Life Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Cells
Grade Level Standard:
8-1 Apply an understanding of cells to the functions of
multicellular organisms.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Demonstrate evidence that all parts of living things
are made up of cells. (III.1.MS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What are cells?
1.
Compare and contrast cell structure and processes.
2.
“Looking At Yeast Cells” - Note how rapidly yeast cells
increase in number. 
3.
“Cellebration” 
Saginaw/Midland County
Science Curriculum pages
1483-1490.
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
plants, animals, tissues, organs, organ system, paramecium,
elodea leaf cells, onion skin cells, human cheek cells
1
LOOKING AT YEAST CELLS
OBJECTIVE
Students will identify the basic functions of a cell.
SCIENCE PROCESSES
Observing
Measuring
Communicating
TEACHER SUGGESTIONS
Introduction of cell division and growth. Experiment may be extended for several
lessons.
DESCRIPTION
Looking at yeast cells and observing their growth.
GROUP SIZE
Dependent on number of microscopes
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Covered glass container (quart jars)
Microscopes
Slides and cover slides
1/4 teaspoon yeast, powdered-dry
Eye droppers
1 pint warm water
Table sugar
PROCEDURE
At least 12 hours before class, make up the following two solutions:
Mixture # 1
1/4 teaspoon powdered yeast
1 pint warm water
1. Place mixture in a quart jar with a cover and let stand until dissolved.
2. Mix thoroughly each time before using.
3. Mixture should last one week, then a new solution should be made.
2
Mixture # 2
1 cup water
1 tablespoon table sugar
1 tablespoon mixture # 1 (yeast and water)
1. Place in a jar and mix.
2. Cover loosely.
3. Allow to stand for 12 hours so that the yeast cells will begin to divide.
NOTE: At the start the yeast cells will divide rapidly in this mixture, but will stop
dividing about four days later.
EVALUATION
Discussion of questions on the following pages. These pages are to be duplicated
for the students.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCE
A Resource Book for the Biological Science, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc.
TAKEN FROM
Science in a Sack
3
LOOKING AT YEAST CELLS
Make a slide using a small drop of yeast and table sugar mixture and a cover slip.
1. What does a yeast cell look like?
2. Draw a picture of several cells.
3. Can you tell the difference between a yeast cell and a small air bubble?
4. How big is a yeast cell?
4
EXAMINING YEAST CELLS THE NEXT DAY
The next day make another slide of the yeast and table sugar mixture and examine it.
1. Do you notice any differences in the size of the cells?
2. If so, are the cells larger or smaller than before?
3. Is there any difference in the number of cells in the area you can see?
4. If you think there is a change in the number of cells, how can you be sure?
5
HOW RAPIDLY DO YEAST CELLS
INCREASE IN NUMBER?
1.
Why is it important to shake or stir the mixture of yeast and table sugar before
taking a sample?
Examine the slide you made using a microscope:
2.
How many yeast cells did you count in the area you can see?
3.
What time was it when you made the count?
4.
If your microscope has more than one eyepiece, which one did you use?
5.
Which objective lens did you use?
6.
Why must you use the same lenses each time you make a count?
Now move the slide and count another group of cells:
7.
How many cells did you count this time?
8.
Why is it important to count more than one area of your sample?
9.
What is the average of the counts you have made?
6
CELLEBRATION
You are going to examine a variety of cells under the microscope. Remember that the thinner
the specimens are, the clearer the cells will appear. All of the specimens must be wet mounted.
This means that you must be sure that the specimen is wet, and then you must press it flat
against the slide. Add the appropriate dye, spread it evenly over the specimen, and set a cover
slip on top. Tap the cover slip gently to remove any bubbles. Examine the specimen under
LOW POWER ONLY.
1.
ELODEA LEAF. Elodea is a pond plant. No stain is necessary. Notice the brick-shaped
cells. The green dots are chloroplasts, which make and store chlorophyll (a chemical that
enables plants to manufacture food). Draw several cells showing all of the detail.
2.
ONION EPIDERMIS. Break a piece of onion and peel it back to
remove the thin, transparent outer layer. Stain with two drops of
iodine. Notice the large, narrow cell. The nuclei appear as tiny
brown dots. Draw the entire field of view.
3.
POTATO CELLS. Use a razor blade to shave off a paper-thin slice of
potato. Stain with one drop of iodine. After about 15 seconds,
rinse it carefully, being sure not to lose the potato slice. Draw
several of the large potato cells, showing the starch grains (which
look like bunches of purple grapes).
(1)
4.
CELERY STALK. Use a razor blade to cut a paper-thin slice across the
stem. Add a drop of methylene blue stain. Notice that each vein is
actually composed of a bundle of tubes. Draw a vascular bundle
(vein) and the cells surrounding it.
5.
ICE PLANT EPIDERMIS. Break an ice plant “leaf” and peel off a piece of
thin outer skin. Stain with one drop of methylene blue. Notice the
stoma with their two guard cells. These look much like cat’s eyes. Draw a
few stomata, their guard cells, and the cells surrounding them.
6.
CHEEK EPITHELIUM. Gently scrape the inside of your cheek with a
clean applicator. Smear the stuff on the end of a stick on the slide.
Add one drop of methylene blue. Draw the tiny epithelium cells
which look like irregularly shaped pancakes with a blueberry (the
nucleus) in the center. You might have to look around for quite a
while to find a good group of cells.
(4)
(5)
(2)
(3)
(6)
7
Assessment
Grade 8
CELLS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.1
Based on all the cell samples they have observed, students will create a product providing
evidence that all living things are made of cells. This presentation should also highlight one
scientist from the timeline and explain his or her contributions. Students may select from a
variety of presentation mediums, including illustrations, multimedia presentations, models,
posters, prepared slides, or informational books. Students will present their product to the class
and explain characteristics of the different cells.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.1
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Explanation of
cells
Provides a vague
explanation.
Provides a brief
explanation.
Provides an
accurate, detailed
explanation.
Provides an
extensive,
detailed
explanation.
Evidence of cells
Shows an
example of a
single cell.
Shows one or two
examples of cells.
Shows multiple
examples of cells.
Shows detailed
examples of a
variety of cells.
Explanation of
scientific
contribution
Selects a scientist,
but omits the
explanation of his
or her
contribution.
Selects a scientist
and vaguely
explains his or her
contribution.
Selects a scientist
and explains his
or her
contribution.
Selects more than
one scientist and
gives a detailed
analysis of their
contributions.
8
Life Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Cells
Grade Level Standard:
8-1 Apply an understanding of cells to the functions of
multicellular organisms.
Grade Level Benchmark:
2. Explain why and how selected specialized cells are
needed by plants and animals. (III.1.MS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
Why are specialized cells needed in plants and
animals?
1.
“Respiration—Photosynthesis” 
2.
“What Do Green Leaves Breathe Out”/“How is the
Green Produced?” 
3.
“The Water Sucking Roots” 
Saginaw/Midland County
Science Curriculum. Pages
1525-1526, 1534-1535, 15371541.
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
reproduction, photosynthesis, transport, movement, disease
fighting, red blood cells, white blood cells, muscle cells, bone cells, nerve cells,
egg/sperm cells, root cells, leaf cells, stem cells
9
RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Presence of CO²
Presence of O
OBJECTIVE
This activity is appropriate for all ages. It works well as a demonstration or a
hands on activity. It shows the presence of carbon dioxide in our breath and the
presence of oxygen in plant respiration.
TERMS
Photosynthesis — the process in which the energy of sunlight is trapped by
chlorophyll an used to make food. Respiration — the process by which food is
broken down and energy is released.
TIME
Part one - 15 minutes
Part two - 1 to 2 hours
BACKGROUND
Photosynthesis is the process by which green organisms make food. An organism
that makes food is a producer. Green plants are producers. Photosynthesis is the
source of food for almost every other organism. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide
and water are combined with the aid of energy from light. The products of
photosynthesis are sugars and oxygen.
Respiration is another plant process. The cell process of respiration results in a
release of energy from food. The energy from respiration is used for all the
activities of the cells metabolism. Carbon dioxide and water are products of
respiration.
MATERIALS
H2O
Phenol red indicator (purchase at pool supply store)
Aquatic plants work best, however, carrot tops, grass, and other plants do work
Light source
Test tube
Cork
Straw
PROCEDURE # 1
1. Half fill a test tube with water.
2. Add phenol red, about two drops, and mix.
3. Take straw and place in test tube.
4. Gently blow in straw.
10
5.
When the liquid goes from pink to yellow, it shows the presence of carbon
dioxide, CO2.
PROCEDURE # 2
1. Take the test tube with the CO2 rich water. Put a good size piece of an aquatic
plant into the tube.
2. Lightly cork the tube.
3. Shine a light source on the tube or place in a sunny window.
4. In one to two hours the CO2 rich water will have turned pink again, showing the
presence of oxygen in plant respiration and the use of carbon dioxide in
photosynthesis.
RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 +6O2 
6CO2 +6H2O + energy
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6CO2 +6H2O + energy

C6H12O6 + 6O2
TAKEN FROM
Judy Meier, Teacher Specialist
11
WHAT DO GREEN LEAVES BREATHE OUT?
MATERIALS
Green weed and wood split
A large beaker, a funnel, a test tube
A stand and clamp
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the beaker with water, immerse the funnel and the test tube in the water,
and set the apparatus up as in the above sketch.
2. Raise the funnel and place some green weed under it.
3. Leave the apparatus in strong sunlight or under a spotlight and observe the
bubbles given off by the leaves.
4. After collecting almost a full test tube of gas, test it with a glowing wood splint.
QUESTIONS
1. What gas is collected from the test tube?
2. What did the glowing wood splint do when lowered in the test tube?
3. What made the water in the test tube stand so much higher than the water
level in the beaker?
EXPLANATION
The green in the leaves, which is chlorophyll, produces sugar and cellulose and
starch in the plant. During this process of sugar production, carbon dioxide, water,
and oxygen are released. This only occurs during daytime when the sunlight is
shining on it. The purpose of the funnel is to bring all the bubbles released by the
weed together under the test tube. As the glowing splint flares up into the bright
flame in the gas, it indicates that the gas is oxygen.
The fact that plants give off oxygen during the daytime makes having them in the
living room a good thing. The air is enriched with oxygen and it is therefore
healthy to have plants in the room.
12
HOW IS THE GREEN IN THE LEAVES PRODUCED?
MATERIALS
A plant with large wide leaves
Carbon paper or black construction paper
Paper clips or masking tape
PROCEDURE
1. Cut out several patterns (circle, square, triangle) in several pieces of carbon
paper.
2. Cover three or more leaves as much as possible with the cut out carbon paper
by attracting it to the leaves with the paper clip or masking tape.
3. Cover some leaves halfway with carbon paper close to the stem (or any other
pattern of covering) and leave it attached for two or three days.
4. After leaving the black paper against the leaves for several days, remove the
attached paper and observe the leaves.
QUESTIONS
1. How did the covered areas of the leaves compare to the uncovered ones?
2. Do plants need sunshine to produce the green color?
3. What is the green color in the plant leaves called?
4. What is the process of production of the green color called?
5. What is the function of the chlorophyll in plant leaves?
EXPLANATION
The covered areas of the leaves will become much paler. The longer it stays
covered, the paler the color, because no sunshine is penetrating the green
pigment that enables every plant that possesses it to combine water and carbon
dioxide from the air to form sugar. This process in which sunshine is an essential
ingredient is called photosynthesis. It is the sugar in the plants that gives animals
and man the energy when it is consumed by them.
The chlorophyll also produces cellulose, a much larger molecule than sugar which
is the basic building material in plants. Thus, without sunshine the leaves do not
produce chlorophyll, no cellulose, and therefore, plants do not grow.
13
THE WATER SUCKING ROOTS
MATERIALS
A beaker (250 mL), a one-hole stopper, a glass tube
A carrot or a cylinder shaped potato, syrup (sugar), candle wax
A coring knife (apple corer), a stand and clamp
PROCEDURE
1. With the coring knife, cut a hole in the carrot or potato about three-quarters
down its length, such that the one-hole stopper will fit in it and close it tightly.
See sketch.
2. Insert a 20 cm long glass tube in the one-hole stopper.
3. Fill the hole in the carrot or potato with syrup or a concentrated solution of
sugar in the water.
4. Push the stopper with the glass tube in the hole (liquid level should rise in the
tube) and seal any openings between the stopper and the carrot or potato with
candle wax (light a candle and let the melted wax drop on the places that you
want sealed).
5. Mark the liquid level in the glass tube with a piece of masking tape, a grease
pencil, or a rubber band.
6. Clamp the carrot or potato and immerse it in water. Observe the water level in
the glass tube at the end of the period.
QUESTIONS
1. What made the water level in the glass tube rise?
2. Would this water level also rise if the tube were filled with plain water? With salt
water?
3. Why did the stopper have to be sealed with wax?
4. What would happen if the carrot and tube were filled with plain water and the
beaker with sugar solution?
14
EXPLANATION
The skin, tissue, and fibers of the carrot or potato act like a semi-permeable
membrane, letting only the small water molecules through, but not the larger sugar
molecules. This makes the water move from the beaker into the carrot and up the
tube. If the concentration of sugar is higher in the beaker compared to that inside
the carrot, the water will move out of the carrot and thus the water level in the tube
will go down.
This action and migration of water molecules through a semi-permeable
membrane is called osmosis.
15
Assessment
Grade 8
CELLS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.2
Students will select an organism and one of its specialized cells to research. They will prepare a
summary of their research, including information about its structure (visual representation) and
function (written summary) that could be used on a class web site.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.2
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Accuracy of
visual
presentation
Shows a sketchy
visual of a cell.
Displays a visual
of a cell structure.
Designs an
accurate visual of
specialized cells.
Designs a
detailed,
comprehensive
visual(s) of
several
specialized cells.
Completeness of
description
Provides a vague
description of cell
function.
Describes briefly
the cell’s
function.
Describes the
function(s)
accurately of the
specialized cell.
Describes in
detail the
function(s) of
several
specialized cells.
Correctness of
format
Explains with
inappropriate
vocabulary or
grammar.
Explains with
partially correct
vocabulary and
grammar.
Explains with
appropriate
vocabulary and
grammar.
Explains with
extended
vocabulary and
exceptional
grammar.
16
Life Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Ecosystem
Grade Level Standard:
8-2 Analyze ecosystems.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Explain how humans use and benefit from plant and
animal materials. (III.5.MS.5)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How do humans interact with the environment?
1.
Classify commonly used plant and animal materials in
the classroom. Have students look around the
classroom and have them group commonly used items
into two categories—from animals and from plants.
Students will classify items such as cotton, wool, paper,
leather, etc. into their proper categories.
2.
“The pH Game” 
Saginaw/Midland County
Science Curriculum
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
Materials from plants: wood, paper, cotton, wax, oils; Materials
from animals: leather, wool, fur, oil, wax; Human made objects that incorporate
plant and animal materials: clothing, medicines
17
The pH Game
PURPOSE
To teach students about the acidity levels of liquids and other substances around
their school so that they understand what pH levels tell us about the environment.
OVERVIEW
The pH game will engage students in the measurement of the pH of water
samples, soil samples, plants, and other natural materials from different places.
Students will create mixtures of materials in order to collect different pH
measurements.
TIME
One class period for preparation
One class period for game
LEVEL
All
KEY CONCEPTS
 pH measurements
SKILLS
 Taking measurements
 Conducting analysis
 Interpreting findings
 Understanding interrelations in nature
MATERIALS AND TOOLS
For each team (about 4 students)
 20 pH strips
 3 or 5 small cups
 Paper and pencil
 Labels with which to attach results to the results board
For the whole classroom:
 Results board for all teams (one line of pH levels from 2 to 9 for each team)
 Flip chart with rules
 Additional pH strips
18
PREPARATION
The teacher should prepare various acidic and alkaline mixtures/solutions of
natural and processed materials. These solutions should be labeled with the
ingredients and a letter, but not their acidic or alkaline characteristics. Examples
of acidic solutions include fermented grass, diluted and concentrated lemon juice,
black coffee, vinegar, orange juice, and soft drinks. Alkaline solutions include salt
water, shampoo, baking soda, chlorine bleach, household ammonia, and oven
cleaner. Soil solutions produced by mixing water and local soil samples should be
used as well as local water samples. The teacher can also produce solutions from
materials found around the local school area, such as oil drippings from a vehicle,
liquid in a discarded bottle, etc.
PREREQUISITES
None
BACKGROUND
The level of acidity (pH) significantly influences the vegetation and wildlife in an
environment. The pH can be influenced by different factors. The main influences
are the alkaline contributions from rocks and soils, the amount of water in the
landscape, and also human activities (traffic, buildings, paved surfaces, etc.) Acid
rain may also have an important impact on water pH. It is important to understand
these relationships. This simple activity will help your students to understand the
interdependence of nature and human activities.
Note: Remind students of the difference between hypothesis and results.
Encourage them to develop their hypothesis and find a way to test it with results
(prepare some literature for them, invite an expert to the class, examine past
measurements, etc.)
THE RULES
1. Explain to students the objective of the game is that each team identifies
solutions which have a pH range of 2-9.
The students should draw a horizontal pH scale from 0-14, marking pH 7 as
the neutral point. Each unit should be spaced at least 1 cm apart. They should
then draw a box underneath each pH unit from 2 to 9.
Each team finds substances that have a pH corresponding to a box in the pH
scale.
2. The teacher draws the following matrix on the board. See Matrix HYD-L-1.
3. One point is awarded for each box filled, even if the team finds two samples
with the same pH.
19
4. Students should record all the information about the solution from the labels
and the pH they measured.
5. When students are ready to submit a sample for the game results board, they
show the teacher their notes and sample. Together they measure the pH with
a new pH strip. If the pH agrees with the students’ previous measurement, the
sample is approved and the points are added to the team’s score. The table
below is an example of results for different teams. See Matrix HYD-L-2.
6. The teacher gives a new pH strip for each sample added to the results board.
Matrix HYD-L-1
pH Value
Teams
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
TOTAL
7
8
9
TOTAL
1
1
Teams 1
Teams 2
Teams 3
Matrix HYD-L-2
pH Value
Teams
2
Teams 1
1
Teams 2
Teams 3
3
4
5
6
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
3
3
MODIFICATIONS FOR DIFFERENT AGES
Beginning
For a basic understanding, use salt and sugar and explain to students that salty
does not necessarily mean acid and that sweet does not necessarily mean
alkaline. Cola soft drinks are good examples of a sweet and very acid liquid.
Intermediate
Make the game more competitive. For instance, the team that finds or creates the
first sample of a particular pH value receives 5 points; subsequently, samples for
that pH level receive only 1 pont.
Make the game more difficult by limiting the sample sources to only natural
materials.
20
Limit the number of pH strips given to each group and set up a rule for buying a
new one with game points.
Advanced
Ask the students which solutions should be added together to produce a neutral
solution. Have them test their hypothesis by adding some of the labeled solutions
together and recording the pH. Have students quantify the neutralization capacity
of different solutions. Relate this to buffering capacity (alkalinity) of hydrology
sites.
Provide students with samples of solutions from other parts of your country (or of
the world) and ask them to characterize how they influence pH differently.
Conduct a similar analysis of samples from different geological layers or different
areas of the community or study site.
Note: For older students we recommend inviting an expert to answer their
questions.
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS
Examine the Hydrology Study Site for materials in soil, rocks, and vegetation that
influence the pH of the water.
Try to identify and quantify influences that are not always present at the study site,
such as precipitation or some event upstream of your sampling site.
STUDENT ASSESSMENT
After the game, sit with students around the results board and identify what
samples they have found, where the samples were found, and the pH of the
samples. Encourage students to present their own ideas about why different
samples have different pH values. Emphasize differences among water samples
from soils, rocks, artificial surfaces, lakes, rivers, etc. Mention the acid
neutralization capacities (alkalinity) of some rocks and the acidic influences of
different materials. Ask them why it was difficult to find samples for some pH
levels and easy to find others.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The pH game was created and tested by the leaders team of TEREZA, the
Association for Environmental Education, Czech Republic.
NOAA National Geophyiscal Data Center, Boulder, Colorado, USA
Questions/Comments regarding the GLOBE Program
http://archive.globe.gov/sda-bin/wt/ghp/tg+L(en)+P(hydrology/pHGame)
21
Assessment
Grade 8
ECOSYSTEMS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.5
Students will read the following scenario:
It is the year 2020 and a fabulous new product has hit the market – Food 4 Life. Food 4 Life is
an incredible break-through food substitute that you take once a week. It will supply all of your
nutritional needs. Just think, no more hassling at the dinner table. Food 4 Life will take us into
the new millennium as space colonization becomes a reality. With the problem of food solved,
humans will be free to live a healthy, happy, plant-less life.
Students will debate the claims of Food 4 Life and decide if humans could live in a world
without plants.
Each student will write a position statement giving five substantial, scientifically accurate
reasons for or against the following idea:
I want to live in a world without plants.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.5
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Accuracy of
reasons
Provides one to
five reasons that
are incomplete or
contain
inaccuracies.
Provides one to
three accurate
reasons.
Provides four to
five accurate
reasons.
Provides six or
more accurate
reasons.
Correctness of
mechanics
Shows limited use
of proper writing
mechanics.
Shows some use
of proper writing
mechanics.
Uses proper
writing
mechanics.
Uses proper
writing mechanics
in a highly
expressive,
creative manner.
22
Life Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Ecosystems
Grade Level Standard:
8-2 Analyze ecosystems.
Grade Level Benchmark:
2. Describe ways in which humans alter the
environment. (III.5.MS.6)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How do humans alter the environment?
1.
Explain how humans bring animals and organisms from
other places to new places and offset the ecosystem.
(Zebra muscle epidemic in Great Lakes Region). 
2.
Have children count how many smokers they see in
one day. As well as all transportation sources emitting
excessive emissions.
3.
Have students bring in recyclable items they would
normally throw away.
Library
www.biology.com
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
agriculture, land use, renewable and non-renewable resources,
resource use, solid waste, toxic waste, biodiversity, species, reintroduction,
reforestation, pollution
23
Research Findings
Calendar
News &
Announcements
Job Board
Discussion Board
Current Journal Contents
Research Findings
Share a research finding!
June 14, 2000
Filtration capabilities of quagga and zebra mussels
Seasonal filtration rates of Dreissena bugensis (quagga mussels) and D. polymorpha (zebra
mussels) from Oak Orchard Creek, NY, have been measured in Niagara River water (1 L static
tests, 1 h duration, clearance of added natural sediment [< 63 ], 2 - 10 mg/l). twenty mm
quagga mussels filtered ~1/3 more than zebra mussels in fall and spring tests (both at 14 c).
means (ml/h): nov. 1999- quagga 270, zebra 203; may 2000- quagga 309, zebra 226 (sample
sizes of 17 - 20 mussels, p [t-tests] < 0.05). rates were generally higher at the lower particle
concentrations. interspecific differences were non-significant among 15 mm mussels. the
influence of shell-free tissue mass is currently being evaluated. the modest differences in
filtration shown thus far seem insufficient to solely explain the profound displacement of d.
polymorpha in the lower great lakes. this suggests the continuing need to investigate also
growth rates, fecundities, and recruitment success. Sponsoring Organization:
Industry/University Center for Biosurfaces-SUNY at Buffalo, Great Lakes Center for
Environmental Research and Education, Buffalo State College.
Contact: Thomas P. Diggins, [email protected].
June 1, 2000
Algal development and production in Lake Baikal
Remarkable water blooms of phytoplankton develop in Lake Baikal during the period of lake
water stratification; diatoms bloom under the ice in spring, picocyanobacteria colonize the
pelagic zone and large colonial cyanobacteria are found at bay areas in summer. In addition,
massive increase of periphytic algae turns the lakeshore rocks green. These blooms indicate
24
that Lake Baikal is potentially eutrophic. Since Lake Baikal contains a huge volume of cold
hypolimnetic water, symptoms of excessive eutrophication do not appear throughout the year,
at present. To protect Lake Baikal, as an invaluable water resource for Siberian residents and
as a natural heritage in the world, research and monitoring on the eutrophication process are
strongly needed.
Contact: Yasunori Watanabe, Department of Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1,
Minamiosawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, JAPAN. Phone & Fax: (81)-426-77-2580;
[email protected].
May 29, 2000
A multi-agency effort to address declines in the abundance of Lake Michigan yellow
perch
Catch of adult yellow perch in Lake Michigan declined dramatically between 1988 and 1998,
and the population age structure shifted toward older fish with an almost complete lack of
reproductive success in recent years. Steps taken to address this decline included coordinated
regulation of commercial and recreational yellow perch harvest, and formation of a multi-agency
Yellow Perch Task Group to expand research aimed at identifying likely causes for the lack of
perch recruitment.
Three hypotheses currently being addressed by activities of the yellow perch task group are
1. mortality at the egg stage influences yellow perch recruitment,
2. inappropriate diet limits survival, and
3. alewife predation limits recruitment.
There appears to be little evidence to support the idea that factors at the egg stage directly
influence perch population survival, but experiments have shown a relationship between adult
female yellow perch size and larval perch length and yolk volume. This relationship suggests
that building spawning stock diversity will produce offspring with enhanced probability of
successful recruitment in a variable environment.
Lake Michigan zooplankton populations have changed considerably between the 1980s and
1990s, and evidence collected to date shows a significant positive relationship between
zooplankton density and yellow perch survival. Additionally, long-term data collections in
southern Lake Michigan continue to show a negative effect on yellow perch as alewife
abundance increases. Maternal factors, diet, and predation probably act in concert, along with
harvest and "natural" density-dependent functions, to regulate yellow perch abundance.
Successful management of perch populations will require ongoing research to understand the
interrelationships among all of these factors. Sponsoring Organization: GLFC - Lake Michigan
Technical Committee and LMC.
Contact: Dave Clapp, (231) 547-2914, [email protected].
March 24, 2000
Identification of the Polychlorinated Terphenyl Formulation
Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCT) have been identified in the sediment and tissues of the
common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina serpentina) within the St. Lawrence River Area of
Concern (AOC) adjacent to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
Superfund Site near Massena, NY. To our knowledge, PCT have not been previously reported
in the St. Lawrence River AOC. PCT were identified as Aroclor 5432 in the surficial sediment at
0.8 mg/kg (dry weight), approximately 6.5% of the sediment-bound PCBs. The most probable
source of the PCT to the AOC being the hydraulic fluid Pydraul® 312A utilized by many heavy
25
industrial users for high-temperature applications. The sediment-bound PCT showed no
biological or physico-chemical alterations, chromatographically matching an Aroclor 5432
technical standard. Concentrations of PCT in the snapping turtle adipose, liver and eggs, were
42.2, 20.2, and 6.5 mg/kg - lipid basis, respectively. Analysis of the gas chromatographic
pattern indicates that PCT were selectively metabolized and bioaccumulated by the snapping
turtle. Concentrations of PCT found in the snapping turtle tissues and eggs ranged between
2-5% of the PCB measured in the turtle tissues. Sponsoring Organization: Environmental
Research Center, State University of New York at Oswego.
Contact: James J. Pagano, [email protected]
February 22, 2000
Physical and Biological Processes Influencing Walleye Early Life History in Western
Lake Erie
Our research focuses on quantifying the effects of physical and biological processes on walleye
early life history vital rates in western Lake Erie. Our results indicate that egg abundance, egg
survival, and larval abundance are highest in years when lake waters warm quickly and few
strong wind events occur. In April 1998, we documented the effect of a gale force storm on egg
abundance on reefs. Over 80% of spawned eggs were removed from reefs by the storm, and
larval densities adjacent to the reefs were the lowest observed during the six years of our study.
We also examined the potential for egg predation on reefs in April and found that eggs were
common in stomachs of white perch, yellow perch, and trout perch but rare in stomachs of
round gobies. These findings enable us to better predict the response of walleye to variability in
their habitat and respond with appropriate management strategies. Further, they provide insight
into the effects of global climate change and exotic species introductions on the walleye
population. Sponsoring Organizations: Michigan Sea Grant, Michigan State University,
Michigan DNR, Ohio DNR.
Contact: Ed Roseman, [email protected]
Role of Lipids in Low Temperature Tolerance of Alewives
Although massive winter die-offs of alewives in the Great Lakes are well known, the
physiological basis for these mass mortalities remains unclear. Our research focuses on the
role of dietary lipids in cold tolerance of alewives. We conducted laboratory studies to compare
the survival rates of alewives that were fed different diets and then subjected to a cold
challenge. Alewives fed frozen brine shrimp survived better than alewives fed frozen Daphnia,
and alewives that died during the cold challenge showed significant decreases in membrane
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Survival during the cold challenge was not correlated with percent
body lipid. These results suggest that dietary factors can influence cold tolerance of alewives,
and death at cold temperatures may be due in part to changes in membrane fatty acids that
impair proper membrane function. The long-term goal of this research is to develop a model to
predict alewife die-offs. This in turn would lead to better management of Great Lakes
salmonids, which rely heavily on alewives for food. Sponsoring Organizations: Great Lakes
Research Consortium and the University at Buffalo Multidisciplinary Research Pilot Project
Program.
Contact: Randal J. Snyder, [email protected]
December 29, 1999
Possible Meteorite Impact Site in Lake Ontario
USGS scientists Thomas Edsall and Gregory Kennedy have identified a prominent lakebed
feature in the Charity Shoal Complex in eastern end of Lake Ontario that appears to be a major
solution pit or perhaps a meteorite impact site (see map). A side-scan sonar survey of about
26
1,000 hectares of lakebed on the U.S. Canadian border surrounding the site revealed an oval
crater covering about 70 hectares and surrounded by solid bedrock, which in eastern Lake
Ontario is Ordivician limestone. The inside edges of the crater are broken bedrock lying on solid
bedrock. The floor of the crater is about 12 m deeper than the surrounding rim. A sediment
sample collected from the crater floor was stiff, varved lake clays covered with a thin layer of
coarse sand. Edsall and Kennedy are searching for magnetometer data collected in the vicinity
of the crater to see if they reveal a magnetic anomaly suggesting the crater is a meteorite
impact site.
Contact: Thomas Edsall, [email protected]
December 3, 1999
Separating Stressors via In Situ Testing
We have had great success in detecting and separating stressors using various types of in situ
Stressor Identification Evaluation chambers. Stressors can be separated into compartments:
surface water (low or high flow), pore water, surficial sediment, and upwelling or downwelling.
Specific stressors separated were: suspended solids, flow, photo induced toxicity, ammonia,
metals, nonpolar organics, and bioaccumulative cmpds. Exposures range from 1 d to 2 wks
with multiple species and supported with traditional physicochem. profiles, benthic community
characterization, and lab toxicity testing. Sponsoring Organization: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, primarily.
Contact: Dr. G. Allen Burton; (937) 775-2201, [email protected]
Cercopagis in North America
The predatory cladoceran Cercopagis pengoi invaded the Great Lakes basin, initially in Lake
Ontario (1998), but also in six Finger Lakes and Lake Michigan (1999). Our research group is
attempting to track invasions by Cercopagis, Bythotrephes, Daphnia lumholtzi, and other
invertebrate invaders, and would appreciate correspondence with investigators who find any of
these species in new localities. Sponsoring Organization: New York Sea Grant.
Contact: Hugh MacIsaac, [email protected]
November 23, 1999
Zebra Mussels in the Erie Canal
Based on sediment surveys at locations in eastern Lake Erie and along the NY State Erie
Canal, D. bugensis seems to be out competing D. polymorpha. The consequence is that the
percentage of the total number of combined dreissenids shifts in favor of D. bugensis over time.
One can speculate as to how or why one species has a slight competitive advantage over the
other. However, without further long-term studies of the abundance and population dynamics of
natural populations, or detailed experimental studies, we are left to speculate about the nature
of the ecological interactions, which seems to provide a slight advantage to D. bugensis.
Because both animals are still species of zebra mussels, and both species are known
bio-foulers, at this stage it is difficult to ascribe a greater or lessor economic impact to one
species more than another; nevertheless, the economic impacts of these species are
notoriously clear, particularly in costs associated with preventing the clogging of, or having to
unclog water intake pipes.
Contact: Kenton M. Stewart, Dept. of Biological Sci., State University of New York, Buffalo, NY;
(716) 645-2898, [email protected]
27
November 15, 1999
Ecosystem Modeling in Saginaw Bay
Joe DePinto, University at Buffalo, and Vic Bierman, Limno-Tech, Inc., are collaborating to
develop an ecosystem model for Saginaw Bay that includes nutrients, five phytoplankton
classes, two zooplankton functional groups, PCBs, three age classes of zebra mussels, and
soon to include two type of benthic primary producers (benthic algae and macrophytes).
Sponsoring Organization: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National
Program Office.
Contact: Joe DePinto, [email protected]
Share a research finding!
©© Copyright 1999-2002
International Association for Great Lakes Research
Site Design by Loracs Creations, Inc.
http://www.iaglr.org/hot/findings.html
28
Assessment
Grade 8
ECOSYSTEMS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.6
If possible, have students read In the Next Three Seconds by Morgan. This book takes a look at common
human activities and their impacts on our world. Students then should read the following statement:
In the next three seconds, 93 trees will be cut down to make the liners for disposable diapers.
Students should brainstorm ways that the use of disposable diapers has impacted our world. Next, present
the following scenario to the students:
In light of this statement, a new law has been proposed in Lansing banning the use of disposable diapers.
Students will receive a card from the teacher indicating the role of a community member they will take,
such as:
•
•
•
•
•
Aileen, diaper manufacturer
• Samantha, K-Mart manager
Juan, Peter Pan Nursery School director • Hitoshi, hospital nurse
Sam, owner of Sam’s Septic Service
• Maria and Jose, parents of newborn triplets
Jamal, Green Peace member
• Bonnie, XYZ Waste Disposal worker
Dee-Dee, owner of Dee-Dee’s Diaper Delivery Service
Students must prepare a two-minute speech reflecting their character’s point of view, either supporting or
opposing this law. Students will present their speeches to the legislative body in Lansing (or a social
studies class).
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Criteria
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.6
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Accuracy of
reasons
Presents one
supportive argument
for position.
Presents two
supportive arguments
for position.
Presents three
supportive arguments
for position.
Presents four or
more supportive
arguments for
position.
Quality of
speech
Delivers a speech
with inaccurate or
incomplete thoughts.
Delivers a speech
that provides
information but is
difficult to follow at
times.
Delivers a speech in
an effective,
engaging manner.
Delivers a thorough,
well-supported
arguments that
entertains the
audience.
Accuracy of
visual aid(s)
Incorporates a visual
product that
inaccurately displays
some aspect of the
position.
Incorporates a visual
product that
ineffectively displays
some aspect of the
position.
Incorporates a visual
product that
effectively displays
some aspect of the
position.
Incorporates multiple
visual products that
display several
aspects of the
position.
29
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Geosphere
Grade Level Standard:
8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Explain the surface features of the Great Lakes region
using the Ice Age theory. (V.1.HS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What surface evidence found in the Great Lakes
supports the Ice Age theory?
1.
2.
Glacial Carving
 small fish tank
 slope-loose bed of sand and gravel
 fan
 dry ice-salt
 place dry ice on-slope fan behind the ice
 record what is seen-use time line
 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours,
 conclusion
Have students create a Great Lakes time line in which
they plot geologic and climate changes that take place.
Ontario Explorer -Great Lakes
http://www.interlog.com/~cola
utti/ExploreOntario/GreatLake
s.html
Natural Processes in the
Great Lakes
http://epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/glatch2.html
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
glacial, remnants, Canadian Shield, lowlands, shorelines,
basin, drumlins
30
Great Lakes
[MAIN] [Start Here] [Map Index] [Quick Index] [Advertising Here]
Hints for Visitors from: [United States] [Off the Continent] [Canada]
A Service of Colautti Enterprises
Ontario Explorer has moved to its permanent location at www.ontarioexplorer.com. The original
site you are on will remain active but will not be updated after this year.
Overview
The Great Lakes are the spine of Ontario. They span more than
1200km east to west and the area surrounding the lakes is home to
25% of the population of Canada. The lakes are the largest fresh water
bodies on earth. Between them nearly one-fifth of the entire planets
fresh water supply is stored. The total surface area of the lakes is
245,000 sq. kilometres, the same size as Great Britain.
While eight U.S. states border on the Great Lakes, Ontario is the only
Canadian province to touch their shorelines. Lake Michigan is the
only lake solely within the boundaries of the United States. While twenty-five million American's
live within the Lake's basin, only eight million Canadian's habitate the immense shoreline.
31
The lakes are truly immense. The largest, Superior is at the head of the system. From here it's
waters and Michigans mingle at Michilimackinac. Lake Huron and Georgian Bay discharge
through Lake St. Clair into Erie. Erie's shallow waters pour over Niagara Falls, emptying into
Lake Ontario, which empties into the St. Lawrence seaway.
Formation of the Lakes
The lakes were formed when the last ice age
ended. Immense lakes of water pooled at the
edge of the Canadian shield and collected in a
gigantic lake system that marks the boundary
of the granite of the shield and the surrounding
terrain. The lakes in order from the furthest
north are: Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake,
Lake Athabaska, Lake Winnipeg, The Great
Lakes.
The Canadian Shield is the central core of the
continent. An ancient outcropping of granite it
is an eerie landscape of rolling rugged hills.
The shield touches the coastline of Lake
Superior, Lake Huron, and the outlet of Lake
Ontario. South of the shield is the lowlands of
the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence valleys. Rolling or flat terrain; there is a distinct contrast
between the topography of the southern and northern half of the province.
Each lake has a distinct character to it. Superior being the largest and most northern is very cold.
Swimming in the lake is an invigorating experience even in the hottest summers. Lake Huron's
temperature is more moderate especially near shore, but again is generally chilly. Lake Erie offers
the warmest waters of all the lakes, but can become very tempestuous very rapidly. Drownings
have been common off the sand spit parks in the lake due to complacency.
The total shoreline of the great lakes is
17,000 kilometres (10,000 miles). To put
this in perspective this distance is close
to three times the east/west width of
Canada itself.
It would take a year, walking a 10 hour
day to pace the shoreline.
32
The lakes contain 23,000 cubic
kilometres of fresh water. This would
form a cube of water 30 kilometres (18
miles) on edge were it put all in a
single container.
Further information on individual
lakes can be found within these links.
These links connect to Dive-Into-TheNet
Lake Superior
Lake Huron
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Hudsons Bay
SITE INDEX: [MAIN MENU] [American Visitors] [World Wide Visitors] [Canadian Visitors]
[MAP INDEX]
http://www.interlog.com/~colautti/ExploreOntario/GreatLakes.html
33
TWO
Geology
The foundation for the present Great Lakes basin was set about 3 billion years ago, during the
Precambrian Era. This era occupies about five-sixths of all geological time and was a period of great
volcanic activity and tremendous stresses, which formed great mountain systems. Early sedimentary and
volcanic rocks were folded and heated into complex structures. These were later eroded and, today,
appear as the gently rolling hills and small mountain remnants of the Canadian Shield, which forms the
northern and northwestern portions of the Great Lakes basin. Granitic rocks of the shield extend
southward beneath the Paleozoic, sedimentary rocks where they form the 'basement' structure of the
southern and eastern portions of the basin.
34
With the coming of the Paleozoic Era, most of central North America
was flooded again and again by marine seas, which were inhabited
by a multitude of life forms, including corals, crinoids, brachiopods
and mollusks. The seas deposited lime silts, clays, sand and salts,
which eventually consolidated into limestone, shales, sandstone,
halite and gypsum.
During the Pleistocene Epoch, the continental glaciers repeatedly
advanced over the Great Lakes region from the north. The first
glacier began to advance more than a million years ago. As they
inched forward, the glaciers, up to 2,000 metres (6,500 feet) thick,
scoured the surface of the earth, leveled hills, and altered forever the
previous ecosystem. Valleys created by the river systems of the
previous era were deepened and enlarged to form the basins for the
Great Lakes. Thousands of years later, the climate began to warm,
melting and slowly shrinking the glacier. This was followed by an
interglacial period during which vegetation and wildlife returned.
The whole cycle was repeated several times.
Sand, silt, clay and boulders deposited by the glaciers occur in
various mixtures and forms. These deposits are collectively referred
to as 'glacial drift' and include features such as moraines, which are
linear mounds of poorly sorted material or 'till', flat till plains, till
drumlins, and eskers formed of well-sorted sands and gravels
deposited from meltwater. Areas having substantial deposits of wellsorted sands and gravels (eskers, kames and outwash) are usually
significant groundwater storage and transmission areas called
'aquifers'. These also serve as excellent sources of sand and gravel
for commercial extraction.
Geologic Time Chart. The Great Lakes
basin is a relatively young ecosystem
having formed during the last 10,000
years. Its foundation was laid through
many millions of years and several
geologic eras. This chart gives a
relative idea of the age of the eras
35
As the glacier retreated, large volumes of meltwater occurred along
the front of the ice. Because the land was greatly depressed at this
time from the weight of the glacier, large glacial lakes formed.
These lakes were much larger than the present Great Lakes. Their
legacy can still be seen in the form of beach ridges, eroded bluffs
and flat plains located hundreds of metres above present lake levels.
Glacial lake plains known as 'lacustrine plains' occur around
Saginaw Bay and west and north of Lake Erie.
Layers of sedimentary rock eroded by
wind and wave action are revealed in
these formations at Flower Pot Island
at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula in
Canada. (D. Cowell, Geomatics
International, Burlington, Ontario.)
As the glacier receded, the land began to rise. This uplift (at times
relatively rapid) and the shifting ice fronts caused dramatic changes
in the depth, size and drainage patterns of the glacial lakes.
Drainage from the lakes occurred variously through the Illinois
River Valley (towards the Mississippi River), the Hudson River
Valley, the Kawartha Lakes (Trent River) and the Ottawa River
Valley before entering their present outlet through the St. Lawrence
River Valley. Although the uplift has slowed considerably, it is still
occurring in the northern portion of the basin. This, along with
changing long-term weather patterns, suggests that the lakes are not
static and will continue to evolve.
Climate
The weather in the Great Lakes basin is affected by three factors: air masses from other regions, the
location of the basin within a large continental landmass, and the moderating influence of the lakes
themselves. The prevailing movement of air is from the west. The characteristically changeable weather
of the region is the result of alternating flows of warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry
air from the Arctic.
In summer, the northern region around Lake Superior generally receives cool, dry air masses from the
Canadian northwest. In the south, tropical air masses originating in the Gulf of Mexico are most
influential. As the Gulf air crosses the lakes, the bottom layers remain cool while the top layers are
warmed. Occasionally, the upper layer traps the cooler air below, which in turn traps moisture and
airborne pollutants, and prevents them from rising and dispersing. This is called a temperature inversion
and can result in dank, humid days in areas in the midst of the basin, such as Michigan and Southern
Ontario, and can also cause smog in low-lying industrial areas.
Increased summer sunshine warms the surface layer of water in the lakes, making it lighter than the
colder water below. In the fall and winter months, release of the heat stored in the lakes moderates the
climate near the shores of the lakes. Parts of Southern Ontario, Michigan and western New York enjoy
milder winters than similar mid-continental areas at lower latitudes.
36
In the autumn, the rapid movement and occasional clash of warm and cold air masses through the region
produce strong winds. Air temperatures begin to drop gradually and less sunlight, combined with
increased cloudiness, signal more storms and precipitation. Late autumn storms are often the most
perilous for navigation and shipping on the lakes.
In winter, the Great Lakes region is affected by two
major air masses. Arctic air from the northwest is very
cold and dry when it enters the basin, but is warmed and
picks up moisture traveling over the comparatively
warmer lakes. When it reaches the land, the moisture
condenses as snow, creating heavy snowfalls on the lee
side of the lakes in areas frequently referred to as
snowbelts. For part of the winter, the region is affected
by Pacific air masses that have lost much of their
moisture crossing the western mountains. Less
frequently, air masses enter the basin from the
southwest, bringing in moisture from the Gulf of
Mexico. This air is slightly warmer and more humid.
During the winter, the temperature of the lakes
continues to drop. Ice frequently covers Lake Erie but
seldom fully covers the other lakes.
Spring in the Great Lakes region, like autumn, is
characterized by variable weather. Alternating air
Winter on the lakes is characterized by alternating masses move through rapidly, resulting in frequent
flows of frigid arctic air and moderating air masses cloud cover and thunderstorms. By early spring, the
warmer air and increased sunshine begin to melt the
from the Gulf of Mexico. Heavy snowfalls
snow and lake ice, starting again the thermal layering of
frequently occur on the lee side of the lakes. (D.
Cowell, Geomatics International, Burlington,
the lakes. The lakes are slower to warm than the land
Ontario.)
and tend to keep adjacent land areas cool, thus
prolonging cool conditions sometimes well into April.
Most years, this delays the leafing and blossoming of
plants, protecting tender plants, such as fruit trees, from
late frosts. This extended state of dormancy allows
plants from somewhat warmer climates to survive in the
western shadow of the lakes. It is also the reason for the
presence of vineyards in those areas.
Climate Change And The Great Lakes
At various times throughout its history, the Great Lakes basin has been covered by thick glaciers and
tropical forests, but these changes occurred before humans occupied the basin. Present-day concern about
the atmosphere is premised on the belief that society at large, through its means of production and modes
of daily activity, especially by ever increasing carbon dioxide emissions, may be modifying the climate at
a rate unprecedented in history.
The very prevalent 'greenhouse effect' is actually a natural phenomenon. It is a process by which water
vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorb heat given off by the earth and radiate it back to the
surface. Consequently the earth remains warm and habitable (16°C average world temperature rather
than -18°C without the greenhouse effect). However, humans have increased the carbon dioxide present
37
in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution from 280 parts per million to the present 350 ppm, and
some predict that the concentration will reach twice its pre-industrial levels by the middle of the next
century.
Climatologists, using the General Circulation Model (GCM), have been able to determine the manner in
which the increase of carbon dioxide emissions will affect the climate in the Great Lakes basin. Several
of these models exist and show that at twice the carbon dioxide level, the climate of the basin will be
warmer by 2-4°C and slightly damper than at present. For example, Toronto's climate would resemble
the present climate of southern Ohio. Warmer climates mean increased evaporation from the lake
surfaces and evapotranspiration from the land surface of the basin. This in turn will augment the
percentage of precipitation that is returned to the atmosphere. Studies have shown that the resulting net
basin supply, the amount of water contributed by each lake basin to the overall hydrologic system, will be
decreased by 23 to 50 percent. The resulting decreases in average lake levels will be from half a metre to
two metres, depending on the GCM used.
Large declines in lake levels would create large-scale economic concern for the commercial users of the
water system. Shipping companies and hydroelectric power companies would suffer economic
repercussions, and harbors and marinas would be adversely affected. While the precision of such
projections remains uncertain, the possibility of their accuracy embraces important long-term
implications for the Great Lakes.
The potential effects of climate change on human health in the Great Lakes region are also of concern,
and researchers can only speculate as to what might occur. For example, weather disturbances, drought,
and changes in temperature and growing season could affect crops and food production in the basin.
Changes in air pollution patterns as a result of climate change could affect respiratory health, causing
asthma, and new disease vectors and agents could migrate into the region.
The Hydrologic Cycle
Water is a renewable resource. It is continually replenished in ecosystems through the hydrologic cycle.
Water evaporates in contact with dry air, forming water vapor. The vapor can remain as a gas,
contributing to the humidity of the atmosphere; or it can condense and form water droplets, which, if they
remain in the air, form fog and clouds. In the Great Lakes basin, much of the moisture in the region
evaporates from the surface of the lakes. Other sources of moisture include the surface of small lakes and
tributaries, moisture on the land mass and water released by plants. Global movements of air also carry
moisture into the basin, especially from the tropics.
Moisture-bearing air masses move through the basin and deposit their moisture as rain, snow, hail or
sleet. Some of this precipitation returns to the atmosphere and some falls on the surfaces of the Great
Lakes to become part of the vast quantity of stored fresh water once again. Precipitation that falls on the
land returns to the lakes as surface runoff or infiltrates the soil and becomes groundwater.
Whether it becomes surface runoff or groundwater depends upon a number of factors. Sandy soils,
gravels and some rock types contribute to groundwater flows, whereas clays and impermeable rocks
contribute to surface runoff. Water falling on sloped areas tends to run off rapidly, while water falling on
flat areas tends to be absorbed or stored on the surface. Vegetation also tends to decrease surface runoff;
root systems hold moisture-laden soil readily, and water remains on plants.
38
Surface Runoff
Surface runoff is a major factor in the character of the Great
Lakes basin. Rain falling on exposed soil tilled for agriculture or
cleared for construction accelerates erosion and the transport of
soil particles and pollutants into tributaries. Suspended soil
particles in water are deposited as sediment in the lakes and often
collect near the mouths of tributaries and connecting channels.
Much of the sediment deposited in nearshore areas is resuspended
and carried farther into the lake during storms. The finest particles
(clays and silts) may remain in suspension long enough to reach
the mid-lake areas.
Before settlement of the basin, streams typically ran clear yearround because natural vegetation prevented soil loss. Clearing of
the original forest for agriculture and logging has resulted in both
more erosion and runoff into the streams and lakes. This
accelerated runoff aggravates flooding problems.
Thousands of tributaries feed the Great
Lakes, replenishing the vast supply of
stored fresh water. (D. Cowell,
Geomatics International, Burlington,
Ontario.)
Wetlands
Wetlands are areas where the water table occurs
above or near the land surface for at least part of the
year. When open water is present, it must be less than
two metres deep (seven feet), and stagnant or slow
moving. The presence of excessive amounts of water
in wetland regions has given rise to hydric soils, as
well as encouraged the predominance of water
tolerant (hydrophytic) plants and similar biological
activity.
Four basic types of wetland are encountered in the
Great Lakes basin: swamps, marshes, bogs and fens.
Long Point Marshes, Lake Erie. (D. Cowell,
Swamps are areas where trees and shrubs live on wet,
Geomatics
International, Burlington, Ontario.)
organically rich mineral soils that are flooded for part
or all of the year. Marshes develop in shallow standing
water such as ponds and protected bays. Aquatic plants (such as species of rushes) form thick stands,
which are rooted in sediments or become floating mats where the water is deeper. Swamps and marshes
occur most frequently in the southern and eastern portions of the basin.
39
Bogs form in shallow stagnant water. The most characteristic plant species are the sphagnum mosses,
which tolerate conditions that are too acidic for most other organisms. Dead sphagnum decomposes very
slowly, accumulating in mats that may eventually become many metres thick and form a dome well
above the original surface of the water. It is this material that is excavated and sold as peat moss. Peat
also accumulates in fens. Fens develop in shallow, slowly moving water. They are less acidic than bogs
and are usually fed by groundwater. Fens are dominated by sedges and grasses, but may include shrubs
and stunted trees. Fens and bogs are commonly referred to as 'peatlands' and occur most frequently in the
cooler northern and northwestern portions of the Great Lakes basin.
Wetlands serve important roles ecologically,
economically and socially to the overall health and
maintenance of the Great Lakes ecosystem. They
provide habitats for many kinds of plants and
animals, some of which are found nowhere else.
For ducks, geese and other migratory birds,
wetlands are the most important part of the
migratory cycle, providing food, resting places and
seasonal habitats. Economically, wetlands play an
essential role in sustaining a productive fishery. At
least 32 of the 36 species of Great Lakes fish
studied depend on coastal wetlands for their
successful reproduction. In addition to providing a
desirable habitat for aquatic life, wetlands prevent
damage from erosion and flooding, as well as
controlling point and nonpoint source pollution.
(Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario.)
Coastal wetlands along the Great Lakes include
some sites that are recognized internationally for
their outstanding biological significance. Examples included the Long Point complex and Point Pelee on
the north shore of Lake Erie and the National Wildlife Area on Lake St. Clair. Long Point also was
designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Wetlands of the lower Great Lakes region have also been
identified as a priority of the Eastern Habitat Joint Venture of the North American Waterfowl
Management Plan, an international agreement between governments and non-government organizations
(NGOs) to conserve highly significant wetlands.
Although wetlands are a fundamentally important element of the Great Lakes ecosystem and are of
obvious merit, their numbers continue to decline at an alarming rate. Over two-thirds of the Great Lakes
wetlands have already been lost and many of those remaining are threatened by development, drainage or
pollution.
Groundwater
Groundwater is important to the Great Lakes ecosystem because it provides a reservoir for storing water
and slowly replenishing the lakes in the form of base flow in the tributaries. It is also a source of drinking
water for many communities in the Great Lakes basin. Shallow groundwater also provides moisture to
plants.
As water passes through subsurface areas, some substances are filtered out, but some materials in the
soils become dissolved or suspended in the water. Salts and minerals in the soil and bedrock are the
40
source of what is referred to as 'hard' water, a common feature of well water in the lower Great Lakes
basin.
Groundwater can also pick up materials of human origin that have been buried in dumps and landfill
sites. Groundwater contamination problems can occur in both urban-industrial and agricultural areas.
Protection and inspection of groundwater is essential to protect the quality of the entire water supply
consumed by basin populations, because the underground movement of water is believed to be a major
pathway for the transport of pollution to the Great Lakes. Groundwater may discharge directly to the
lakes or indirectly as base flow to the tributaries.
Lake Levels
The Great Lakes are part of the global hydrologic
system. Prevailing westerly winds continuously
carry moisture into the basin in air masses from
other parts of the continent. At the same time, the
basin loses moisture in departing air masses by
evaporation and transpiration, and through the
outflow of the St. Lawrence River. Over time, the
quantity lost equals what is gained, but lake levels
can vary substantially over short-term, seasonal
and long-term periods.
During storms, high winds and rapid changes in
Day-to-day changes are caused by winds that push
barometric pressure cause severe wave conditions at
water on shore. This is called 'wind set-up' and is
shorelines. (D. Cowell, Geomatics International,
usually associated with a major lake storm, which
may last for hours or days. Another extreme form Burlington, Ontario.)
of oscillation, known as a 'seiche', occurs with rapid changes in winds and barometric pressure.
Annual or seasonal variations in water levels are based mainly on changes in precipitation and runoff to
the Great Lakes. Generally, the lowest levels occur in winter when much of the precipitation is locked up
in ice and snow on land, and dry winter air masses pass over the lakes enhancing evaporation. Levels are
highest in summer after the spring thaw when runoff increases.
The irregular long-term cycles correspond to long-term trends in precipitation and temperature, the
causes of which have yet to be adequately explained. Highest levels occur during periods of abundant
precipitation and lower temperatures that decrease evaporation. During periods of high lake levels,
storms cause considerable flooding and shoreline erosion, which often result in property damage. Much
of the damage is attributable to intensive shore development, which alters protective dunes and wetlands,
removes stabilizing vegetation, and generally reduces the ability of the shoreline to withstand the
damaging effects of wind and waves.
41
Great Lakes Hydrograph. The Hydrograph for the Great Lakes shows the variations in water levels and
the relationship of precipitation to water levels.
The International Joint Commission, the binational
agency established under the Boundary Waters Treaty of
1909 between Canada and the U.S., has the
responsibility for regulation of flows on the St. Marys
and the St. Lawrence Rivers. These channels have been
altered by
enlargement and
placement of control
Wind Set-up is a local rise in water caused by works associated with
winds pushing water to one side of a lake.
deep-draft shipping.
Agreements between the U.S. and Canada govern the flow through the
control works on these connecting channels.
The water from Lake Michigan flows to Lake Huron through the
Straits of Mackinac. These straits are deep and wide, resulting in Lakes
Michigan and Huron standing at the same elevation. There are no
artificial controls on the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers that could change
the flow from the Michigan-Huron Lakes system into Lake Erie. The
outflow of Lake Erie via the Niagara River is also uncontrolled, except
for some diversion of water through the Welland Canal. A large
percentage of the Niagara River flow is diverted through hydroelectric
power plants at Niagara Falls, but this diversion has no effect on lake
levels.
Studies of possible further regulation of flows and lake levels have
concluded that natural fluctuation is huge compared with the influence
of existing control works. Further regulation by engineering systems
could not be justified in light of the cost and other impacts. Just one
inch (two and a half centimetres) of water on the surface of Lakes
Michigan and Huron amounts to more than 36 billion cubic metres of
water (about 1,260 billion cubic feet).
High lake levels and severe weather
conditions can cause damage to
unprotected properties. Above,
shoreline damage to the southern
shore of Lake Michigan. (U.S.
National Parks Service, Indiana
Dunes National Lakeshore.)
42
Lake Processes: Stratification And Turnover
The Great Lakes are not simply large containers of
uniformly mixed water. They are, in fact, highly
dynamic systems with complex processes and a
variety of subsystems that change seasonally and on
longer cycles.
The stratification or layering of water in the lakes is
due to density changes caused by changes in
temperature. The density of water increases as
temperature decreases until it reaches its maximum
density at about 4° Celsius (39° Fahrenheit). This
causes thermal stratification, or the tendency of deep
lakes to form distinct layers in the summer months.
Deep water is insulated from the sun and stays cool
and more dense, forming a lower layer called the
'hypolimnion'. Surface and nearshore waters are
warmed by the sun, making them less dense so that
they form a surface layer called the 'epilimnion'. As
the summer progresses, temperature differences
increase between the layers. A thin middle layer, or
'thermocline', develops in which a rapid transition
in temperature occurs.
Layering of lake water as it warms in summer can
prevent the dispersion of effluents from tributaries,
causing increased concentration of pollutants near the
shore. (University of Wisconsin, Extension Service.)
The warm epilimnion supports most of the life in the lake. Algal production is greatest near the surface
where the sun readily penetrates. The surface layer is also rich in oxygen, which is mixed into the water
from the atmosphere. A second zone of high productivity exists just above the hypolimnion, due to
upward diffusion of nutrients. The hypolimnion is less productive because it receives less sunlight. In
some areas, such as the central basin of Lake Erie, it may lack oxygen because of decomposition of
organic matter.
In late fall, surface waters cool, become denser and descend, displacing deep waters and causing a
mixing or turnover of the entire lake. In winter, the temperature of the lower parts of the lake approaches
4° Celsius (39° Fahrenheit), while surface waters are cooled to the freezing point and ice can form. As
temperatures and densities of deep and shallow waters change with the warming of spring, another
turnover may occur. However, in most cases the lakes remain mixed throughout the winter.
43
Lake Stratification (Layering) and Turnover. Heat from the sun and changing seasons cause water in large lakes
to stratify or form layers. In winter, the ice cover stays at 0°C (32°F) and the water remains warmer below the ice
than in the air above. Water is most dense at 4°C (39°F). In the spring turnover, warmer water rises as the surface
heats up. In fall, surface waters cool, become denser and descend as heat is lost from the surface. In summer,
stratification is caused by a warming of surface waters, which form a distinct layer called the epilimnion. This is
separated from the cooler and denser waters of the hypolimnion by the thermocline, a layer of rapid temperature
transition. Turnover distributes oxygen annually throughout most of the lakes.
The layering and turnover of water annually are important for water quality. Turnover is the main way in
which oxygen-poor water in the deeper areas of the lakes can be mixed with surface water containing
more dissolved oxygen. This prevents anoxia, or complete oxygen depletion, of the lower levels of most
of the lakes. However, the process of stratification during the summer also tends to restrict dilution of
pollutants from effluents and land runoff.
During the spring warming period, the rapidly warming nearshore waters are inhibited from moving to
the open lake by a thermal bar, a sharp temperature gradient that prevents mixing until the sun warms the
open lake surface waters or until the waters are mixed by storms. Because the thermal bar holds
pollutants nearshore, they are not dispersed to the open waters and can become more concentrated within
the nearshore areas.
Living Resources
As an ecosystem, the Great Lakes basin is a unit of nature in which living organisms and nonliving things
interact adaptively. An ecosystem is fueled by the sun, which provides energy in the form of light and
heat. This energy warms the earth, the water and the air, causing winds, currents, evaporation and
precipitation. The light energy of the sun is essential for the photosynthesis of green plants in water and
on land. Plants grow when essential nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen are present with oxygen,
inorganic carbon and adequate water.
Plant material is consumed in the water by zooplankton, which graze the waters for algae, and on land by
plant-eating animals (herbivores). Next in the chain of energy transfer through the ecosystem are
organisms that feed on other animals (carnivores) and those that feed on both animals and plants
(omnivores). Together these levels of consumption constitute the food chain, or web, a system of energy
transfers through which an ecological community consisting of a complex of species is sustained. The
population of each species is determined by a system of checks and balances based on factors such as the
availability of food and the presence of predators, including disease organisms.
44
Every ecosystem also includes numerous processes to break down accumulated biomass (plants, animals
and their wastes) into the constituent materials and nutrients from which they originated. Decomposition
involves micro-organisms that are essential to the ecosystem because they recycle matter that can be used
again.
Stableecosystems are sustained by the interactions that cycle nutrients and energy in a balance between
available resources and the life that depends on those resources. In ecosystems, including the Great Lakes
basin, everything depends on everything else and nothing is ever really wasted.
The ecosystem of the Great Lakes and the life supported within it have continuously altered with time.
Through periods of climate change and glaciation, species moved in and out of the region; some perished
and others pioneered under changed circumstances. None of the changes, however, has been as rapid as
that which occurred with the arrival of European settlers.
When the first Europeans arrived in the basin nearly 400 years ago, it was a lush, thickly vegetated area.
Vast timber stands, consisting of oaks, maples and other hardwoods dominated the southern areas. Only a
very few small vestiges of the original forest remain today. Between the wooded areas were rich
grasslands with growth as high as 2 or 3 metres (7 to 10 feet). In the north, coniferous forests occupied
the shallow, sandy soils, interspersed by bogs and other wetlands.
The forest and grasslands supported a wide variety of life, such as moose in the wetlands and coniferous
woods, and deer in the grasslands and brush forests of the south. The many waterways and wetlands were
home to beaver and muskrat which, with the fox, wolf and other fur-bearing species, inhabited the mature
forest lands. These were trapped and traded as commodities by the native people and the Europeans.
Abundant bird populations thrived on the various terrains, some migrating to the south in winter, others
making permanent homes in the basin.
It is estimated that there were as many as 180
species of fish indigenous to the Great Lakes.
Those inhabiting the nearshore areas included
smallmouth and largemouth bass, muskellunge,
northern pike and channel catfish. In the open
water were lake herring, blue pike, lake whitefish,
walleye, sauger, freshwater drum, lake trout and
white bass. Because of the differences in the
characteristics of the lakes, the species
composition varied for each of the Great Lakes.
Warm, shallow Lake Erie was the most
productive, while deep Superior was the least
productive.
Double-crested Cormorants occupy an island in Lake Erie.
(Earth Images Foundation, St. Catharines, Ontario.)
Changes in the species composition of the Great Lakes basin in the last 200 years have been the result of
human activities. Many native fish species have been lost by overfishing, habitat destruction or the
arrival of exotic or non-indigenous species, such as the lamprey and the alewife. Pollution, especially in
the form of nutrient loading and toxic contaminants, has placed additional stresses on fish populations.
Other human-made stresses have altered reproductive conditions and habitats, causing some varieties to
migrate or perish. Still other effects on lake life result from damming, canal building, altering or
45
polluting tributaries to the lakes in which spawning takes place and where distinct ecosystems once
thrived and contributed to the larger basin ecosystem.
Information herein is provided by the U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office. Its use and
reference is unlimited, upon condition that the source is correctly attributed. Thank you. The Great Lakes
Atlas is also available on line.
http://epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/glat-ch2.html
46
Assessment
Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.1
Using as many examples as possible, each student will prepare and deliver a speech to convince
an interested friend, who hasn’t had Earth Science, that continental glaciers once covered
Michigan.
Students may include a well-labeled illustration.
Five examples of evidence supporting Ice Age theory:





The deposit of unsorted sediments (till) all over Michigan could only have been left
behind by glaciers, since mass wasting cannot operate near hilltops.
Parallel scratches on bedrock were created when glaciers dragged rock against rock.
Kettle lakes are depressions formed in glacial deposits created by melting ice blocks.
Moraine ridges are generally parallel to Great Lakes shorelines, suggesting that ice
advanced out of lake basins.
Large boulders of igneous or metamorphic origin left in sedimentary regions (erratics)
are too large and widespread to have been moved any other way.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.1
Criteria
Explanation of
relationships
between surface
feature and
glaciation
Apprentice
Explains the
relationship for
one to three
examples of
evidence.
Basic
Explains the
relationship for
four examples of
evidence.
Meets
Explains the
relationship for
five examples of
evidence.
Exceeds
Explains and
illustrates the
relationship for
five examples of
evidence.
47
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Geosphere
Grade Level Standard:
8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark:
2. Use the plate tectonics theory to explain features of
the earth’s surface and geological phenomena and describe evidence
for the plate tectonics theory. (V.1.HS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What evidence says that the earth’s outer layer is
composed of large moving processes?
1.
Place a tub/bucket filled half way with water at each
student work station. Next to the containers you will
have 4-6 different sized, shaped, and weighted pieces
of wood. One piece of wood will be placed in/on the
surface of the water at a time. Place one washer at a
time on the blocks of wood until the wood sinks or
dumps the washers. Repeat these steps until each
piece of wood has been tested. The water represents
the earth’s crust. The blocks of wood represent the
tectonic plates. The washers symbolize the stress that
causes the plates to move different ways.
2.
“A Model of Three Faults” 
http://interactive2.usgs.gov/lea
rningweb/teachers/faults.htm
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
floating, crust, mantle, strike-slip, boundary, divergent
boundary, convergent boundary, plate tectonics, stress
48
A MODEL OF THREE FAULTS
BACKGROUND
One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severe
earthquake and its terrible aftereffects. An earthquake is a sudden movement of
the Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain that has accumulated over a long
time. For hundreds of millions of years, the forces of plate tectonics have shaped
the Earth as the huge plates that form the Earth's surface slowly move over, under
and past each other. Sometimes the movement is gradual. At other times, the
plates are locked together, unable to release the accumulating energy. When the
accumulated energy grows strong enough, the plates break free. If the earthquake
occurs in a populated area, it may cause many deaths and injuries and extensive
property damage.
Today we are challenging the assumption that earthquakes must present an
uncontrollable and unforecastable hazard to life and property. Scientists have
begun to estimate the locations and likelihoods of future damaging earthquakes.
Sites of greatest hazard are being identified, and designing structures that will
withstand the effects of earthquakes.
OBJECTIVE
Students will observe fault movements on a model of the earth's surface.
TIME NEEDED
1 or 2 Class periods
MATERIALS NEEDED
• Physiographic map of the world (per group)
• Crayons or colored pens
• Scissors
• Tape or glue
• Metric ruler
• Construction paper
• Fault Model Sheet (included)
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Have students work in pairs or small groups.
2. Display the fault models in the classroom after the activity.
3. An excellent world physiographic map showing the ocean floor, can be
obtained from the National Geographic Society.
49
EXPLORATION PHASE – PART 1
1. You may wish to introduce this activity by asking students:
a. Can you name a famous fault?
b. What happens when giant fractures develop on the Earth and the pieces
move relative to one another?
2. Illustrate compressive earth movements using a large sponge by squeezing
from both sides, causing uplift. Using a piece of latex rubber with a wide mark
drawn on it, illustrate earth tension, by pulling the ends of the latex to show
stretching and thinning.
3. Have students construct a fault model using the Fault Model Sheet.
Instructions to students:
a. Color the fault model that is included according to the color key provided.
b. Paste or glue the fault model onto a piece of construction paper.
c. Cut out the fault model and fold each side down to form a box with the
drawn features on top.
d. Tape or glue the corners together. This box is a three dimensional model
or the top layers of the Earth’s crust.
e. The dashed lines on your model represent a fault. Carefully cut along the
dashed lines. You will end up with two pieces. You may wish to have your
students tape or glue a piece of construction paper on the side of two fault
blocks along the fault face. This will help with the demonstration. Note that
an enlarged version of the fault block model can be made for classroom
demonstrations.
4. Have students develop a model of a normal fault.
a. Instructions to students: Locate points A and B on your model. Move point
B so that it is next to Point A. Observe your model from the side (its crosssection). Have students draw the normal fault as represented by the model
they have just constructed.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – PART 1
1. Ask the following questions:
a. Which way did point B move relative to point A?
b. What happened to rock layers X, Y, and Z?
c. Are the rock layers still continuous?
d. What likely happened to the river? the road? the railroad tracks?
e. Is this type of fault caused by tension, compression, or shearing?
2. Explain that this type of fault is known as a normal fault.
3. Have students label their drawing “normal fault”.
50
4. Many normal faults are found in Nevada. This is because Nevada is located in
a region called the Basin and Range Province where the lithosphere is
stretching.
EXPLORATION PHASE – PART 2
1. Have students develop a model of a thrust fault. Instructions to students:
a. Locate points C and D on your model. Move Point C next to point D.
Observe the cross-section of your model.
b. Have students draw the thrust fault as represented by the model they have
just constructed.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – PART 2
1. Ask the following questions:
a. Which way did point D move relative to point C?
b. What happened to rock layers X, Y, and Z?
c. Are the rock layers still continuous?
d. What likely happened to the river? the road? the railroad tracks?
e. Is this type of fault caused by tension, compression, or shearing?
2. Explain that this type of fault is known as a thrust fault.
3. Have students label their drawing “thrust fault”.
4. An example of a thrust fault is the fault in which the Northridge earthquake
occurred. The thrusting movement raised the mountains in the area by as
much as 70 cm.
EXPLORATION PHASE – PART 3
1. Have students develop a model of a strike-slip fault. Instructions to students:
a. Locate points F and G on your model. Move the pieces of the model so
that point F is next to point G.
b. Have students draw an overhead view of the surface as it looks after
movement along the fault.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – PART 3
1. Ask the following questions:
a. If you were standing at point F and looking across the fault, which way did
the block on the opposite side move?
b. What happened to rock layers X, Y, and Z?
c. Are the rock layers still continuous?
d. What likely happened to the river? the road? the railroad tracks?
51
e. If the scale used in this model is 1 mm = 2m, how many meters did the
earth move when the strike-slip fault caused point F to move alongside
point G? (Note that this scale would make an unlikely size for the railroad
track!) If there were a sudden horizontal shift of this magnitude it would be
about five times the shift that occurred in the 1906 San Andres fault as a
result of the San Francisco earthquake.
f. If this type of fault is known as a strike-slip fault.
2. Explain that this type of fault is known as a strike-slip fault.
3. Have students label their drawing “strike-slip fault”.
4. Explain to students that a strike-slip fault can be described as having right or
left-lateral movement. If you look directly across the fault, the direction that the
opposite side moved defines whether the movement is left-lateral movement.
If you look directly across the fault, the direction that the opposite side moved
defines whether the movement is left-lateral or right-lateral. The San Andreas
fault in California is a right-lateral strike-slip fault.
APPLICATION PHASE
1. Explain that faults are often (but not always) found near plate boundaries and
that each type of fault is frequently associated with specific types of plate
movements. However, you can probably find all types of fault movement
associated with each type of plate boundary.
a. Normal faults are often associated with divergent (tensional) boundaries.
b. Thrust faults are often associated with convergent (compressional)
boundaries.
c. Strike-slip faults are often associated with transform (sliding) boundaries.
2. Ask the following questions:
a. What kind of faults would you expect to find in the Himalaya Mountains?
b. What kind of faults would you expect to find along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?
Why?
c. What kind of fault is the San Andreas Fault? Is California likely to “fall off in
the Pacific Ocean”? Why?
3. Explain that not all faults are associated with plate boundaries. Explain that
there is a broad range of faults based on type, linear extension, displacement,
age, current or historical activity and location on continental or oceanic crust.
Have students research examples of non-plate boundary faults.
4. Explain to students that the stresses and strains in the earth’s upper layers are
induced by many causes: thermal expansion and contraction, gravitational
forces, solid-earth tidal forces, specific volume changes because of mineral
phase transitions, etc. Faulting is one of the various manners of mechanical
adjustment or release of such stress and strain.
5. Have students research and report on the types of faults found in your state?
52
EXTENSION
1. Have students identify the fault movements in the recent Loma Prieta,
California earthquake.
2. Have students research the fault histories and recent theories concerning the
Northridge, California Earthquake, the New Madrid, Missouri, and the
Anchorage, Alaska fault zones.
COLORING KEY
• Rock Layer X - green
• Rock Layer Y - yellow
• Rock Layer Z - red
• River -blue
• Road -black
• Railroad tracks - brown
• Grass -green
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA
URL http://interactive2.usgs.gov/learningweb/teachers/faults.htm
Earth science questions: Earth Science Information Center
Page contact: Learning Web Team
USGS Privacy Statement
USGS Child Privacy Policy
Last modification: 22 March 2001
53
FAULT MODEL SHEET
54
Assessment
Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.2
Each student will be given a world map including epicenter locations along with magnitude and
depth to hypocenter data. "Hypocenter" is a modern alternative to "focus," the place underground
where the slippage actually began. The teacher will assign a particular plate to each student. The
student will analyze that plate’s boundaries and distinguish between tensional and compressional
boundaries.
Note: A tensional plate boundary is characterized by shallow hypocenter, lower magnitude
quakes. A compressional boundary involving an ocean plate is often a subduction zone where
quakes are arranged in deepening bands under the continent and where magnitudes tend to be
greater.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.2
Criteria
Apprentice
Analysis of data
Identifies one:
either type of
boundary, depth
of hypocenters, or
magnitudes.
Basic
Identifies two:
boundary and
either depth of
hypocenters or
magnitude.
Meets
Exceeds
Identifies all
three: types of
boundary, depth
of hypocenters,
and magnitude of
quakes.
Identifies and
explains with the
aid of a diagram
the relationships
between type of
boundary, depth
of hypocenters,
and magnitude of
quakes.
55
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Geosphere
Grade Level Standard:
8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark:
3. Explain how common objects are made from earth
materials and why earth materials are conserved and recycled. (V.I.HS.3)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
Is recycling necessary for naturally occurring
materials?
1.
Make a list of 10 items the students use everyday and
group them into man made vs. naturally occurring.
2.
Compare and contrast the prices and costs of new
versus recycled products.
3.
Paper—Is recycling necessary/beneficial for the year
“20_ _”?
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
land development, renewable and non-renewable resources
56
Assessment
Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.3
Each student will create a written, oral, visual, or multimedia presentation including the
following information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
How the chosen object is made from Earth materials
How the material is conserved and/or recycled
Location of mines
Chemical composition of resource
Physical form of ore (color, density of ore, and texture)
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring For Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.3
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Information on
material
Presents brief
description of
mine location(s)
or form of
material.
Describes mine
location(s) or
form of material.
Describes mine
location(s) and in
what form
material is found.
Describes mine
location(s), form
of material, and
geologic origin of
ore.
Processing of
material
Describes one:
mining process,
refining process,
or forms of
energy required.
Describes two:
mining process,
refining process,
or forms of
energy required.
Describes mining
process, refining
process, and
forms of energy
required.
Describes mining
process, refining
process, and
forms of energy
required at each
step.
Recycling/
conservation of
material
Describes
methods of
recycling or
conservation.
Describes
methods of
recycling and
conservation.
Describes
methods of
recycling,
conservation, and
alternative
materials.
Describes
methods and costs
of recycling,
conservation, and
alternative
materials.
57
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Geosphere
Grade Level Standard:
8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark:
4. Evaluate alternative long range plans for resources
use and by-product disposal in terms of environmental and economic impact.
(V.1.HS.4)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What is the long range effect of use and disposal of
various natural resources?
1.
Have students design an efficient public transportation
system from the chosen city map given by a teacher
(bus/underground train).
2.
Role play towns people, city council, and recycling
company in scenario that people do not want
recycling/dumping sites near homes. City council
needs money and the company cannot find a better
deal.
3.
Compare and contrast (round table discussion) that list
alterative resources. Make lists for and against
resources, reusable costs, and efficiency.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
raw materials, solar energy, solid and toxic waste, biodiversity,
cost efficiency, conservation, incinerator, fuel efficiency
58
Assessment
Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.4
Each student will write a letter of inquiry to a local industry identified as a polluter on the EPA
website and ask for information regarding pollution control methods they now employ to ensure
compliance with EPA rules and regulations.
Note: It is suggested that the content portion of the rubric below be weighted at twice the value
of the written or presentation portions.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.4
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Effectiveness of
presentation
Explains topic
with minimum
understanding,
little or no
creativity, and no
or poor visuals.
Explains topic
with basic
understanding,
some creativity,
and some visuals.
Explains topic
with good
understanding in
a creative manner
using visuals.
Explains topic
with a thorough
understanding in
a creative manner
using customized
visuals.
Content of
presentation
Meets one or two
of the following
accurately:
identifies site,
pollutant,
pollution type,
pollution control
measures.
Meets any three
of the following
accurately:
identifies site,
pollutant,
pollution type,
pollution control
measures.
Accurately
identifies site,
pollutant,
pollution type,
and pollution
control measures.
Accurately
identifies site,
pollutant,
pollution type,
and explains
pollution control
measures.
Correctness of
letter (pass/fail)
Uses correct
grammar,
business letter
format, and
clearly states
request.
Uses correct
grammar,
business letter
format, and
clearly states
request.
Uses correct
grammar,
business letter
format, and
clearly states
request.
Uses correct
grammar,
business letter
format, and
clearly states
request.
59
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Hydrosphere
Grade Level Standard:
8-4 Analyze the hydrosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Identify and describe regional watersheds. (V.2.HS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What are the characteristics of the watershed in which
you live?
1.
H.O.M.E.S. stands for (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie,
Superior) Great Lakes exercise on a map.
2.
Create graphs and charts of toxic and pollution levels in
each of the Great Lakes in the past; 50, 100, and 150
years.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
Great Lakes Region, basins, reservoir, dam, drainage basin,
tributary, runoff
60
Assessment
Grade 8
HYDROSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.1
Provided with a map of your county emphasizing the surface streams (rivers, creeks, etc.), lakes,
and ponds, each student will complete the four tasks listed below:
1. Draw arrows on each stream indicating the direction of flow of streams, lakes, and
ponds
2. Draw drainage divides (lines where water on either side of the divide line flows in
different directions, to different watersheds)
3. Name watersheds according to the largest stream that flows out of the county
4. From the internet, compare/contrast your watershed map with watersheds identified by
the USGS database
Note: A stream is a general name for all rivers, creeks, runs, tributaries, etc. A tributary is a
stream that flows into another stream.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.1
Note: Because the map will be specific to the region, the total number of streams, drainage
divides, and watersheds will vary. Therefore, specific numbers could not be indicated on the
rubric but could be added at any time by a teacher to allow for adaptation to a specific area or
region.
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Completeness of
contents
Meets one:
identifies flow
direction, divides,
watersheds,
matches USGS
watershed
boundaries.
Meets two:
identifies flow
direction, divides,
watersheds,
matches USGS
watershed
boundaries.
Meets three:
identifies flow
direction, divides,
watersheds,
matches USGS
watershed
boundaries.
Identifies flow
direction, divides,
watersheds,
matches USGS
watershed
boundaries.
61
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Hydrosphere
Grade Level Standard:
8-4 Analyze the hydrosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark:
2. Describe how many human activities affect the quality
of water in the hydrosphere. (V.2.HS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How does water quality change as streams flow from
its head waters through its watershed?
1.
Water purification test of tap, drinking fountain, bottled
and purified (tap-boiled) water.
2.
Water taste test of tap, drinking fountain bottled, and
purified (tap-boiled) water.
3.
Lab – take 5-6 full glass of water. Add 1 cup of either;
motor oil, vegetable oil, salt, rock salt, or ink. See
which substances settle faster/slower and become thick
or stay loose once settling.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
purify, purification, filtration, and chlorination
62
Assessment
Grade 8
HYDROSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.2
The teacher will provide each small group with a map of an unfamiliar watershed that notes
industries, farms, and any other point sources of pollution. The students will be given the
following scenario:
Imagine that a large concentration of a single pollutant (e.g., DDT, mercury, liquid agricultural
waste, etc.) is released into the environment at a single point in the watershed.
What effects will the pollutant have?
Each group will trace the flow of pollutants, predict concentration levels, and describe the impact
the pollutant might have on living things at different locations in the watershed. Each group will
present this information to the class.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.2
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Completeness of
presentation
Explains all
components, but
all are
incomplete:
downstream flow,
pollutant
concentration
downstream, and
impact on living
organisms
downstream.
Explains one
component,
leaving two
incomplete:
downstream flow,
pollutant
concentration
downstream, and
impact on living
organisms
downstream.
Explains two
components,
leaving one
incomplete:
downstream flow,
pollutant
concentration
downstream, and
impact on living
organisms
downstream.
Explains all
components:
downstream flow,
pollutant
concentration
downstream, and
impact on living
organisms
downstream.
63
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Atmosphere and Weather
Grade Level Standard:
8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Explain how interactions of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and geosphere create climates and how climates change over time.
(V.3.HS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
geosphere cause climates to change?
1.
Keep temperature log of areas for one week and
compare (near water, away from water, and higher on a
hill or lower in a valley) in your local area.
2.
“Direction and Speed of Weather” 
http://www.coollessons.org/W
eather9.htm
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
high/low pressure, barometer, thermometer, Celsius,
Fahrenheit, green house effect, el niño, la niña
64
DIRECTION AND SPEED OF WEATHER
Do storms move in a pattern or are they random?
Use Radar Summary from Intellicast/WSI Corp. , Radar Loop from Intellicast/WSI
Corp., the US Loop Satellite Map from Yahoo! Weather, or Radar Sumary from the
Weather Channel to note storms as they move across Canada, the continental United
States, Mexico and the Caribbean. Or use the Radar Plots from Unisys in which you
can choose radar images for the past twelve hours.
Please follow these directions:
1. Obtain a weather map handout from your teacher.
2. Choose two sections of storms, one over the United States and one over the
Caribbean (perhaps south of Florida and north of Puerto Rico or Cuba).
3. Find out where these storms were hours ago using the links above. Mark the
positions of the storms on the weather map. Do this by putting a number 1 inside of
a circle to mark the position of the storm over the U.S.
4. Repeat this for the storm over the Caribbean by putting a number 1 inside of a
square to mark the position of the clouds/storms.
5. Mark the later positions of the storms you are tracking in both locations using a
number 2, etc.
6. Draw a line on the weather map connecting the circles showing the direction the
clouds/storms over the U.S.
7. Repeat this for the clouds/storms over the Caribbean (near Cuba) by drawing a line
on the weather map connecting the squares.
What is your conclusion? Do the clouds/storms move in a pattern or do they
move randomly? If they do move in a pattern, what is the pattern?
65
How fast does weather move?
Use the lesson for "Watch out radar! Here comes a speeder!" to find out how fast
weather moves.
This unit was developed by Bill Byles, Staff Development Coordinator, Teaching &
Learning Academy, Memphis City Schools and a co-founder of
internet4classrooms.com It is used here with permission.
Copyright © 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Richard Levine
This site is for non-profit, educational use only. If you have any comments, questions or
resources you would like to see added to these pages, contact Richard Levine, Cool
Lessons, Educational Technology Consultant, [email protected]
http://www.coollessons.org/Weather9.htm
66
WebGuide
An Internet based lesson
A lesson built around a single Internet Site
Subject: Earth Science or Math
Grade Level(s): 6-8
Lesson Title: "Watch out radar! Here comes a speeder!"
Internet Site Title: United States RadarLoop by Intellicast.com
Internet Site URL: http://www.intellicast.com/LocalWeather/World/UnitedStates/
RadarLoop/
Site Description: This site as a loop of seven images which cover a span of six hours.
Each time the image changes, an hour has passed. When you first get to the site you
will have to scroll down so you can see the entire contiguous US map. Notice the top
left corner of the map has the time and date in GMT (Greenwich Mean Time). Each
time that the image changes you will see the time increase one hour. During months
during which Daylight Saving Time is in effect, the Central time zone is five hours earlier
on a clock (six during Standard Time). Colors are explained on the bottom left corner of
the map. You will occasionally see weather events develop and spread across an area.
Usually you will be able to see some line of weather that moves across an area during
the six hour time span.
Site Purpose: You are looking for a weather pattern that moves across the map. Most
movement will be from west to east. Watch several loops of the map until you can
locate some line of clouds that moves across an area. Look for areas with yellow or red.
Mark a clear starting point for that line and a clear finish point. If the event breaks up or
stops before the entire six hours pass, use only a portion of the six hour span. Count
the number of times the image shifts. That will be how many hours pass. Your starting
and finish points will allow you to calculate distance. Knowing what distance an object
moved in what time period will allow you to calculate the speed of the object.
Lesson Introduction: You will work in groups of three. Someone in your group should
have an outline map of the US before going to this site.
Final Product or Task: You will use an Excel spreadsheet, or pocket calculator, to
calculate the speed with which a line of thunderstorms moved across a given state.
Your results and to be reported with a one-page Word document on which you have
inserted an image from the Internet. Your group will present a report of the area you
chose to the class, using the saved image of your radar loop. Make a prediction where
the weather feature you were watching will be in six hours, and defend your prediction
to the class.
67
Lesson Description: Open the US Radar Loop site using the URL given above. Assign
a different portion of the map on your computer screen to each group member. Watch
several loops of the Doppler Radar map until you identify a place where a clear pattern
emerges. If more than one looks promising, your group should come to an agreement
about which one will be used. Mark the map while watching the film loop. Do not trust
memory to mark the map later. Also make a notation of the colors involved in the line of
weather that you were watching. Save the image of the loop you are watching. This can
not be saved to a disk, it is too large. Save the file to the shared folder, remember to
rename the film loop. When your group has marked the two map points, move to the
center where larger maps are located.
As exactly as possible, determine the number of miles between the starting and finish
points. Use the smaller map to pinpoint two spots on a larger map. Measure the
number of centimeters (to the nearest tenth) between the two map points. Using the
scale of the map, determine distance between the two points. As an example; if one
centimeter equals 20 miles, a distance of 15 centimeters on the map is equal to 300
miles.
Calculate the speed of the line of weather.
Move back to a computer and report the results of your calculations. Include the part of
the country where this happened, report the speed of the weather and indicate how
severe the weather was (remember the colors?). Make a prediction as to where the line
will be in six more hours. Include an image with your report. Be sure all three group
members names are on the report, then save it to the shared folder for evaluation.
Open your radar loop from the shared folder before starting your report to the class.
Conclusion: In a previous lesson we learned that fast moving cold fronts push warm air
up rapidly producing turbulent air, large powerful thunderstorm, and sometimes even
tornadoes. Knowing the speed with which a front is approaching, you may be able to
warn family members about approaching weather problems. Even slow moving events
can be used. If you know how far the event moved in six hours, you can predict when it
will arrive at your location. In the winter you might even predict if snow will arrive early
enough to close school before it starts. Consult this site from time to time, and notice
the kind of patterns that develop.
WebGuide template provided by Internet4Classrooms
http://www.internet4classrooms.com/webguide_template_example.htm
68
Assessment
Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.1
The teacher will present the following scenario to the class:
Assume that the Earth’s rotational axis is tilted so that the North Pole always directly faces the
Sun.
Each student will write a list of predictions that describe the altitude of the Sun, the length of the
day, seasonal changes, and temperature conditions that would result on such an Earth.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.1
Criteria
Predictions of
changes
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Predicts one
component:
altitude of the
Sun, length of the
day, seasonal
changes, and
temperature
conditions.
Predicts two
components but
leaves two
incomplete:
altitude of the
Sun, length of the
day, seasonal
changes, and
temperature
conditions.
Predicts three
components but
leaves one
incomplete:
altitude of the
Sun, length of the
day, seasonal
changes, and
temperature
conditions.
Predicts all four
components:
altitude of the
Sun, length of the
day, seasonal
changes, and
temperature
conditions.
69
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Atmosphere and Weather
Grade Level Standard:
8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark:
2. Describe patterns of air movement in the atmosphere
and how they affect weather conditions. (V.3.HS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How do horizontal motions of the air vary and
contribute to the type of weather?
1.
Use resource to track high and low pressure systems
as well as fronts for one week.
2.
Make weather vane to track the wind patterns around
student’s home throughout the course of the day.
Check the weather vane before school, after school,
and before bed.
USA Today Newspaper
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
fronts, jet stream, air masses, prevailing winds, anemometer,
weather/wind vane, weather map
70
Assessment
Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.2
The teacher will present the following scenario to the class:
A group of meteorology students has already completed a study in which they compare the wind
direction and temperature of many cities before and after a cold front passes. They wish to
display their wind direction data on a wind rose diagram.
Each student will draw a likely wind rose diagram for all of those cities before the front passes
and after the front passes. Each student will write a prediction of what changes in temperature
might be expected due to a change in wind direction caused by the passage of the front.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.2
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Identification of
wind direction
before and after
the front
Identifies change
in wind direction
with incorrect
compass
direction(s).
Identifies wind
Identifies wind
direction before or direction before
after front passage. (S-SW) and after
NW-N) front
passage.
Identifies wind
direction before
(S-SW) and after
(NW-N) front
passage.
Drawing of wind
rose diagram
before and after
the front passes
Names compass
direction.
Names compass
direction and
identifies wind
direction.
Names compass
direction and
identifies wind
direction and wind
duration.
Names compass
direction,
identifies wind
direction and
duration, and
explains effect of
frontal speed on
wind duration.
Accuracy of
predictions
Associates either
change in wind or
change in
temperature with
frontal passage.
Associates change
in wind direction
with temperature
change (incorrect
association).
Associates change
in wind direction
with changes in
temperature (SSW = warmer, NNW - cooler).
Associates change
in the wind
direction with
changes in
temperature and
explains how
speed of frontal
movement alters
changes in wind
direction and
temperature.
71
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Atmosphere and Weather
Grade Level Standard:
8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark:
3. Explain and predict general weather patterns and
storms. (V.3.HS.3)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How can weather and storms be explained using
common features found on a weather map?
1.
Have students look at one weeks worth of weather,
past occurrences on Monday. Have them try and
predict the weather forecast for the week to come
knowing what has already happened.
2.
What is the relationship between altitude and
weather? 
3.
What is the relationship between latitude and
weather? 
USA Today
Altitude and Temperature
http://www.coollessons.org/W
eather1.htm
Latitude and Temperature
http://www.coollessons.org/W
eather2.htm
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
hypothesis, infer, theory
72
ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE
A radiosonde is released to investigate high altitude weather.
What is the relationship between the altitude of a place and it's temperature? Is
there a pattern or is it random?
There are a few ways to approach this question. Please use one method:
Compare the temperatures of six weather stations located at various altitudes.
1. Try to choose weather stations close to the same time zone so that the stations
are receiving approximately the same amount of sunlight.
2. Make a data table using a spreadsheet with the variables of "Altitude" and
"Temperature".
3. Arrange the altitude of weather stations in ascending order.
4. Record the temperature of the corresponding stations.
5. Graph altitude and temperature.
For information on temperatures of various weather stations, use Unisys Weather Map
(click on the picture of the map or the region you wish to look at),WW210 (scroll down
and click on surface observations map of the U.S. or your local region) from the
University of Illinois, and/or Florida State University Weather Charts.
For information on the latitudes of various weather stations, use The Geographic
Database or Geographic Names Information System (in the "Feature Name" box type
the city; in the "State or Territory Name" box click on the down arrow and choose the
state).
73
Compare the temperature on the ground to the temperature above the ground.
1. Make a data table using a spreadsheet with the variables of "Altitude (ft.)",
"Upper Air Temperatures (F)".
2. Go to Unisys Weather Upper Air Plots.
3. On the right side, under "PLOTS",you will find 3000, 6000, 9000, etc.
4. Click on the plot 3000 ft. Find a weather station. Record the temperature.
5. Repeat for readings that are at 6,000 feet, 9000 ft., etc. above the surface
stations you chose. Record the corresponding upper air temperatures.
6. Graph the altitudes and the temperatures.
What is your conclusion? Does the altitude of a place and it's temperature have a
pattern or are they random? If there is a pattern, what is the relationship?
Copyright © 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Richard Levine
This site is for non-profit, educational use only. If you have any comments, questions or
resources you would like to see added to these pages, contact Richard Levine, Cool
Lessons, Educational Technology Consultant, [email protected]
Disclaimer: This site provides teachers, students and parents with these links simply
as a starting point for them to explore the vast resources of the Internet. The sites that
are listed within this page are individually responsible for the content and accuracy of
the information found in their site.
http://www.coollessons.org/Weather1.htm
74
LATITUDE AND TEMPERATURE
What is the relationship between the latitude of a place and its temperature?
Compare the latitude of five weather stations and the present temperatures of those
stations. Try to choose weather stations close to the same longitude line so that the
stations are receiving approximately the same amount of sunlight.
Make a data table using a spreadsheet with the variables of "Latitude" and
"Temperature". Round off the latitude to the nearest degree and arrange the latitude of
weather stations in ascending order. Record the temperature of the corresponding
stations. Graph latitude and temperature.
For information on temperatures of various weather stations, use Unisys Weather Map
(click on the picture of the map or the region you wish to look at), WW210 (scroll down
and click on surface observations map of the U.S. or your local region) from the
University of Illinois, and/or Florida State University Weather Charts.
For information on the latitudes of various weather stations, use The Geographic
Database or Geographic Names Information System (in the "Feature Name" box type
the city; in the "State or Territory Name" box click on the down arrow and choose the
state).
What is your conclusion? Does the latitude of a place and its temperature have a
pattern or are they random? If there is a pattern, what is the relationship?
Copyright © 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Richard Levine
This site is for non-profit, educational use only. If you have any comments, questions or
resources you would like to see added to these pages, contact Richard Levine, Cool
Lessons, Educational Technology Consultant, [email protected]
Disclaimer: This site provides teachers, students and parents with these links simply
as a starting point for them to explore the vast resources of the Internet. The sites that
are listed within this page are individually responsible for the content and accuracy of
the information found in their site.
http://www.coollessons.org/Weather2.htm
75
Assessment
Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.3
Students should be grouped by continents and will view a world map showing major landforms.
Each group will prepare a short speech explaining why there are fewer tornadoes on other
continents than on the Great Plains of North America.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.3
Criteria
Accuracy of
interpretation
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Provides
inadequate
interpretation of
the effect of
east/west blocking
mountains,
suitable air mass
source regions,
movements of air
masses, and degree
of difference in air
masses.
Provides basic
interpretations of
the effect of
east/west blocking
mountains,
suitable air mass
source regions,
movements of air
masses, and degree
of difference in air
masses.
Provides good
interpretations of
the effect of
east/west blocking
mountains,
suitable air mass
source regions,
movements of air
masses, and degree
of difference in air
masses.
Provides a
thorough and
accurate
interpretation of
the effect of
east/west blocking
mountains,
suitable air mass
source regions,
movements of air
masses, and degree
of difference in air
masses.
76
Earth/Space Science
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Atmosphere and Weather
Grade Level Standard:
8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark:
4. Explain the impact of human activities on the
atmosphere and explain ways that individuals and society can reduce pollution.
(V.3.HS.4)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What human activities produce pollution and how can
we control air quality?
1.
Discussion of Rain Forest:
 deforestation of the Amazon Rain Forest
 depletion of the ozone layer
2.
Discuss the positive effects of car pooling; working from
home on the environment.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
deforestation, smog, global warming, aerosol/spray, ozone
layer
77
Assessment
Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.4
The teacher will present the following scenario:
A company that offers many jobs and other economic benefits makes a presentation to a
community to get support to build a factory within that community. The factory will produce
airborne pollutants (e.g., particulates, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, ozone, etc.).
Working in small groups, students will develop a list of pros and cons as to whether this industry
is a viable addition to their community. Each pro and con listed must be described. Possible
health effects of the pollutants must be described. Each group will provide a recommendation as
to whether the factory should be allowed in their community and the reasons for the
recommendation..
Note: Teachers may select one or more specific industries that may be realistically located in the
students’ community. Already developed realistic scenarios are available on the web.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.4
Criteria
Apprentice
Basic
Meets
Exceeds
Correctness of
pollutant
identification
Identifies
pollutants and/or
health effects
poorly.
Identifies most
pollutants and/or
health effects
correctly.
Identifies all
pollutants and/or
health effects
correctly.
Identifies all
pollutants and/or
explains resulting
health effects
correctly.
Correctness of
positive aspects
Identifies some
pros.
Identifies most
pros.
Identifies all pros.
Identifies and
explains all pros.
Correctness of
negative aspects
Identifies some
cons.
Identifies most
cons.
Identifies all cons.
Identifies and
explains all cons.
Completeness of
recommendation
Recommends a
course of action
without support.
Recommends a
Recommends a
Recommends a
course of action
course of action
well-supported
with some support. with good support. course of action.
78
Science Processes
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Science Processes
Grade Level Standard:
8-6 Construct an experiment using the scientific
meaning.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Use the scientific processes to construct meaning.
(I.1.HS.1-5)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
What is the scientific method?
1.
“Observing” 
2.
Observing Solid Mass.
Re-do experiment 1 except use a water bath and have
a student from each group hold each object in their
hand and place it in the water bath for one minute. Use
solids; shale, limestone, ice, rock salt.
Book: Science Process Skills,
Dr. Karen L. Ostlund. pp. 76,
77, 79, 81, 85, 90
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
scientific method, procedure
79
Name ______________________________________________________
OBSERVING
1. Use the senses of sight, smell, and touch to describe the mixture.
Color: _____________________________________________________
Texture: ___________________________________________________
Shape: ____________________________________________________
Odor: _____________________________________________________
2. Poke your finger into the mixture quickly. Describe what happens.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Poke your finger into the mixture slowly. Describe what happens.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. Tap the mixture in the pie tin with your fist. Describe what happens.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
5. Pick up some of the mixture and roll it into a ball. Describe what happens.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
6. Pour the mixture into the container. Describe what happens.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
© Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. all rights reserved.
80
Science Processes
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Science Processes
Grade Level Standard:
8-7 Reflect on scientific processes.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Reflect on scientific processes in experiments/
investigations. (II.6.HS.1-6)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How do you record information?
1.
“Investigating” 
2.
Use the census information given by local government
and chart the population increase or decrease using
both graphs (all types) and charts. Students will now
know when and why certain data displays are used.
Book: Science Process Skills,
Dr. Karen L. Ostlund. pp. 99,
105, 106, 108, 111
 Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
data table
81
Name ______________________________________________________
INVESTIGATING
1. Problem: Which rubber band will stretch the most when 500 grams of
weight are added? Design and conduct an investigation to help you find out.
2. Describe what you will do to find out which rubber band stretches the most
when 500 grams of weight are added.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Construct a chart to show your results.
Rubber Band
Width
Length before
Weight
Length after
Weight
Difference
© Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. all rights reserved.
82
Name ______________________________________________________
4. Graph the results listed in your chart.
Title _______________________
Stretch in Millimeters with 500 g Weights
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
1
2
3
4
5
6
Width of Rubber Band in Millimeters
5. Conclusion: Which rubber band stretches the most?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
6. What did you learn from this investigation?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
© Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. all rights reserved.
83
Science Processes
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Science Processes
Grade Level Standard:
8-8 Use the scientific method for investigation.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Use the scientific method to communicate scientific
knowledge gained through investigation.
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How do we use the Scientific Method?
1.
Have students bring in a sealed shoe box with 5 items
they have selected to put in it. Students will then pass
each shoe box around using the scientific method to
hypothesize what they believe is inside the box. After
every student has gone, open each box and ask how
and why the students made some of their assumptions.
2.
Have students do a rock identification test. They will
have four rocks. Some smooth, rough, large and small
crystals, and different colors. They will them try and
guess what type of rock it is based on their use of the
scientific method.
Sample products on hand:
crystals, different types of
rocks
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
scientific method
84
Technology
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Technology
Grade Level Standard:
8-9 Choose the appropriate technological tool.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Use a variety of technology in scientific
investigation/experiments.
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
How do we use the Scientific Method?
1.
Research: Write one page research paper based upon
the materials found only on the Internet.
2.
Create Documents: Write one page research project (23 people per group) on how technology and pollution
are/are not related.
3.
Presentation: Poster project topics depicting one of the
following: “Ecosystems, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, or
Atmosphere and Weather.”
Computer Lab
Internet Capabilities
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
Internet
85
Gender/Equity
Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL:
Eight
Topic:
Gender/Equity
Grade Level Standard:
8-10 Describe the contributions made in science by
cultures and individuals of diverse backgrounds.
Grade Level Benchmark:
1. Recognize the contributions made in science by
cultures and individuals of diverse backgrounds. (II.1.MS.6)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information
Resources
Central Question:
Who are some important scientist? Why?
Cells
Katherine Esau
Ernest E. Just
Ecosystem
Rachel Louise Carson
Grace Chow
Aldo Leopold
Geosphere
Louise Arner Boyd
Matthew Henson
Robert Peary
Hydrosphere
Eugenie Clark
Sylvia Earle
Matthew Fontaine Maury
Atmosphere and Weather
Margaret Lemone
Warren Washington
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
86
LIFE SCIENCE: CELLS
Katherine Esau (1898 - 1997)
EXPERT PLANT VIRUS RESEARCHER
In researching the effects of viruses on
plants, Dr. Esau realized that she had to
understand plant cell development–how
cells differentiate and become specialized
to carry out a particular function or process
in the life of a plant.
Katherine Esau was born and raised in
what was formerly known as Russia, or the
U.S.S.R. It was here that she was educated
through her first year of college. Then the
Esau family migrated to Germany where
she completed her undergraduate college
degree. In 1922, she and her family
migrated a second time to the United States
of America.
Some time later, Katherine Esau began
graduate studies at the University of
California (U.C.) in the field of botany. She
completed her Ph.D. in 1931 and taught at
U.C. Santa Barbara. But, most of Dr. Esau’s
research dealing with the effects of viral
infection of plants, was performed at the
Experiment Station of the Agriculture
Department on the Davis campus.
In order to conduct these kinds of
studies, Dr. Esau had to first study normal
plants in order to understand the kinds of
changes which occurred once plants
became infected with a virus. Through this
work, Dr. Esau became an authority on the
structure and development of the phloem
(plant tissue responsible for transporting
food from the leaves to the rest of the
plant).
Differentiation can be complicated, but
it basically means trying to understand why
one plant cell will develop to take part in
one life process such as water storage,
while another will develop to take part in a
totally different life process such as
transporting foodstuffs. This kind of
reasoning and study is called ontology. Dr.
Esau’s work contributed a great deal to our
knowledge of the ontology of plants.
She also realized that, in order to study
plant viruses, she had to know a plant’s
ontology because the first symptoms of a
virus infection occurred in plant parts which
were still growing or developing. Further
study showed that these viruses would
infect only certain cells. For instance, say a
particular virus only infects cells that store
water. By knowing how a cell develops
(differentiates) in order to become a waterstorage cell, we can then accurately study
the effects of that virus infection.
Dr. Esau’s work led to the discovery of
a phloem.-limited virus; in other words, a
virus which infects only a certain type of
complex plant tissue. She also made a
significant contribution to the scientific
community by showing that studying the
ontology of an organism is important if we
are to understand the differences which
occur as a result of things such as viral
infection.
References
Modern Men of Science. 1966. McGrawHill Book Company. NY. pp. 157-158.
87
LIFE SCIENCE: CELLS
Dr. Ernest E. Just (1883-1941)
PIONEERED RESEARCHED ON THE LIVING CELL
excellence in zoology he displayed at
Dartmouth, began teaching biology two
years later. He also began work toward his
Ph.D. at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
located in Maine, in 1909. Summers were
spent at the University of Chicago.
Despite all the contributions he was to
make to science, Dr. Ernest E. Just had to
fight to “keep aglow the flame within me,”
even moving to Europe to escape the
racism he encountered in the U.S.
Just was born August 14, 1883, in
Charleston, South Carolina. His father, a
dock worker, died when Ernest was only
four years old. In order to support Ernest
and his two siblings, their mother worked
two jobs — as a school teacher and as a
laborer in the phosphate fields outside of
town. Young Ernest was forced to work in
the crop fields.
At age 17, and with the courage and
foresight of his mother, Ernest was sent
North to further his education. It is said that
he had only $5 to his name when he left
home. Upon reaching New York City, he
first entered the Kimball Union Academy
preparatory school, where he graduated
valedictorian in spite of overwhelming
racism. Dartmouth College was next. In
only three years, he earned degrees in both
biology and history, and was the only
student to graduate magna cum laude (with
high honors). And, he was inducted into Phi
Beta Kappa, one of the most prestigious
academic honor societies in this country.
In 1907, Ernest E. Just became an
English teacher at Howard University in
Washington, D.C. But, because of the
Just completed his zoology doctorate in
1916, some seven years later. Even before
completing that degree, however, he was
widely praised for inspiring young Blacks to
excel in school.
Just’s scientific endeavors dealt with
the study of marine eggs and sperm cells,
techniques for their study, the functions of
normal verses abnormal cells, and ways
they might relate to diseases such as
cancer, sickle cell anemia, and leukemia.
Just’s theory that the cell membrane
(surface) is as important to the life of a cell
as its nucleus (center) was much ahead of
its time.
With the 1930's came recognition of his
contributions to knowledge by the American
science community. It was during this time
that Just was elected vice-president of the
American Society of Zoologists, elected a
member of the Washington Academy of
Sciences, and appointed to the editorial
boards of several leading science journals.
But, for all Just’s success, he found
himself alienated from large research
institutions, major (White) universities and
scientific organizations because of the color
of his skin. He hated being referred to as
the “Negro scientist” and detested feeling
“trapped by color” in a segregated United
States of America.
For these reasons, Just found himself
attracted to Europe. There, he was free to
go to restaurants and the theater. The
European scientific community cooked to
88
his research, and not to his color, so Just
spent much of his career at top laboratories
in Germany and France.
Sadly, Ernest E. Just died of cancer in
1941, two years after returning to the United
States.
Frank R. Lillie, a well-known scientist
and friend of Just, described his life this
way: “...despite his achievements, an
element of tragedy ran through all Just’s
scientific career due to the limitations
imposed by being a Negro in America...
That a man of his ability, scientific devotion,
and of such strong personal loyalties as he
gave and received, should have been
warped in the land of his birth much remain
a matter for regret.”
Books by Dr. E. E. Just
The Biology of the Cell Surface.
Blakiston’s Publishing. Philadelphia,
1939.
Basic Methods for Experiments in Eggs of
Marine Animals. Blakiston’s Publishing.
Philadelphia, 1939.
References
“Scientific Ingenuity in the Bind of Racial
Injustice.” J. Natl. Soc. Black Eng. vol
4. no. 3, February. 1989.
Dictionary of American Negro Biologist.
eds. Rayford Logan and Michael
Winston. W.W. Norton & Co., NY.
1982.
The Philadelphia Tribune. Dartmouth Starts
E.E. Just Professorship. January 5,
1982.
Black Apollo of Science: The Life of Ernest
Everett Just. Kenneth R. Manning.
Oxford Univ. Press., NY. 1983.
89
LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS
Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964)
A CRUSADER AGAINST THE DANGERS OF PESTICIDES
Rachel Carson was raised in the towns
of Springdale and Parnassus,
Pennsylvania. It was here that she received
her early education in the public school
system, but it was her mother, Maria
McLean Carson, who taught Rachel to love
nature. She learned to appreciate birds,
insects, and the wildlife in and around
streams and ponds.
So, even though Rachel’s first career
goal was to become a writer, she later
changed her mind and earned a B.A. in
science from the Pennsylvania College for
Women at Pittsburgh. She then enrolled in
Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,
Maryland, where she received a master’s
degree in zoology.
Rachel Carson went on to work as an
aquatic biologist with the U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Service in Washington, D.C. Later,
she became editor-in-chief of the bureau,
responsible for issuing bulletins and leaflets
aimed at preventing the depletion of the
nation’s wildlife. Through her writings,
Carson wanted to make people aware of
dangers to our environment such as
pesticides.
Modern science has developed a
variety of fertilizers for different purposes.
Some provide mineral nutrients necessary
for plant growth. Others are made to kill a
specific kind of insect or a variety of insects.
Then there are the kinds of pesticides that
kill other plants or weeds, which compete
with crops for mineral nutrients in the soul.
Even though fertilizers help increase the
size and amount of crops, questions exist
about their safety, both to nature and to
mankind. In general, fertilizers are safe.
But some fertilizers which contain pesticides
can also be dangerous.
Rachel Carson told the world about the
dangers of DDT, a pesticide widely used by
farmers in the 1960's to control bugs.
In her book, The Silent Spring, she told
how DDT was poisoning parts of the food
chain, and thus affecting all living things. In
the food chain, all living things are
connected in some way. When any part of
the food chain is harmed, we all are
harmed. The harm may not come in the
same ways or to the same degree, but all
living things are affected.
Pesticides can filter into waterways
through the soil and through improper
storage and disposal methods. Once in the
water, they affect the aquatic life found in
these ponds and streams, rivers and the
oceans. Then it is only a matter of time
before these pesticides begin to effect the
animals which prey on aquatic animals and
plant life.
For example, you can find fish with
toxic levels of pesticides in their bodies.
When birds eat these fish, they will also
become poisoned with pesticides. When
they lay eggs, the shells are too fragile to
protect the unborn baby birds, or their
babies may be deformed. We must also
consider the animals and insects living on
or near lands where pesticides are used.
They, too can get sick from eating these
plants or other small animals (prey).
Much of these contaminated lands are
farms where our food is grown, where we
get tomatoes, corn, wheat, beef, and pork.
And the list goes on and on. Ms. Carson
warned that we all needed to stop using
DDT or many animals and plants would die.
90
Rachel Carson made us all aware that
it is important to know what pesticides are
being used and how they are used — for
the sake of all living things.
References
Current Biography 1951. H. W. Wilson
Company. Nov. 1951. New York. p.
12-13.
The Sea Around Us. 1951. Rachel L.
Carson.
The Silent Spring. 1962. Rachel L.
Carson.
“Soiled Shores” by Marguerite Holloway &
John Horgan. American Scientific. Oct.
1991.
91
LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS
Grace Chow
PROTECTING OUR CLEAN DRINKING WATER
Grace Chow is a civil engineer whose
work centers on concerns for the
environment. These concerns include
questions like how we use what is available
from nature in an efficient manner, how we
can protect the environment in innovative
ways, and how to develop new technologies
and methods to achieve these goals.
Environmental problems occur in a
variety of ways. When the water level on a
lake or a waterway is high, it can cause the
shoreline to erode away. When we build
anything along a shoreline, we must realize
that both the materials used in the building
process as well as those materials in use
after a building is complete can filter into the
nearby waterways. Also, that heavy rains
alone can cause flooding and soil erosion.
Cities build and maintain sanitary
sewage treatment facilities designed to
keep sewage (waste) water separate from
drinking water. They are also designed to
clean sewage from the water so that it can
be reused. But, storms can cause these
treatment plants to flood. When this
happens, sewage water spills out into the
rivers, streams, and other sources of clean
water. Or, sometimes these facilities are
designed wrong or operated in a careless
manner. Then they can cause the same
kinds of contamination of our clean water
sources.
Grace Chow works on developing
better water treatment systems. She is
involved with a number of projects designed
to recycle sewage water in such a way as to
put the water to good use not only people,
but also other animals and plant life.
It is hoped that sewage water treated in
new ways can be re-used for things like the
irrigation of farms, parks, and recreational
areas, instead of using fresh water. That
way, the limited amount of fresh water
available can be used for drinking.
92
LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS
Aldo Leopold (1887- 1948 )
FATHER OF MODERN CONSERVATION
Born In 1887, Aldo Leopold spent his
boyhood years In Burlington, Iowa, and
went on to attend Yale University's School
of Forestry where he earned his
professional degree.
When Aldo joined the U. S. Forest
Service in 1909, his views were quite
different from those around him. Leopold
approached forest management from an
ecological perspective. To his mind, forest
management went beyond providing trees
for industry. It should include watershed
protection for the whole region from which a
river receives its supply of fresh water, as
well as grazing, fish and wildlife
conservation, recreation and, of course,
protecting land from the ravages of man.
In 1933, his treatise on Game
Management led to a professorship at the
University of Wisconsin. There, he sought
to educate and involve youth in matters of
ecology. He organized projects including
counting nests, planting shelter belts, filling
feeding stations, warning poachers, and
recording weather conditions year round.
Leopold also established some
conservation rules which he called
Ecological Principles. These rules call upon
us to do several things. First, to maintain
soil fertility; second, to preserve the stability
of water systems; and third, produce useful
products. Fourth, he also called upon us to
preserve our fauna and flora as much as
possible. (Fauna refers to the animals of a
given region and Flora refers to the plants
of a region.)
the purpose of hunting. But the "true" nature
lover, he said, defined conservation in terms
of preserving our flora and fauna as much
as possible. Leopold believed that
conservation was not only about prevention,
but also using natural resources wisely.
Nature as a whole is a community of life
including the soil, waters, fauna, flora and
people.
One of Aldo Leopold's last conservation
fights was over the Wisconsin's whitetail
deer management laws. The deer herd
there had gotten so large that it was eating
away the plant life faster than the land could
replace it. They were ruining the land.
Whitetail fawns were starving to death, and
bucks were not growing to maturity.
Leopold knew the answer to this
problem—reduce the size of the deer
population.
The deer had no natural predators in
this region, so their numbers increased
beyond a natural balance. Leopold's advice
as to lengthen the annual hunting season
and allow the hunting of both bucks and
fawns. (Fawns are not usually hunted.)
Conservationists did not like what Leopold
advised, so the battles began.
In Leopold's opinion, farmers and others
interested in erosion prevention believed
only in the first three conservation
principles. The sportsman or hunter only
believed in producing useful products for
93
Today, arguments are still being waged
over what role people should take in
preserving nature and the balance of
nature. Is It our responsibility only to
oversee and protect the lands and animals,
or is it our duty to keep animal populations
at controlled levels by allowing hunting?
What should our role be when an animal
population gets too large to be supported by
the vegetation of the region? How much
human intervention is too much?
Because he knew more about land
ecology than any other person of his time,
many principles of wildlife management in
practice today were developed by Aldo
Leopold and his co-workers. He had a rare
understanding of the way biotic (life) forces
interact, and the ways in which these
interactions occur, affecting the life and
landscape of America.
References
A Sand County Almanac and Sketches
Here and There. Aldo Leopold. Oxford
University Press. 1949, 1980.
A Sand County Almanac with other Essays
on Conservation from Round River. Aldo
Leopold. Oxford University Press. 1949,
1966.
Game Management. Aldo Leopold.
Charles Scribner & Sons. 1933.1961.
"Leopold Helped Set the Course of Modem
Conservation." Wisconsin Conservation
Bulletin. Dec. 1954.
"Aldo Leopold Remembered." by Clay
Schoenefeld. Audubon. May 1978.
94
LIFE SCIENCE: GEOSPHERE
Louise Arner Boyd (1887-1972)
ARCTIC EXPLORER ON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS
As a youngster, Louise Arner Boyd was
expected to be accomplished in activities
like shooting and horseback riding. But
Louise had greater adventures in
mind—she dreamed of someday going to
the North Pole.
Louise Boyd’s father was a wealthy
mining operator in California, and she had
two brothers, both of whom died of
rheumatic fever when she was a teenager.
Her parents were also in poor health, but
Louise led a very active outdoor life.
By the time Ms. Boyd was 33, both her
parents had died and she found herself
head of the Boyd Investment Company of
San Francisco, California. A prominent Bay
Area socialite, she enjoyed traveling to
England, France, Belgium, and all of
Europe. It was while on a Norwegian cruise
that she saw some of the Arctic regions for
the first time. As in her childhood, Louise’s
sense of adventure surfaced once again.
She read all she could about the region,
collected maps and photographic
equipment, and organized her first
expedition. Louise chartered a Norwegian
boat, the Hobby, and invited some friends
to accompany her. She then led a team of
six researchers on a venture which included
microscopic study of arctic flora and fauna.
Ms. Boyd took all the expedition’s
photographs and did much of the surveying.
In fact, it is said that her expeditions were
uneventful because she planned them so
thoroughly, anticipating any and all
problems that might arise.
During preparations for her second
expedition, Ms. Boyd learned that Raold
Ammundsen had disappeared searching for
a group of Italian explorers lost in the polar
ice. Boyd offered her crew, ship and
supplies to the Norwegian government to
help with their rescue mission. During this
time, she met several other polar explorers
who accepted her almost as a professional
equal. After four months, the mission was
called off. Survivors of the Nobile
expeditions were found; Raold Ammundsen
was not. For her part, Louise Boyd was
honored by the King of Norway and the
French government.
On her third expedition in 1931, she was
the first to explore the inner ends of Kind
Oscar Fjord (or Fiord), also called Ice Fjord,
in Greenland. With good weather on her
side, she was able to travel farther north
along the Greenland coast than any other
American explorer before her. Boyd studied
the geology and botany of the region, made
magnetic observations, took depth
soundings, mapped the East Greenland
fjord region and also took lots of
photographs. An impressed Danish
government named this territory Miss Boyd
Land in her honor.
At the onset on World War II, the areas
visited by Ms. Boyd during the late 1930's
became a part of the war zone when
Norway and Denmark were invaded. At
that time, she was writing a book about her
95
findings in these regions, and the United
States government told her how valuable
these reports and photographs would be to
the war effort — hers were the few accurate
materials the government could use for
defense purposes.
The Coast of Northeast Greenland. Louise
Boyd. American Geographical Society,
1949.
Further Explorations of East Greenland.
Louise Boyd, in Geographical Review, July
1934.
The U.S. War Department enlisted Ms.
Boyd as a technical adviser and selected
her to lead an investigation of magnetic and
radio phenomena in the Arctic waters. (All
of her activities during the war were kept
secret.) The Department of the Army
rewarded her with a Certificate of
Appreciation for “outstanding patriotic
service to the Army as a contributor of
geographic knowledge.” After the war
ended, she was free to publish her book of
the Denmark and Norway regions, and The
Coast of Northwest Greenland was finally
published in 1948.
In her sixties, Louise Boyd had one
more dream: she wanted to fly over the
North Pole. So, she chartered a plane and
did it — the first privately funded flight over
the region and the first such flight by a
woman.
By the time she died in 1972, Ms. Boyd
had spent almost every penny of her
inherited fortune on explorations and
scientific expeditions. But, Louise Boyd
viewed these contributions to the welfare of
the world as part of a great personal reward
for reaching her goals, and a pleasure
which she had thoroughly enjoyed.
References
Christian Science Monitor. p. 15, June 19,
1959.
National Cyclopedia of American Biography
current, vol. G (1943-46).
The Fiord Region of East Greenland.
Louise Boyd. American Geographical
Society, 1935.
96
EARTH SCIENCE: GEOSPHERE
Matthew A. Henson (1866-1955)
and Robert E. Peary (1856-1920)
CO-DISCOVERERS OF THE NORTH POLE
Of the many adventures in the Arctic,
there is a story which is perhaps most
famous of all. And, it forever intertwined the
lives of two men – Matthew A. Henson and
Robert E. Peary. These two joined forces
in 1887 and spent some 20 years learning
about travel and survival in the Arctic before
they eventually reached the North Pole.
Earlier expeditions were designed to
explore the untouched Northern region of
Greenland, and these trips ultimately
penetrated deeper inland than any before
them. In 1891, Peary organized an
expedition for the push north to prove
Greenland was an island. During this trek,
he also discovered what may still be the
largest known meteorite, weighing some 90
tons. In his honor, the northern most
section – free of the ice cap which covers
most of Greenland – was named Peary
Land.
During the next 12 years, Peary and
Matthew Henson’s North Pole expedition
crew made several trips to Greenland. In
doing so, they fine-tuned their survival skills,
learning to live like the Eskimos. And, they
managed to get closer and closer to the
North Pole, their ultimate goal.
It was 1909 when an extensive crew
was organized to make the journey of all
journeys. This group included Admiral
Peary, explorer; Matthew Henson, explorer
and weather meteorologist; Ross Marvin,
secretary and assistant; Dr. J.W. Goodsell,
expedition surgeon; George Borup; Captain
began the drive to the Pole, some 413 miles
through what has been termed “a white
hell.”
Matthew Henson
Robert Peary
As a part of the expedition’s strategy,
Borup and Marvin were sent back early on
for additional supplies and fuel. Bartlett
was sent ahead to set the trial north. The
weather, a major concern for a successful
mission, was good, with temperatures
ranging from 5 degrees Fahrenheit to 32
degrees Fahrenheit below zero. However,
Borup and Marvin failed to return with the
needed fuel. After a week’s delay, the
group pushed ahead anyway. Three days
later, Henson was sent ahead to blaze a
trail for five marches (each march was
designed to be equivalent to 12 hours of
travel), and Marvin and Borup finally arrived
with the fuel.
97
At the end of each march, igloos were built,
men and dogs ate, and, of course, they
slept. This plan worked well because when
crew members reached one of the camps at
the end of a march, fewer igloos would
need to be built because some were
already there. Along the way, the crew
made soundings of the arctic waters to
measure their depth using piano wire with a
lead weight tied to the end. Unfortunately,
Macmillan developed a bad case of frostbite
on his foot and was sent back to Cape
Columbia.
After two marches or so, the core group
caught up with Henson’s division which had
made camp to repair their sledges. Then,
after two more marches, Borup turned back
with his division – his job was done. He had
carried his heavy sledge through the ice
floes, but he lacked experience. And he,
too, had a case of frostbite.
One of the strategies for the long
journey was to allow some crew members
to turn back so the core group could carry
on with fewer worries about losing people,
time, and running out of food.
This left a total of 12 men. Henson and
Bartlett were sent forward to make their
march and camp. Peary and the rest of the
core group would follow 12 hours later.
When the core group arrived at camp,
Henson and Bartlett started out on the next
march. Marvin was next to be sent back
after the expedition had reached a position
of 86 degrees and 38 minutes. The North
Pole was at 90 degrees.
Here, the ice was level but treacherous.
It surged together, opened up, and ground
against the open waters. After making it
beyond some bad ice floes, it was time for
Bartlett to turn back. He had hoped to
make it as far as 88 degrees but at 87
degrees and 48 minutes there were not
enough supplies for his division to remain.
At this point, the crew was 133 nautical
miles from the Pole and had 40 days of
food left (50 if they used the dogs for meat).
But, they not only had to make it to the
Pole; they also had a return trip to think
about.
They decided to make five marches of
25 miles each. Barring bad weather, they
would be able to make it to their goal with
one final push forward at the end of the fifth
march. The crew moved ahead, often
pushing beyond their limits and receiving
minimal rest before starting out again. They
made the five marches in about four days.
Measurements showed them to be at 89
degrees and 57 minutes, only three nautical
miles from the North Pole, and Peary was
showing the wear from the journey.
Matthew Henson and his crew of Eskimos
continued the lead, allowing Peary some
time to recover. Not only did they reach the
Pole, but Peary’s division went beyond it by
about 10 miles.
Unfortunately, there has been a lot of
debate over the role Henson played during
the journey, not to mention who actually
arrived at the North Pole first. Much of the
trip’s documentation indicates that Matthew
Henson played a pivotal role in the survival
and success of the expedition team. Crew
members were very dependent on weather
data because the ability to predict storms
was crucial to their survival. But, Henson
was not only the weather metrologist, he
was also fluent in the language of the
Eskimos, was a master sledge and dog
handler, and a craftsman who, along with
the Eskimos, built and repaired many of
their igloos.
A well-known story says that Admiral
Peary, when telling the rest of the world
about their journey, left out Henson’s
contributions and those of the Eskimos –
indicating that he (Peary) was the “one” who
reached the North Pole first.
Needless to say, this caused problems
between Henson and Peary which
continued until their deaths. The saddest
part, perhaps, is that they likely admired
one another and considered each other a
friend. But, this lack of recognition by Peary
hurt Henson deeply, especially coming from
a friend.
The National Geographical Society
recognized Peary as an explorer and
dubbed him founder of the North Pole. But
Henson was never recognized by the
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society, even in light of all the evidence of
his critical role.
Today, however, after lengthy debate,
both are recognized as co-founders of the
North Pole. Matthew Henson and Admiral
Robert Peary are buried side-by-side in
Arlington National Cemetery, with plaques
commemorating their remarkable
achievements.
References
A Negro Explorer at the North Pole.
Matthew Henson. Arno press, New York,
1969.
To Stand at the North Pole: the Dr. Cook —
Adm. Peary North Pole Controversy.
William R. Hunt. Stein and Day, New York,
1981.
Peary, the Explorer and the Man. John
Weems. Houghton Mifflin, 1967.
To the Top of the World: the Story of Peary
and Henson. Pauline K. Angell. Rand
McNally, Chicago, 1964.
Across Greenland’s Ice-field. Mary
Douglas. Nelson, New York, 1897.
Discovery of the North Pole: Dr. Frederick
A. Cook’s Own Story of How He Reached
the North Pole Before Commander Robert
E. Peary. James Miller ed.. Chicago 1901.
The Life of Matthew Henson. Joan
Bacchus, Baylor Publishing Co. and
Community Enterprises, Seattle, WA.,
1986.
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EARTH SCIENCE: HYDROSPHERE
Eugenie Clark (1922-
)
“THE SHARK LADY”
Society on the reproductive behavior of
platies and sword tailed species. And, she
conducted the first successful experiments
on artificial insemination of fish in the United
States.
Eugenie Clark is originally from New
York City. Her father died when she was
only two years old, and she was raised by
her Japanese mother. While at work on
Saturdays, Mrs. Clark would often leave
Eugenie at the Aquarium. Here, Eugenie
discovered the wonders of the undersea
world. One Christmas, she persuaded her
mother to get her a 15-gallon aquarium so
she could begin her own collection of fish.
That collection broadened to eventually
include an alligator, a toad and a snake
—all kept in her family's New York
apartment.
When Eugenie entered Hunter College,
her choice of a major was
obvious—zoology. She spent summers at
the University of Michigan biological station
to further her studies. After graduation, she
worked as a chemist while taking evening
classes at the graduate school of New York
University and earned her master's degree
studying the anatomy and evolution of the
puffing mechanism of the blowfish. Next,
Eugenie went to the Scripps Institute of
Oceanography in California and began
learning to dive and swim underwater.
In the late 1940's, Clark began
experiments for the New York Zoological
The Office of Naval Research sent her
to the South Seas to study the identification
of poisonous fish. Here, she visited places
like Guam, Kwajalein, Saipan and the
Palaus. She explored the waters with the
assistance of native people from whom she
learned techniques of underwater spearfishing. Through her work, she identified
many species of poisonous fish.
The United States Navy was so
interested in this work that she was
awarded a Fullbright Scholarship which took
her to Faud University in Egypt—the first
woman to work at the university's Ghardaqa
Biological Station. Here, she collected some
300 species of fish, three of them entirely
new, and some 40 poisonous ones. Of
particular interest to the Navy was her
research on the puffer or blowfish type of
poisonous fish. Hers was one of the first
complete studies of Red Sea fish since the
1880's.
Eugenie received her Ph.D. from
New York University in 1951. Her work has
paid particular attention to the role nature
plays in providing for the survival of a
species as a whole —rather than each
individual member of a given species —and
special adaptations some animals have
made to escape their predators. Examples
include the chameleon which is capable of
changing its color to blend in with its
surroundings, or the African ground squirrel
which pretends it is dead because many
animals will not eat the flesh of prey that is
motionless or already dead.
100
Eugenie Clark's most renowned
work studied the shark, hence her
nickname "The Shark Lady." And she has
spent a lot of time speaking to groups about
how sharks live in an attempt to lessen our
fear of this creature.
References
The Lady and the Sharks. Eugenie Clark.
Harper & Row, New York, 1969.
Lady With a Spear. Eugenie Clark. Harper,
New York, 1953.
Artificial Insemination in Viviparous Fishes.
Science. December 15, 1950.
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE: MOTION OF OBJECTS
Sylvia Earle (1879-1955)
DISCOVERED 153 SPECIES OF MARINE PLANTS
Later, in graduate school at Duke
University, Sylvia realized that all of life is
connected—that everything on earth is
dependent upon everything else—and that
everything depends upon plants. If the
energy of the sun was not captured in
plants through photosynthesis, there would
be no animals and no human beings. She
learned that the first link in the ocean’s food
chain is marine plant life.
Sylvia Earle has spent her life observing
nature and admiring the beauty of the
undersea world. As a child, Sylvia grew up
on a small farm in New Jersey where she
and her two brothers enjoyed exploring
nearby woods and marshes. They would
also take in sick and abandoned animals,
and nurse them back to health.
Encouraged by her mother, Sylvia found the
natural world a constant source of
fascination.
It was during family excursions to
Ocean City, New Jersey that the sea world
opened up to her. Sylvia fished for eels and
crabs, grew to love the fresh salt air and to
respect the power of the sea. The Earles
moved to the west coast of Florida when
she was 12, so the Gulf of Mexico became
her backyard and she began collecting sea
urchins and starfish.
Sylvia started first grade at the age of
five, so she was always the youngest in her
class. Nevertheless, she made top grades
all through school. She and her brother
were the first in their family to go to college,
and Sylvia was anxious to do well. Her
strongest interest lay in the study of
underwater plants and animals.
In 1964, Sylvia Earle took part in the
International Indian Ocean Expedition. The
only female among 60 males, she
journeyed to Rome, Nairobi, Athens, and
various islands in the Indian Ocean. Future
expeditions took her to three oceans where
she discovered several new varieties of
marine life, including a distinct red algae
never seen before. She received her Ph.D.
from Duke University in 1966.
As the lead scientist of the U.S.
Department of the Interior’s Tektite
program, Dr. Earle and an all-woman team
of scientists and engineers went on a twoweek research expedition. The team lived
underwater near the island of St. John for
the entire time. From their studies of
nearby reefs, 153 different species of
marine plants, including 26 never before
recorded in the Virgin Islands, were
discovered. Unfortunately, however, these
discoveries went relatively unnoticed.
Instead, the news media concentrated more
on the fact that the research time was all
female—labeling them “aquachicks” and
“aquababes.”
Although this reaction upset Dr. Earle,
she did not stop moving forward. In 1977,
the National Geographic Society, the World
Wildlife Fund, and the New York Zoological
Society sponsored an expedition to learn
about the humpback whale. Dr. Earle and
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other scientists studied the whale’s
mysterious and intensely resonant songs as
well as their behavior. They also studied
the barnacles, algae and parasites which
live on the whale’s hide. Earle swam, side
by side with these gentle giants.
Breakthrough: Women in Science. Diana
Gleasner. Walker and Company, New
York, 1983.
Dr. Earle strongly believed that the more
we know about the ocean, the more we will
take care and preserve it. As for the
whales, she says we must do more than
just stop killing them; we must also protect
the places in which they live.
While participating in the Scientific
Cooperative Ocean Research Expedition,
Dr. Earle not only made the longest and
deepest dives ever recorded by a woman,
but she also discovered a new genus of
plants living at 250 feet below the surface.
Another record-setting dive took place in
1979 when she was lowered 1,250 feet to
the bottom of the Pacific Ocean off Oahu,
Hawaii. This time she wore a suit of
experimental design that resembled those
used by astronauts. Here, she observed a
small, green-eyed shark, a sea fan with pink
polyps, and giant spirals of bamboo coral
that looked like a field of bedsprings.
These emitted a luminous blue light when
she touched them.
Dr. Sylvia Earle is convinced that, if
people could see what is happening to our
oceans, they would not like it. She wants
us to understand that what we do in one
place ultimately affects everybody because
the health of the whole world depends upon
the health of our oceans.
References
Exploring the Deep Frontier the Adventure
of Man in the Sea. Sylvia Earle. The
Society, Washington, D.C., 1980.
Life with the Dutch Touch. Sylvia Earle.
The Hague, Government Publishing
Office, 1960.
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EARTH SCIENCE: HYDROSPHERE
Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806 - 1873)
PAVED WAY FOR SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
and Current Charts, and gave them to
mariners free of charge in return for similar
information from their own ships’ logs. As a
result, he was able to develop a series of
charts and sailing directions which gave a
climatic picture of surface winds and
currents for all the oceans.
Matthew F. Maury was the seventh child
of a family in Virginia which originally came
to the U.S. from Ireland. In 1825, he joined
the U.S. Navy and served at sea until 1839
when a stagecoach accident left him unable
to return to sea duty. Maury was reassigned
to a post in Washington, D.C., where he
became an advocate for naval reforms.
Southern expansionism and increasing
scientific study which could improve sea
travel. He joined the Confederacy in 1861,
and served in England for the Confederate
Navy during the Civil War.
Upon his return to the United States,
Maury went to work for the new National
Observatory. But, he was not an
accomplished astronomer and his
shortcomings in the area caused problems.
Even though Maury was in charge of the
observatory for 17 years, his contributions
to astronomy were considered small. His
failures in astronomy may have been due,
in part, to the fact that he was mainly
interested in improving navigation
technology, so he was more concerned with
the earth and less with the heavens.
Maury used ships’ logs, which noted
winds an currents, to chart general
circulation patterns of atmosphere and
oceans. He began publishing these Wind
As it turns out, Maury was interested in
improving sea technology in order to show
that sailing was superior to the steam
propulsion engines being invented in the
mid 1800's. He claimed that his charts
shortened sailing routes around Cape Horn
at the southern tip of South America, thus
making steamer-railroad routes to the west
useless.
He was also involved in the field of
marine micropaleontology. Around this
time, U.S. Navy vessels were beginning to
make use of submarine telegraphy. They
sounded (measured depth of) the North
Atlantic under Maury’s direction from 1849
to 1853. Using these findings, Maury
prepared the first bathymetrical (deep sea
sound) chart of contours located 1,000
fathoms under the surface.
Maury organized the Brussels
Conference in 1853, but his efforts to unify
international weather reporting for both land
and sea ran into opposition from a group he
had helped found — The American
Association for the Advancement of
Science (A.A.A.S)
As happened before, Maury’s style of
promoting ideas as being more worthy and
important than others caused a problem.
The A.A.A.S. felt that, just because Maury
was qualified at sea observations, this did
not make him a qualified meteorologist. So,
he was only able to organize uniform
weather reporting of sea conditions. Maury
104
meant well, but he had made errors and
was unwilling to revise some of his theories.
After his death, however, the system was
extended to include both land and sea
meteorology.
Matthew Maury’s most significant
contributions may have come in the form of
stimulating other researchers to improve
their own theories and research. That’s
because he was inflexible and refused to
revise his own findings, even when other
evidence proved contrary to his stated
theories.
References
Ocean Pathfinder: A Biography of Matthew
F. Maury. Frances Williams. Harcourt,
Brace and World, New York, 1966.
The Physical Geography of the Sea.
Matthew Maury. T. Nelson, New York,
1863.
The Physical Geography of the Sea and its
Meteorology. Matthew Maury. Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, 1963.
105
EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Margaret Lemone (1946 -
)
INVESTIGATING THUNDERSTORMS AND SQUALLS
Dr. Margaret Lemone is a meteorologist
who investigates how thunderstorms
become organized into lines, also called
squall lines. At the National Center for
Atmospheric Research, she also studies
ways in which these squall lines effect air
movement in the lowest part of the earth’s
atmosphere.
How do thunderstorms happen?
Certain atmospheric conditions must exist
for them to form. First, a fairly deep layer of
air in the atmosphere, about 10,000 feet or
more, must be moist. Second, the
atmosphere should be “unstable.” And,
third, there should be few clouds in the
daylight sky, so the sun’s rays can heat the
ground and air near the ground (the low
atmosphere).
As the ground and lower layers of the
atmosphere are heated by radiation from
the sun, solar energy is absorbed by the
ground and moist air near its surface. Then
the temperature rises. Upper layers of the
atmosphere do not absorb as much of the
sun’s radiation – they are cooler, therefore it
is warmer near the ground, and cooler
higher up in the atmosphere.
Thunderstorms help spread out this heat
energy to all layers of the atmosphere, thus
cooling off the surface of the earth – sort of
like nature’s air conditioner during the
summer months.
Lemone is also interested in a process
called molecular conduction. Here, the
warmer air near the earth’s surface moves
upward toward the cooler air in such a way
that heat is transferred upward. During this
process, faster moving molecules of
warmer air bump into the colder air’s slower
molecules. This bumping causes the
slower molecules to move a little faster,
thus warming the colder air. But, this
process of molecular conduction is slow
–far too slow to prevent air temperatures
from getting so high as to cause damage to
life forms like plants and people.
In order to cool off properly and
maintain reasonable temperatures, warm air
must be able to rise far up into the cooler
atmospheric regions. This is called
convection, and is where the condition
known as an unstable atmosphere enters
the picture. “Unstable” simply means that a
small section of air is ready to rise high, if it
is given a little push to get it moving — like
starting a rock slide by tossing a single
stone onto the side of a rocky hill. All those
other rocks begin to tumble because the
rocky hill is unstable.
An unstable atmosphere occurs when
the difference between warm surface air
and the cold upper atmosphere is great.
This is the same as saying that the rate of
temperature decrease is large. In order for
a parcel of this warmer air to rise, its density
must be less than the air surrounding it.
Warmer air tends to be less dense than
cooler air. So it starts to rise in the same
manner as an elevator.
106
To keep rising and increasing speed
(acceleration), then it must remain warmer
and less dense than the air surrounding it.
Once it meets air that is the same
temperature and density, it stops rising.
(The elevator stops.)
The greater the rate of temperature
decrease, the faster it moves upward
(acceleration). As the air rises, heat is
transferred upward and the temperature
difference is reduced. When upward
convection is powerful enough to reach
heights of about 10 miles or so in the form
of columns of air, we get very large
convection clouds known as thunderstorms.
In squall lines, we still have air that is
moist and unstable. In this particular case
though, the unstable moist air is
concentrated along a narrow corridor. This
atmospheric concentration is usually due to
what is called a cold front. In a cold front, a
large mass of cold air from the north moves
southward, pushing aside the warmer air in
its path. The cold air “wedge” forces warm
air to rise.
Because this warmer air meets the
conditions of being moist and unstable, it
can lead to the formation of thunderstorms.
And, since the cold air is heavier than warm
air and it is also stable, the “walls” of the
corridor are maintained. Thunderstorms
which form are confined to this corridor.
The corridor and thunderstorms will move
as the cold front wedge continues to move
from north to south.
Dr. Margaret Lemone’s research has
taken her on airplane trips through
numerous cloud systems, including
thunderstorms and hurricanes, to help
broaden our knowledge. Because of her
work, we more clearly understand how
thunderstorms are organized in lines, and
how these clouds lines affect the air’s
motion in the lowest part of the atmosphere.
References
Thunderstorm Morphology and Dynamics.
2nd ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1986.
The Thunderstorms. Louis J. Battan. New
American Library, New York, 1964.
107
EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Warren Morton Washington (1936 -
)
METEOROLOGIST WHO STUDIES THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
the sun emits energy and the earth and its
atmosphere absorb that energy. Most of
the sun’s energy covers the ultraviolet (UV),
visible and near-infrared regions. Only a
small fraction of this energy is intercepted
by the earth.
Born in Portland, Oregon on August 28,
1936, Warren Morton Washington went on
to graduate from both Oregon State
University with a B.S. degree in physics,
and from Pennsylvania State University
where he received his Ph.D. in
meteorology. In fact, Dr. Washington was
only the second Afro-American in history to
receive a doctorate in that subject. His
research efforts were initially in the area of
meteorology, but more recently he has
studied the greenhouse effect and its
deterioration of our planet.
As an introduction to the greenhouse
effect, we must understand that it is not
entirely bad—the Earth is able to support
life because of the greenhouse effect.
Without it, the Earth surface would measure
about 20°C below zero instead of 13°C
above zero. Problems with this natural
phenomena occur because of man’s
pollution and neglect, to the point where a
natural balance is getting more and more
difficult to maintain. Basically, our biggest
concerns are with the gases that we add to
the atmosphere because these are
increasing the warming effect.
We all understand the general principle
that the earth is warmed by the sun—that
In order for there to be some balance of
energy flow, the earth itself emits energy
back to space. However, the earth emits
energy at longer wavelengths because it is
much colder than the sun, and the sun
emits energy at the shorter wavelengths.
The earth’s emissions are in what are called
thermal infrared regions.
Here is where the earth’s atmosphere
comes into the picture. The atmosphere
behaves differently at different wavelengths.
Of all the solar energy entering the planet,
about 30% is reflected back to space by
clouds, the earth’s surface, and
atmospheric gases. Another 20% is
absorbed by atmospheric gases, mostly by
the ozone which absorbs energy in the UV
and visible ranges. Water vapor and
carbon dioxide is absorbed into the nearinfrared region. The earth’s surface
absorbs the remaining 50% of the sun’s
emissions, so the surface of our planet
becomes warmer.
Thermal energy emitted by the earth
seeks a different atmosphere—clouds,
water vapor and carbon dioxide—which are
stronger absorbers of radiation at the
thermal infrared wavelengths. So, the
earth’s atmosphere is warmed as much by
thermal infrared radiation from its surface
as by the energy (radiation) from the sun.
And, the atmosphere itself emits thermal
infrared radiation. Some goes out into
space, while the rest comes back toward
the earth. Thus, the earth’s surface is
108
warmed not only by the sun, but also by the
earth’s own atmosphere in the form of
thermal infrared radiation. This is the
naturally-occurring greenhouse effect.
The dangers to our atmosphere come
with the many gases we emit during our
everyday activities. These gases are very
strong absorbers of thermal infrared
radiation. And, as they accumulate in our
atmosphere, the atmosphere is better able
to absorb and emit them, so more energy is
emitted downward to the earth’s surface
than normal. The result is that the earth’s
surface is warmed beyond what would
normally occur, and its natural balance is
disturbed.
This can lead to an atmosphere which
holds more water vapor, which is itself a
greenhouse gas, thus adding to the
warming greenhouse effect. Snow and ice
are good reflectors of solar radiation, so
they help cool the planet. But, with a
warmer earth, there is less snow and ice,
and less reflection of solar radiation back to
space. These, along with other
environmental and climatic changes due to
the build-up of greenhouse gases, add to
warming effect of our planet and further
upset the balance of nature.
Dr. Warren Washington is currently
director of a division of the National Center
for Atmospheric Research.
References
Greenhouse Effect and its Impact on
Africa. London: Institute for African
Alternatives, 1990.
Policy Options for Stabilizing Global
Climate. Hemisphere Pub. Corp., New
York, 1990.
Our Drowning World: Population, Pollution,
and Future Weather. Antony Milne.
Prism Press, Dorset, England; Avery
Pub. Group, New York, 1988.
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EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Donald Glaser (1926-
)
INVENTOR OF THE BUBBLE CHAMBER
Born in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1926,
Donald Glaser took up the study of both
mathematics and physics while in college.
After completing his bachelor’s degree in
these subjects at the Case Institute of
Technology, he earned a Ph.D. in
mathematics and physics at the California
Institute of Technology in 1950.
During the decade that followed, the
scientific community was developing a giant
particle accelerator, forerunner of today’s
modern supercolliders. Scientists using
these accelerators were generating high
energy particles, but they had no clear or
reasonable way to study them. So, Dr.
Glaser set about studying the properties of
various liquids and solids which he thought
might make the observation of high energy
particles more practical.
Glaser was fascinated with the instability
of superheated liquids. He reasoned that, if
we greatly reduced the surface tension of a
superheated liquid —increasing vapor
pressure at the same time—we should be
able to see ionizing radiation passing
through the liquid in the form of bubbles.
High energy particles (ionizing particles)
produced by colliders are too small to be
seen by the human eye, and too fast to be
effectively detected. So, using the
superheated liquid, scientists would be able
to observe them and follow the particles’
paths.
In 1960, Dr. Donald Glaser was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his
invention of the bubble chamber—a device
to detect the paths of high energy atomic
particles. As these ionizing particles were
generated by particle accelerators, they
traveled into the bubble chamber through a
superheated liquid such as liquid hydrogen,
deuterium, or helium. As these high energy
particles passed near the nuclei of the
liquid’s atoms, there could be many
different reactions.
In the simplest case, a high energy
particle increased in energy and extra
particles were produced. Bubbles that
formed in the chamber showed the path
that particles traveled through the liquid.
Photographs could then be taken, showing
these paths from many angles.
Dr. Donald Glaser’s work has provided
precise information about high energy
particles including masses, lifetimes, and
decay modes never before available to
science.
References
The Principles of Cloud-Chamber
Technique. J. G. Wilson. Cambridge
University Press. 1951.
110