Pangaea
1
Pangaea
Pangaea (/pænˈdʒiːə/ pan-JEE-ə;[1]) was a supercontinent that
existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, forming
approximately 300 million years ago. It began to break apart around
200 million years ago.[2] The single global ocean which surrounded
Pangaea is accordingly named Panthalassa.
The name Pangaea is derived from Ancient Greek pan (πᾶν) meaning
"entire", and Gaia (Γαῖα) meaning "Mother Earth".[3] The name was
coined during a 1927 symposium discussing Alfred Wegener's theory
of continental drift.[citation needed] In his book The Origin of Continents
and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), first
published in 1915, he postulated that prior to breaking up and drifting
to their present locations, all the continents had at one time formed a
single supercontinent which he called the "Urkontinent". Originally,
this theory was rejected because the predominant theory was that the
Earth was cooling and shrinking, with mountains being the last regions
to shrink.
Map of Pangaea with modern continents outlined
Wegener's theory that mountains were made by two land masses colliding with each other seemed unlikely because
it was thought that nothing could move a landmass as large as a continent. [4] The name occurs in the 1920 and 1922
editions of Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, but only once, when Wegener refers to the ancient
supercontinent as "the Pangaea of the Carboniferous".[5]
Formation
The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have
been cyclical through Earth's history. There may have been many
others before Pangaea. The fourth-last supercontinent, called Columbia
or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0–1.8 Ga.
Columbia/Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed
from the accretion and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from
about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but
its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well
understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.
When Rodinia broke up, it split into three pieces: the supercontinent of
Proto-Laurasia, the supercontinent of Proto-Gondwana, and the smaller
Congo craton. Proto-Laurasia and Proto-Gondwana were separated by
the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Next Proto-Laurasia itself split apart to form
the continents of Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica. Baltica moved to the
east of Laurentia, and Siberia moved northeast of Laurentia. The
Appalachian orogeny
splitting also created two new oceans, the Iapetus Ocean and
Paleoasian Ocean. Most of the above masses coalesced again to form
the relatively short-lived supercontinent of Pannotia. This supercontinent included large amounts of land near the
poles and, near the equator, only a relatively small strip connecting the polar masses. Pannotia lasted until 540 Ma,
Pangaea
near the beginning of the Cambrian period and then broke up, giving rise to the continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and
the southern supercontinent of Gondwana.
In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on the equator,
with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the
Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia – a landmass
incorporating fragments of what would become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of
Belgium, northern France, Nova Scotia, New England, Iberia and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and
began its journey to Laurentia. Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to
form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted
in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two
continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of
the formation of Pangaea.
The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica. By Silurian time,
440 Ma, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia, forming Euramerica. Avalonia had not yet collided with
Laurentia, but as Avalonia inched towards Laurentia, the seaway between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was
slowly shrinking. Meanwhile, southern Europe broke off from Gondwana and began to move towards Euramerica
across the newly formed Rheic Ocean. It collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this microcontinent
was an underwater plate. The Iapetus Ocean's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean, shrank as an island arc from Siberia
collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica). Behind this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.
By late Silurian time, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward, shrinking the
Proto-Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean to their south. In the Devonian Period,
Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic Ocean to shrink. In the Early Carboniferous,
northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian
Mountains, and the Meseta Mountains. South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern
portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed toward the South Pole from the equator. North and
South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia. (Siberia
had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia in the
Middle Carboniferous.)
Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural Ocean between them and the
western Proto-Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation of not only the Ural Mountains but also the
supercontinent of Laurasia. This was the last step of the formation of Pangaea. Meanwhile, South America had
collided with southern Laurentia, closing the Rheic Ocean and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians
and Ouachita Mountains. By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole and glaciers were forming in
Antarctica, India, Australia, southern Africa and South America. The North China block collided with Siberia by
Late Carboniferous time, completely closing the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
By Early Permian time, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia, thus closing the
Paleo-Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, the Tethys Ocean, in its southern end. Most of the landmasses were
all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little and the Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the
shrinking Paleo-Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic time. The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the
Cimmerian Orogeny. Pangaea, which looked like a C, with the new Tethys Ocean inside the C, had rifted by the
Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.
2
Pangaea
3
Evidence of existence
Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar
and identical species on continents that are now great
distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid
Lystrosaurus have been found in South Africa, India and
Australia, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora,
whose distribution would have ranged from the polar circle
to the equator if the continents had been in their present
position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has
been found in only localized regions of the coasts of Brazil
and West Africa.[6]
Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of
The distribution of fossils across the continents is one line of
adjacent continents, including matching geological trends
evidence pointing to the existence of Pangaea.
between the eastern coast of South America and the western
coast of Africa. The polar ice cap of the Carboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea. Glacial deposits,
specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate continents which would have been
together in the continent of Pangaea.[7]
Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent. Geologists can
determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when
rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie
relative to the rock. Since the magnetic poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand
years, measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean
polar position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have magnetic orientations that are typically
an average of these "secular variations" in the orientation of Magnetic North because their magnetic fields were not
formed in an instant, as is the case in a cooling lava. Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies
by millions of years is due to a combination of true polar wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar
wander component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this
motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.[8]
The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is the Appalachian
Mountains chain which extends from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain,
Greenland, and Scandinavia.[9]
Rifting and break-up
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first
phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when
Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific
in the west, ultimately giving rise to the supercontinents Laurasia and
Gondwana. The rifting that took place between North America and
Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean,
the North Atlantic Ocean.[10]
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the
north-central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the
Animation of the rifting of Pangaea
Pangaea
Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and
Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of Laurasia led to the closing of the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile, on the
other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were
forming that would not only lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean but also open up in the
Cretaceous.
The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when the minor
supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and
Australia). About 200 Ma, the continent of Cimmeria, as mentioned above (see "Formation of Pangaea"), collided
with Eurasia. However, a subduction zone was forming, as soon as Cimmeria collided.
This subduction zone was called the Tethyan Trench. This trench might have subducted what is called the Tethyan
mid-ocean ridge, a ridge responsible for the Tethys Ocean's expansion. It probably caused Africa, India and Australia
to move northward. In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's South America and Africa, finally separated from
eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia), causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". In the Middle
Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward
away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up
the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India
continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the
Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and
the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening the Coral
Sea and Tasman Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene).
Laurasia split when North America/Greenland (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the
Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved rapidly northward, just as India had done more than 40
million years before. It is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently
moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the
formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the
Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate
started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a
northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for
the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid
cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick ice
sheets seen today.[11] Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of
California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today in
the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.
References
[1] OED
[2] Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, Third Ed., 1989, by Kent C. Condie, Pergamon Press
[3] Pangaeus was also the ancient name for a mountain range in southern Thrace. It is used in its plural form Pangaea in Vergil, Georgics 4, 462,
and Lucan, Pharsalia 1, 679 (C.T. Lewis & C. Short, A Latin Dictionary (New York, 1879), s.v. "Pangaeus"). According to the scholiast on
Lucan, the name means "all land" ('Pangaea' id est totum terra) on account of its smooth terrain and unexpected fertility (H. Usener, Scholia
in Lucani Bellum Civile, first part (Leipzig, 1869), p. 45 (http:/ / books. google. nl/ books?id=cwGHCN6vcBIC& pg=PA45& dq="id+ est+
totum+ terra"& hl=nl& sa=X& ei=rMkBU5ySDIKk0QWilID4Cg& ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q="id est totum terra"& f=false)).
[4] cf. Willem A. J. M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht (and 13 other authors): Theory of Continental Drift: a Symposium of the Origin and
Movements of Land-masses of both Inter-Continental and Intra-Continental, as proposed by Alfred Wegener. X + 240 S., Tulsa, Oklahoma,
USA, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists & London, Thomas Murby & Co, 1928.
4
Pangaea
[5] "Schon die Pangäa der Karbonzeit hatte so einen Vorderrand..." (1920 edition, p. 120; 1922 edition, p. 130). See Wegener, A.; Krause, R.;
Thiede, J. (2005). Kontinental-Verschiebungen: Originalnotizen und Literaturauszüge (Continental drift: the original notes and quotations).
Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung (Reports on Polar and Marine Research) 516. Alfred-Wegener-Institut: Bremerhaven, p. 4, n. 2.
[6] Benton, M.J. Vertebrate Palaeontology. Third edition (Oxford 2005), 25.
[7] Barbara W. Murck, Brian J. Skinner, Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet, Study Guide, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-32323-5
[8] Philip Kearey, Keith A. Klepeis, Frederick J. Vine (2009). Global Tectonics (3rd. ed), p.66–67. Chichester:Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-0777-8
[9] Zeeya Merali, Brian J. Skinner, Visualizing Earth Science, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-41847-5
[10] Zeeya Merali, Brian J. Skinner, Visualizing Earth Science, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-41847-5
[11] Nature 421, pp245–249 (16 January 2003) http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v421/ n6920/ abs/ nature01290. html
External links
• USGS Overview (http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/historical.html)
• Map of Triassic Pangaea at Paleomaps (http://www.scotese.com/newpage8.htm)
• NHM Gallery (http://www.nhm.ac.uk/visit-us/galleries/red-zone/earths-treasury/index.html)
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Article Sources and Contributors
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Pangaea continents.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pangaea_continents.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:Kieff
File:Appalachian orogeny.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Appalachian_orogeny.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Perhelion, Smartse, Urban
File:Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Osvaldocangaspadilla
File:Pangea animation 03.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pangea_animation_03.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original upload by en:User:Tbower
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