(2) pp.28-35.
3. APHA, 1998. Standard methods for
the examination of water and waste
water, 19th edn., American Public
Health Association, Washington,
DC, 20th Edition, pp.10-161.
4. APWALTA Act, 2002. Andhra
Pradesh Acts, Ordinance and
Regulations, Act No 10 of 2002. AP
Gazette, Part IV-B Extraordinary
published by Authority, p.23.
5. Ballukraya,
P.N.,
1997.
Groundwater over-exploitation: A
case study from Moje-Anepura.
Kolar district, Karnataka. J
Geological Society of India, V.45,
pp. 87-96.
6. Ballukraya, P.N. and Sakthivadivel,
R. 2002. Over-exploitation and
artificial recharging of hard rock
aquifers of South India: Issues and
Options.
International Water
Management Institute, Tata Water
Policy Research program, Annual
Partners Meet. p.14.
7. BIS, 2003. Drinking waterspecification IS: 10500; 1991,
Edition 2.1 (1993-01) Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.p.11.
8. Boulton, N.S.,1963. Analysis of
data from Non-equilibrium pumping
tests allowing for delayed yield from
storage. Proceeding of the Institute
of Civil Engineers (London), 26
pp.269-282.
9. Chandra,
S.,
Rao,
V.A.,
Krishnamurthy, N.S., Dutta, S.,
Shakeel, A., 2006. Integrated
studies for characterization of
lineaments to locate groundwater
potential zones in hard rock region
of Karnataka, India. J. Hydrogeol.
14, pp.767–776.
10. Chandra, S., Ahmed, S., Ram, A.,
Dewandel, B., 2008. Estimation of
hard rock aquifers hydraulic
conductivity from geoelectrical
measurements:
a
theoretical
development with field application.
J. Hydrol. 357, pp.218–227.
Studies revealed, change in land use
pattern from agricultural to urban dwelling,
irrigation through tanks has reduced in the
last 50 years from 50 % to < 1%. Depths to
water table are greater in upland areas than in
valley bottoms and groundwater is mainly
extracted from shallow dug wells in low lying
areas and through bore wells from other
areas. Positive fluctuations in water levels are
observed in basalt aquifer and negative in
granite aquifers. It also revealed the existence
of two aquifer system down to 125 m depth
namely aquifer-1 consisting of weathered and
shallow fractured granite (~30 m depth) and
aquifer-2 (30-125 m). Average groundwater
yield in Aq-1 and Aq-2 is 0.4 and 0.7 lps and
1 to 1.1 lps from basalt and granite regions.
Higher values of T, S and Sy are observed in
recharge areas due to highly weathered shear
zone and fracture zone than in discharge areas
where weathering is quite high (32 m) but
mixed with clay content. The fractures
density reduces with depth; therefore,
construction of deep bore wells by farmers is
not recommended (optimum depth 40 m).
Based on groundwater resource estimation,
45 villages are notified and banned for further
groundwater development. Groundwater
suffers from geogenic contamination (F-) in
south-eastern and central-western part and
anthropogenic contamination (NO3-), which
is wide spread in considerable area making
groundwater unfit for human consumption.
Reference:
1. Agashe, R.M., 1994. Hydrogeology
of Maharashtra. Unpub. Report No.
597/STT/94. Central Groundwater
Board,
Ministry
of
Water
Resources, Govt. of India, Nagpur,
pp.14-15.
2. Ahmed, S., Sankaran, S. and Gupta,
C.P., 1995.Variographic analysis of
some hydrogeological parameters:
10
11. CGWB, 1975. Hydrogeology of 56
G (East) and 56 K(West), India,
Technical Report. Central Ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water
Resources, Govt. of India. Canadian
Assisted Groundwater Project. p.24.
12. CGWB, 1982. Evaluation of
Aquifer Parameters (Manual).
Central Ground Water Board,
Ministry of Water Resources, Govt.
of India. P.183.
13. CGWB, 1997. Report of the
Groundwater Resource Estimation
Committee: Groundwater Resource
Estimation
Methodology-1997.
Central Ground Water Board,
Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India, New Delhi,
p.107.
14. CGWB, 1999. Detailed Guidelines
for Implementing the Groundwater
Estimation
Methodology-1997.
Central Ground Water Board,
Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India, New Delhi,
p.219.
15. CGWB,
2007a.
Groundwater
Information Mahabubnagar district,
Andhra Pradesh. Central Ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water
Resources, Government of India,
New Delhi, p.31.
16. CGWB,
2007b.
Groundwater
Information Ranga Reddy district,
Andhra Pradesh. Central Ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water
Resources, Government of India,
New Delhi, p.37.
17. CGWB,
2013.
Groundwater
Exploration in Andhra Pradesh.
Central Ground Water Board,
Hyderabad, Ministry of Water
Resources, Govt. of India.pp.123126.
18. Cooper, H.H. (Jr.) and Jacob, C.E.,
1946. A Generalized Graphical
Method for Evaluation Formation
Constants and Summarizing WellFiled
History.
Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, 27,
pp.526-534.
19. Deutsch, W.J., 1997. Groundwater
chemistry:
Fundamentals
and
Applications to Contamination.
Lewis Pub. P.221.
20. Dubba, D.,1974. Yield of Dug Wells
in the Weathered Zones of Four
Principal Hard Rocks of Mysore
state. Proc. Seminar on Water well
drilling in Hard Rock Areas of India,
Inst. Eng. (India), Bangalore,
pp.136-148.
21. Handa, B.K., 1974. Methods of
collection and analysis of water
samples and interpretation of water
analysis. Central Ground Water
Board, Ministry of
Agriculture.
Tech.
22. Hill, R.A., 1940. Geochemical
patterns in Coachella Valley. Trans.
Am. Geophys. Union, v.21, pp.4649.
23. Hill, R.A., 1942. Salts in irrigation
waters. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng.,
v.107, pp. 1478-1493.
24. Karanth, K.R.,1987. Groundwater
assessment,
development
and
management. Tata McGraw-Hill
Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi, p.720.
25. Krishnan, M.S., 1982. Geology of
India and Burma, 6th edn. CBS,
New Delhi
26. Madhnure, P. 2001. Groundwater
Resources
and
Development
Potential of Nanded district,
Maharashtra State. Unpublished
Report No. 1111/DIS/2001, Central
Ground Water Board, Nagpur, p105.
27. Madhnure, P. 2011. Groundwater
Management Studies in Ranga
Reddy and Mahabubnagar District,
Andhra Pradesh. Central Ground
Water Board, Hyderabad, Ministry
of Water Resources, Govt. of
India.p.107.
28. Madhnure, P. 2011. Groundwater
Exploration and Drilling Problems
Encountered, in Basaltic and
Granitic terrain of Nanded District,
Maharashtra, India. J. Geological
Soc. Of India (JGSI-D-12-00181 in
print). p.15.
11
29. Neuman,S.P., 1974. Effect of
Partial Penetration on Flow in
Unconfined Aquifers Considering
Delayed Gravity Response. Water
Resources Research, 10.pp.303312.
30. Neuman,S.P., 1975. Analysis of
Pumping
Test
Data
from
Anisotropic Unconfined Aquifers
Considering
Delayed
Gravity
Response.
Water
Resources
Research, 11.pp.329-342.
31. Pakhmode, V., Kulkarni, H.,
Deolankar,
S.B.,
2003.
Hydrological drainage analysis in
watershed programme planning: a
case from the Deccan Basalt India.
J. Hydrogeol.11. pp.595–604.
32. Piper, A.M., 1944. A graphic
procedure in the geochemical
interpretation of water analysis.
Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, v.25,
pp.914-923.
33. Piper, A.M., 1953. A graphic
procedure
in
the
chemical
interpretation of water analysis. US
Geol. Surv Groundwater note 12.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
34. Pradeep,
Raj,
2004.
Classification and interpretation
of piezometer well hydrographs
in parts of southeastern
peninsular
India.
Journal,
Environmental Geology, v.46
(6-7), pp.808-819.
43.
35. Rainwater, F.H. and Thatcher, L.L.,
1960. Methods of collection and
analysis of water samples, USGS
Water Supply Paper 1454.
36. Rao, P.N. and Madhnure, P., 2011.
Groundwater
Resources
and
Development
Prospects
in
Mahabubnagar district, Andhra
Pradesh (2008-09). Central Ground
Water Board, Hyderabad, Ministry
of Water Resources, Govt. of
India.p.83.
37. Reddy, V.R., 2012. Hydrological
externalities
and
livelihoods
impacts: Informed communities for
44.
45.
46.
12
better resource management. J.
Hydrol. 412–413:pp.279-290.
Remson, I., and S.M. Lang, 1955. A
pumping test method for the
determination of specific field:
Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v36,
No. 2, pp.321-325.
Sen, G., 1995. A simple petrologic
model for generation of Deccan
Trap magmas. Int Geol Rev
37:pp.825-850.
Sonkamble, S., Sahya, A., Mondal,
N.C., Harikumar, P., 2012.
Appraisal and evolution of
hydrochemical processes from
proximity basalt and granite areas
of Deccan Volcanic Province
(DVP) in India. J. Hydrol. 438–439:
pp.181-193.
SGWD and CGWB, 2012. Dynamic
Ground Water Resources of Andhra
Pradesh. State Ground Water
Department, Govt. of Andhra
Pradesh, Hyderabad and Central
Ground Water Board, Southern
Region, Govt. of India, Hyderabad.
Vol.1 & Vol.2. p. 598 & p.512.
Subbarao, N., 2002. Geochemistry
of groundwater in parts of Guntur
district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Environ. Geol., v.41, pp.552-562.
Subbarao, N., 2006. Seasonal
variation of groundwater quality in a
part of Guntur District, Andhra
Pradesh, India. Environ. Geol., v.49,
pp.413-429.
Theis, C.V., 1935. The lowering of
the Piezometric Surface and the
Rate and Discharge of a Well Using
Ground-Water
Storage.
Transactions,
American
Geophysical Union, 16.pp.519-524.
US Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954.
Diagnosis and improvement of
saline and alkali soils. US
Department of Agriculture, U.S.
Government
Printing
Office,
Washington, D. C. Handbook, 60,
160p.
US Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1973.
Diagnosis and improvement of
saline and alkali soils. US
Department of Agriculture, U.S.
Government
Printing
Office,
Washington, D. C. Handbook, 60,
2nd Edition.
47. Vijayakumar, K., Chavan, C.,
Sawant,
S.,
Nagaraju,
K.,
Kanakdande
P,
Patode
S,
Deshpande, K., Krishnamacharyulu,
S.K.G., Vaideswaran, T., Balaram,
V. 2010. Geochemical investigation
of a Semicontinuous extrusive
basaltic section from the Deccan
Volcanic
Province,
India:
implications for the mantle and
magma chamber processes. Contrib.
Miner Petrol 159:839–862.
13
Table-1: Summarized Details of Key Observation Wells (KOW).
Aquifer
Type
of
well
Depth
(m)
Mi
n
Weathered
Basalt
DW
14
Ma
x
20
Zones
Tapped
(mbgl)
Mi
n
11
Yield
(lps)
Ma
x
Min
19
0.1
WT
Elevations
(m amsl)
DTW
(Pre-monsoon)
(m bgl)
Mi
n
Ma
x
Mi
n
M
ax
A
vg
1
582
.9
634
.93
11.
26
15.
07
12
.5
657
.45
3.5
5
21.
8
8.
9
Av
Max g
2
Weathered
Granite
DW
8
22
4
22
0.1
5
2
504
.15
Weathered
Granite
BW
20
70
8
38
0.0
7
3.1
1
504
.9
713
.5
1.9
6
21.
35
12
.5
Weathered Fr.
Granite
BW
30
90
20
40
7
2
476
.4
BW
32
100
10
96
5.5
1
457
2.3
7.1
8
32.
85
34.
55
12
.4
Fr Gr
648
.1
640
.7
0.1
0.0
6
18
DTW
(Postmonsoon)
(m bgl)
M M
A
in ax
vg
9.
6 15. 12
4
2 .6
3.
0
3
0.
9
5
0.
7
8
4.
7
Water Level
Fluctuations
(m)
Min
Max
Temperature
0C
(Pre(Postmonsoon) monsoon)
Mi Ma Mi Ma
n
x
n
x
-1.98
1.62
30.
5
30.
5
18.
5
7.
8
-1.95
8.23
29.
5
31.
5
27
.6
28.5
19.
85
12
.5
-15.25
6.17
28.
5
31
26
30
13
-14.7
12.95
31.
5
27
30
17
-13.64
17.68
32
26
30.5
26.
5
33.
5
29
29.
5
(DW-Dug well, BW-Bore well, m amsl-meter above mean sea level, m-meter, Fr.-Fractured, Min-Minimum, Max-Maximum, lps-liters/second,
Avg-Average, DTW-Depth to Water Level, mbgl-meter below ground level).
14
Table -2: Groundwater Level Trends from Study Area.
S.
No
Hydrograph
Station
Aquifer
Trends (m/yr)
Pre
Rise
S. No.
Hydrograph Station
Trends (m/yr)
Post
Fall
Rise
Pre
Fall
Rise
Aquifer
Post
Fall
Rise
Fall
1
Rangareddy
District
Antaram
0.12
0.07
FG
10
Nagarguda
0.07
2
Chevella
0.19
0.09
WB
11
Rajendranagar
0.17
0.28
WFG
3
Chilkur
0.36
0.65
WG
12
Shabad
0.58
1.40
WFG
4
Hyatabad
0.12
WFG
13
Shamshabad
1.42
0.45
WFG
5
Kandukur
0.06
0.45
WFG
14
Shankarpalli
0.39
0.03
WG
6
Madanapally
0.59
0.78
WFG
15
Pudur
7
Maheswaram
0.82
1.12
WG
8
Moinabad
1.29
1.59
WFG
16
Keshampeth
1.77
9
Mominpet
0.29
0.74
WB
17
Welijorla
0.32
0.28
0.06
0.30
WG
0.21
FB
1.3
-
FG
0.79
-
WFG
Mahabubnagar
District
(WG-Weathered Granite, WB-Weathered Basalt, FB-Fractured Basalt, WFG-Weathered Fractured Granite, FG-Fractured Granite).
15
Table-3: Salient Features of Exploration Carried out by CGWB in Study Area.
Aquifer
Depth of Bore
wells (m bgl)
Thickness of
Aquifer (m)
min
9
max
24
min
9
Aquifer-2
18
41
Aquifer-1
6
32
Aquifer-1
Geology
No of
Exploratory
Bore wells
(EW/Pz)
Basalt
Granite
Aquifer-2
10
68
Average
Yield
(liters/second)
Average
Transmissivity
(m2/day)
max
41
0.4
2
30
70
0.7
2
14
42
1
45
20
100
57
98
1.15
Table-4: Chemical Quality of Groundwater (Pre-Monsoon).
Parameter
Unit
pH
Basalt Aquifer
Average Storativity
Average
Specific Yield
(%)
No test data Available
-4
1.35 x 10 to
1.35 x 10-2
48
Weathered Granite
Vertical
Permeability
(Kv) (m/day)
Fractured Granite
No test data Available
No test data Available
2.5
0.004
Surface Water (Reservoirs)
Min
Max
Avg
SD
Min
Max
Avg
SD
Min
Max
Avg
SD
Min
Max
Avg
SD
7.2
7.5
7.4
0.17
7.1
8
7.5
0.22
7.1
7.9
7.55
0.26
7.4
7.9
8
0.3
EC
(µS/cm)
1030
1320
1140
157
440
3580
1336
773
610
2760
1390
724
420
470
440
26
TH
mg/L
330
495
398
86
150
1240
381
234
203
940
426
210
135
155
145
10
mg/L
42
78
63
19
27
304
74
56
16
188
73
51
21
34
26
7
Mg
mg/L
49
73
59
12
5
117
48
29
20
114
59
28
17
21
19
2
+
mg/L
77
81
78
2
21
244
114
69
29
244
112
68
33
40
36
4
mg/L
3
5
4
1
1
254
30
59
1
142
22
39
2
4
3
1
HCO3
mg/L
232
329
285
49
165
537
298
84
195
610
327
109
183
214
195
16
-
Cl
mg/L
106
142
123
18
12
631
178
166
25
666
191
192
34
35
35
1
SO42-
mg/L
49
77
60
15
5
552
86
98
14
157
64
50
8
12
10
2
Ca
2+
2+
Na
K
+
-
16
NO3-
F
mg/L
40
240
125
103
0
360
97
98
10
290
109
102
0
5
3
3
mg/L
0.5
1.1
0.8
0.3
0.4
1.7
1
0.33
0.4
2.2
1.1
0.57
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.2
(Min-Minimum, Max-Maximum, Avg-Average, SD-Standard Deviations).
17