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by Michael Rockow
O
ur students learn how
to write in English
class, but they seem
shocked when I tell them
that they can put those skills to work
in science class, too. We know that
writing is a huge part of science. It is the
way scientists communicate ideas, results,
conclusions, and opinions to other scientists.
Thus, in my classes students use writing in a
number of ways to demonstrate knowledge, and I
use their writing for assessment.
Using writing to demonstrate knowledge has
a number of advantages. During a writing assignment, students have enough time to gather their
thoughts. Often, they make connections during
writing assignments that they had not made before. Another advantage of writing for assessment
is that it does not appear to students that it is a
test. Students sometimes panic on tests for various reasons, but this does not usually happen with
writing assignments. In a writing assignment, students can present all of the information that they
know, as opposed to traditional tests where they
are only able to demonstrate their knowledge of
specific questions. Students can also demonstrate
their ability to analyze situations and information
22
SCIENCE SCOPE
This isn’t english class!
FIGURE 1
Pluto project
Should we call Pluto a planet? Is it more like an asteroid?
Could it be a comet? You decide which you think Pluto
is most like and then defend your point of view in a fiveparagraph, persuasive essay. You will need at least
three facts that support your opinion. You will be graded
by how well you use those facts to illustrate and explain
your point of view.
Pluto project grading criteria
• Introduction
• First body paragraph
Fact
How it supports your point
• Second body paragraph
Fact
How it supports your point
• Third body paragraph
Fact
How it supports your point
• Conclusion
• Writing conventions
• Total
1 point
3 points
4 points
3 points
4 points
3 points
4 points
1 point
2 points
25 points
Sample persuasive essay
I believe that Pluto is a comet. Contrary to the old
belief that Pluto is a planet, I think Pluto should’ve
been classified as a comet. Pluto is made up of some
of the same materials as a comet. Also, they are both
located beyond the orbit of Neptune, and they both have
eccentric orbits. Using this evidence, Pluto can be proven
to be a comet.
better than on a standard paper-and-pencil test. Finally, with tests or assignments from the book, the
tasks can become mundane. With writing assignments, you can change the format to make them all
seem different and fresh.
Unfortunately, there are a few drawbacks to using writing assignments as assessment tools. These
tasks take a lot of class time. While paper-and-pencil
tests can be given in a class period or less, writing
assignments will take longer to complete. Time must
be taken to explain the assignment and grading criteria, and students must be given sufficient time to
complete the writing. These assignments also take
longer to grade. Because of these reasons, I do not
use writing assignments to assess ever y unit. I use
them primarily with my Earth-science units, due to
the fact that this part of the curriculum lends itself
to science fiction. However, writing assignments like
the ones discussed here can be used in any branch
of science. There are a wide variety of assignments
The materials that make up Pluto’s surface are very similar
to the ones on a comet. Pluto is made up of ice and frozen
gasses; it also has methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide.
If you take a look at a comet, aside from a few of the materials,
a comet has a surface quite like Pluto’s. A comet is made
up of dust, rock, ice, methane, and ammonia. By comparing
the surface of Pluto and a comet, we can conclude that the
two share a similar exterior.
Another trait shared by comets and Pluto is that they
both are stationed in the same area. This area is home
to many icy objects and is beyond the orbit of Neptune.
These icy objects are sometimes referred to as Kuiper
belt objects, Edgeworth-Kuiper belt objects, or transNeptunian objects. Pluto is one of the largest of the
bodies lying in the “Kuiper Belt area.” By understanding
that Pluto is not out of place in this area of icy bodies (not
considering size), it is just another fact that points in the
direction saying that Pluto is a comet.
Pluto and comets also have “interesting” orbits. Other
planets orbit around the Sun with an orbital eccentricity
measuring close to 0. Comets orbit the Sun with an orbital
eccentricity measuring close to 1. Pluto orbits the Sun
with an orbital eccentricity of 0.25. Both these orbits are
eccentric orbits, as they are not close to the standard orbit
of the planets. This “odd” orbit proves that it would make
more sense for Pluto to be a comet than a planet.
With evidence and facts one can most definitely prove
that Pluto is not a planet, but a comet. So, Pluto has
suffered long enough. It is done being grouped with the
nine others whose names we learn in elementary school.
It is time we put Pluto in its rightful grouping, up high with
the comets.
to choose from when implementing a writing activity
for assessment. I most often use the following three
types of assignments.
Persuasive writing
In this type of assignment, students are given a
problem that has multiple answers and asked to
chose a position and write a persuasive essay to support and explain their point of view. You can have
students use their notes or give them study materials to help gather information on the problem and
the possible answers. This is done at the beginning
of the assignment. Students are expected to support
their arguments with facts from either their notes or
from supplemental materials. I allow three days for
this type of assignment, one day each to plan, write,
and revise/finish. You can use their points, facts,
and explanations to assess what they know about
the topic. Students are graded on the accuracy of
their facts and how they support their argument.
J a n u a r y 20 08
23
This isn’t english class!
Our persuasive essays are five paragraphs, although
the length can var y.
One example of this type of assignment is to decide
whether Pluto is a planet or not (AGI 2003). Prior to
the assignment, we discuss the characteristics of the
planets, as well as the characteristics of asteroids,
moons, stars, and comets. During the assignment,
students decide which of those objects is most similar
to Pluto and then they write a five-paragraph, persuasive essay in class to support their choice. In order to
foster creativity, I stress that the assignment has no
wrong answers, a point that is easier to make now that
the International Astronomical Union has changed
Pluto’s status as a planet. I make the point here that
the case of Pluto illustrates that scientific information
can change through time.
The first day of the assignment, students make an
outline in which they write down their opinion and
three facts that support their opinion. To help them, I
have students use their own notes as well as NASA’s
“Our Solar System Lithograph” set. You can download
these information sheets at NASA’s educational materials website free of charge (see Resources). I collect the
fact sheets at the end of each period and students get
them back the following day. Students are expected to
write their rough draft during the second class period
and their final essay during the third class period.
Students use the same format they learn in English
class (introduction, three supporting paragraphs, conclusion). This gives me a chance to stress that though
they learn writing skills in English class, all other
classes use these skills, including science. Their first
paragraph is an introduction that states their opinion.
The second paragraph is structured around one of
the facts they put in their outline and explains how
that fact supports their opinion. Their third and fourth
paragraphs are structured like the second, but with
the other facts from their outline. Their concluding
paragraph restates their opinion. Figure 1 provides
the Pluto project assignment, my scoring criteria, and
an example of an essay from one of my students.
Because there are no wrong positions, students are
graded on their arguments, the accuracy of the facts
that they use to support their arguments, and the appropriateness of their explanations. This assignment
can assess students’ knowledge of the different parts
of the solar system, planets, moons, comets, and asteroids, not to mention the characteristics of Pluto.
Role playing
This is a type of assignment where students take on
a role, such as writing a letter to a colleague urg-
24
SCIENCE SCOPE
ing support of continental drift or a reporter from
a newspaper discussing the effects of a change in
hunting laws. Students can use their knowledge in
context, and not just recite facts. In this type of writing, students demonstrate knowledge by informally
discussing what they know while pretending to play
their role. They are not only graded on the facts that
they put in their work, but also on the proper use of
those facts.
In one of my role-play assignments, I have students write to the authors of an old geology textbook
(Thurber and Kilburn 1965). Because the book was
written before the theor y of plate tectonics had been
established, it is only mentioned in passing. At the
end of our unit on plate tectonics, students write to
the authors as if they were colleagues, informing
them of this new theor y. In this context, students can
show off their knowledge of continental drift, seafloor spreading, mantle convection, and the way the
theor y of plate tectonics explains earthquakes and
volcanic activity.
Again, as with the persuasive essays, I allow
three periods for this assignment. During the first
class period, students write an outline for their letter, complete with the facts that they are going to
use. Students write a rough draft during the second
class period and write their final copy during the
third. In this assignment, students get to use their
notes only as reference material. Students use the
first paragraph to introduce themselves and their
purpose. They explain what is meant by continental
drift in the second paragraph and lay out some evidence that supports it. The third paragraph explains
seafloor spreading and discusses suppor ting evidence. The fourth paragraph discusses the theor y
of plate tectonics and convection and how the theor y
explains a type of landform, such as mountain building or volcanic activity. Their concluding paragraph
thanks the authors for reading their letter. Figure
2 provides an example of the letter-to-the-author assignment, my scoring rubric, and an example from
one of my students.
Imaginative writing
Teachers can also use imaginative writing to assess
student knowledge. Students are encouraged to
write a stor y, poem, play, song, etc. incorporating
facts about the topic in question. Students demonstrate knowledge by the way that they use the facts
in the stor y. Students are graded on whether their
facts are accurate. I typically assign this type of activity for homework, although it can be done as an
This isn’t english class!
FIGURE 2
Letter to the author
The authors of this textbook barely mention the theory of plate
tectonics. Maybe that’s because they don’t know very much
about it. You are now experts on the theory so your assignment
will be to tell them about it. You are an important geologist,
writing to the authors to teach them about this theory. You
will be graded on how well you explain the different parts of
the theory and the evidence that supports it.
Letter-to-the-author grading
• Introduction
• Continental drift
Explanation
Evidence
• Seafloor spreading
Explanation
Evidence
• Plate-tectonic theory
Explanation
Evidence
• Conclusion
• Writing conventions
• Total
criteria
1 point
3 points
3 points
3 points
3 points
2 points
2 points
1 point
2 points
20 points
Sample letter
Dear Dr. Kilburn and Dr. Thurber,
I have examined your book about Earth science and there
was very little mentioned about continental drift and plate
tectonics. I am writing this letter to inform you about this new
theory about the Earth.
I have evidence of continental drift, and that there used
to be a super continent called Pangaea. All of the continents
almost fit perfectly together. Antarctica does not have many
plants, yet there are fossils of ferns found there. This could not
in-class assignment. When we do it in class, I will
give students one period to write an outline and a
second period to finish their final copy. Students use
their own notes for this type of writing and I do not
give them any extra support materials. However, if
they want to do their own research at home on the
subject, I do not discourage them. A good source for
information on the Earth’s structure, which we use
as part of our Earth Structure unit, is the online unit
“Journey to the Center of the Earth,” designed by
Lawrence and Sher yl Braile (see Resources).
In one of my imaginative assignments, students
write a shor t stor y, poem, or song about a trip
through the layers of the Earth to its core. They
are required to include at least two facts about each
of the four different layers of the Earth. They are
graded on the accuracy of the facts they mention
about the Earth’s layers. Through this assignment,
have happened unless Antarctica was closer to the equator.
Fossils of reptiles were also found on a few continents, which
look like they could fit together. The fossils were found on the
edges of those continents, which would have been right next
to each other if the continents were connected. On some of
the continents that would easily fit together, there are mountain
ranges that would be connected if they were side to side.
These artifacts could only be there if there was a Pangaea.
Seafloor spreading has occurred. The oldest rock is
at the edges of the ocean, really close to the side of the
continents. The oldest rocks are about 200 million years
old. The ocean floor is much younger in the middle, where
the mid-ocean ridge is. At the ridge, magma is forced
between two ledges, which pushed the ledges away from
each other and forced the continents even farther apart.
Once the magma hits the water, it cools quickly. Every time
the magma came out of the volcano, it hardened, which
increased the size of it each time. Every time more magma
came out, the continents were forced apart even more.
This is why the youngest rocks are at the mid-ocean ridge.
Every time magma comes out, it forms new rocks.
You also forgot to include plate tectonics. Plates cover the
surface of the Earth. Convection cells are the start of seafloor
spreading. Heat is what makes the convection cells move.
The plates of the Earth start to move when the convection
cells push and pull the plates. It creates them to move.
Convection cells also create earthquakes when plates move.
The lithosphere is the top of the Earth, where the plates are
moving. The asthenosphere is where the convection currents
are pushing the lithosphere’s continents apart. Mountains
are formed when two plates are compressed together. When
they are compressed the mountains get taller.
Thank you for listening to my advice. I believe that if you
write another book you should include these facts.
I assess students’ knowledge of the layers of the
Earth, including their scale, composition, and density. Figure 3 provides an example of the assignment,
my scoring criteria, and an example stor y from one
of my students.
Modifications
In these assignments, it is most important to modify
the work so that students can show the teacher what
they know. There are a number of ways to do that. I
allow my English language learners (ELLs) to write
in their native language if they have trouble writing
in English. ELL instructional aides, other teachers,
or parent volunteers can help with translations. An
alternative to that is to have an aide work with them
and help them put the ideas on paper in English. For
the few students who have trouble writing, I help
organize the writing for them. I give them a handout
J a n u a r y 20 08
25
This isn’t english class!
FIGURE 3
Journey to the center of the Earth
Write a story, poem, song, or rap about a trip to the center
of the Earth.
Journey-to-the-center-of-the-Earth grading
criteria
• Assignment is in a proper form
2 points
• Facts about each layer
4 points each, times 4
• Writing conventions
2 points
• Total
20 points
Sample story
It was a cold afternoon when my classmates and I
found ourselves outside school. We were staring down
a hole, which seemed suspiciously large. Out of the
hole came a little train, which looked strange. What was
even stranger was that our science teacher was riding
in the conductor’s seat. I guess we were going to board
the train and go down the hole to go to the center of the
Earth. The teacher told us to get on board, where he told
us about sediments.
Then the little train started to head into the dark hole and
the next thing we heard was “Next stop…basement.” It
took about two minutes to get there because the basement
is only about a kilometer into the Earth. I looked at the
thermometer in my train car and it said it was 20°C. The
rocks out our window looked like granite but the info screen
that popped up in the car said that they were schist. They
looked shiny.
I took a few minutes to get to our next stop…the Moho.
We noticed on the info screen that we were 35 km into
the Earth here, which I guess is the end of the crust. As
we laughed at the name, we noticed that all of the rocks
were green. We soon learned that these rocks were made
of olivine. We also noticed that it was starting to get hot.
The info screen said that it was 600°C. I am glad that we
have A/C in this car.
After traveling through the asthenosphere and the
upper mantle, we reached the outer core, 2,800 km into
the Earth. Instead of going through a hole, we ran into
liquid iron and nickel. After traveling through the liquid
for a while, we retuned to the hole. We had entered the
inner core, which we found out is also made of iron and
nickel, except that it is solid here.
We stopped a few minutes later. The info screen read
that we were 6,300 km from the surface and that the
temperature was 4,800°C. We were told that this was
our last stop…the center of the Earth. Pencils started
floating off of people’s desks because of the gravity
down there. Then, the whole train shook. We were
going back. Out of nowhere, the train went black and
we started spinning out of control. Screams could be
heard while we grazed the sides of the hole. After we
rolled a number of times, we regained control of the
train and started making progress up the hole. It took
us 14 hours to get back. What a field trip!
26
SCIENCE SCOPE
that provides the beginning of each sentence and
they finish the sentence by inserting pertinent facts.
I call these sentence starters. For example, the opening sentence starter for the Pluto project is “I think
Pluto is most like a __________ because _________.”
Students write that down on their paper and fill in
the blanks. A sentence starter for the letter-to-theauthor assignment is “The evidence for continental
drift includes ________.” This approach works well
for some of my students because it allows them to
concentrate on the facts that they know and they do
not have to worr y about organizing the writing. I use
this approach primarily with ELL students, students
with writing IEPs, and students with severe anxiety
problems. Students who have trouble with the physical act of writing can either type their work or give
their assignment as an oral report. Again, there are
many ways to modify these assignments to assess
what students have learned.
Conclusions
While writing has many purposes in science, this
article deals only with its use in assessing student
knowledge. If you use this approach sparingly and
var y the writing assignments, students will be more
eager to complete the assignments and will be able
to show off their knowledge. There are many other
ways to use writing in science classes. It is a great
way to turn your science curriculum into an interdisciplinar y experience. n
References
American Geological Institute (AGI). 2003. Project CUES:
Constructing understanding of Earth systems. Pilot test
edition. Alexandria, VA: AGI.
Thurber, W.A., and R.E. Kilburn. 1965. Exploring Earth science. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Resources
Journey to the Center of the Earth—http://web.ics.
purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/journey/journey.htm
Our Solar System Lithograph Set—www.nasa.gov/
audience/foreducators/topnav/materials/listbytype/
Our_Solar_System_Lithograph_Set.html
Michael Rockow ([email protected]) is a science teacher at Leslie Middle School in Salem,
Oregon.