The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
OxfordHandbooksOnline
TheIllegalExploitationofNaturalResources TimBoekhoutvanSolinge
TheOxfordHandbookofOrganizedCrime
EditedbyLetiziaPaoli
PrintPublicationDate: Oct2014
OnlinePublicationDate: Dec
2013
Subject: CriminologyandCriminalJustice,OrganizedCrime
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730445.013.024
AbstractandKeywords
Thisessaydiscussestheinvolvementoforganizedcrimeinnaturalresourceexploitationandtrade.Thisis
accomplishedbyexaminingcasestudiesfromdifferenttropicalregionsintheworld:Africa(Liberia,SierraLeone,
andDRCongo),SoutheastAsia(Indonesia),andLatinAmerica(BrazilianAmazon).Indoingso,aneworadditional
meaningisgiventotheeconomicconceptofaresourcecurse.Thiscontributionshowsthatsucharecourse
cursecanbeacrimecurse,too.
Keywords:statecrime,corporatecrime,naturalresources,illegallogging,deforestation,timber,gold,diamonds,violence,(armed)conflicts
I.Introduction
Naturalresourceexploitationisamostlyunexploredfieldofstudyforcriminologists.Thereis,however,good
reasontoincludenaturalresourcesin(organized)crimestudiesastheyrepresentalucrativeillegalsourceof
revenuesforcriminal,aswellasmilitantandrebel,organizations.Theextractionandtradeinsuchresourcescan
beconsideredanorganizedcrimeactivity,ifabroaddefinitionoforganizedcrimeisaccepted(see“Organized
Crime:AContestedConcept”).Thepolicyemphasisonconventionalillegalgoodssuchasillicitdrugsdraws
attentionawayfromtheseother,lesser-knownsourcesofillegalrevenues.ThecaseoftheTalibaninPakistanwell
exemplifiesthisneglect.Whiledrugsareoftenassumedtobethemaincommoditiesfundingthismovement,natural
resourcessuchastimber,emeralds,andothergemstoneswereforseveralyears,untilwellinto2009,very
important,ifnotthepredominant,sourcesofincomeforthisorganization(YusufzaiandWilkonson2009;Khan
2010;Rodriguez2010).
Theterm“naturalresources”referstomaterialsorsubstancessuchasminerals,forests,water,andfertileland
thatoccurinnatureandcanbeusedforeconomicgain(NewOxfordDictionary2007).Naturalresourcescovera
widespectrum,andobviouslynotallarediscussedhere.Thiscontributionfocusesonsomeoftheplanet’srichest
naturalresources,tropicalrainforests,andsomeofthenaturalresourcesfoundthere.Inallofthepresented
cases,asubstantialpartofthenaturalresourceexploitationisillegal.1
Intheeconomicandnaturalresourcesliterature,“resourcecurse”isawell-knownexpression.Itreferstothefact
thatresource-richcountriesonaverageexperiencelessdevelopmentthandocountrieswithoutthoseresources:
lowereconomicgrowthrates,lowerlevelsofhumandevelopment,andmoreinequalityandpoverty(Sachsand
Warner2001;KolstadandSøreide2009,p.214).Havingmanynaturalresourcesthus(p.501) paradoxically
appearsdetrimentaltoacountry’seconomicdevelopment.Thereisalsoevidence,especiallyforAfrican
countries,thatanabundanceofnaturalresourcesisthesinglemostimportantfactordeterminingwhethera
countryexperiencescivilwar(CollierandHoeffler1998,2002).
Thiscontributiongivesanew,oradditional,meaningtotheconceptof“resourcecurse.”Thepresenceofnatural
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
resources,inparticularinforestedtropicalregionswithlowpopulationdensityandweakgovernance,notonly
makesitlikelythataresource-richcountryorareawillperformrelativelypoorlyineconomictermsbutalsomakes
thatcountryvulnerableforcriminalactivitiessuchasillegalnaturalresourceexploitation,corruption,collusion,
and,insomecases,(systematic)violence.Inthisway,theresourcecurseisacrimecurse,too:thepresenceof
manynaturalresourcescorrelateswithcrimeandviolence.
Corruptionisthemainreasonwhyresource-richcountriesperformpoorlyeconomically(KolstadandSøreide2009,
p.214).Corruptionalsoplaysanimportantfacilitatingroleinillegalloggingpractices(FAOandITTO2005;Koyuncu
andYilmaz2009;Miller2011).However,thefactthatcorruptionisprevalentinillegalloggingandother(illegal)
naturalresourceexploitationsdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatorganizedcrimeisinvolved.Howcanwe,then,
characterizetheactivitiesandactors(includingindividuals,organizations,andnetworks)thatareinvolvedinthe
(illegal)exploitationofnaturalresources,andisitjustifiedtolabelthemasorganizedcrime?Thesearethetwo
corequestionsthischapteraimstoanswer.
Theseresearchquestionsleadtoanumberofsubquestionsaboutthephenomenonofillegalresourceexploitation
oftropicalrainforests,aswellasabouttheactorsinvolved,theirrevenues,andthepoliciesadoptedtocontrol
naturalresourceexploitation.Whatisillegalorotherwiseharmfulaboutresourceexploitation,whoaretheactors
involved,andtowhichextentaretheyorganized?Also,whatisknownaboutthemarkets,theirmechanisms,and
therevenues?Finally,whatarethepolicieswithregardto(illegal)resourceexploitation?
Toanswerthesequestions,thisessaypresentsseveralcasestudiesof(illegal)resourceexploitationand
trafficking.Allarelocatedintropicalregionsandconcerneconomicallydevelopingoremergingcountries.Withthe
partialexceptionofonecase(Liberiantimber),thenaturalresourceexploitationisillegal.Thefirstcase(section3)
discussesthelarge-scaleillegaltimberexploitationinIndonesia.Thisisfollowedbysection4,onresource
exploitationoftherainforestsinWestAfrica(SierraLeoneandLiberia)andCentralAfrica(theDemocraticRepublic
ofCongo).Thefinalcasestudy(section5)isaboutresourceexploitationinAmazonia,therainforestaroundthe
AmazonRiverinSouthAmerica.Insuchaway,allthreeoftheplanet’slargesttropicalrainforestsarediscussedin
thischapter—rankedinsizerespectively:therainforestsofAmazonia(mainlyBrazil),therainforestinCentral
Africa(mainlyDRCongo),andtherainforestsofSoutheastAsia(mainlyIndonesia).2 Allthreearealsoequatorial
rainforests,theplanet’smostbiodiverseareas.Beforediscussingthecasestudies,section2positionsthethemeof
tropicaldeforestationwithintherealmofcriminologyandexplainswhyitisrelevanttoincludenon-Westernand
environmentalsubjectssuchastropicaldeforestationincriminologicalresearch.
(p.502) Variousdataandmethodswereusedforthewritingofthisessay.Somedataweregatheredbythe
authorviaqualitativemethods,suchasinterviews,observations,andethnographicfieldwork.3 Mostdata,however,
derivefromwrittensources:scientificpublications,pressarticles,andnongovernmentorganization(NGO)reports.
NGOssuchastheEnvironmentalInvestigationAgency(EIA)haveproducedvaluableandimpressivereportson
illegalresourceexploitation,suchasthecriminalnetworksinvolvedinthelarge-scaleillegalloggingof,for
example,Indonesia’srainforests(EIAandTelapak2004,2005,2006,2010).Moregenerally,NGOshavedevoted
muchmoreattentiontoillegalresourceexploitationthancriminologistsandlawenforcementagencies.Thisnot
onlymeansthattheyoftenhavemorespecializedknowledgeabouttheseillegalactivitiesandtheplayersinvolved
butalsomeansthattheyshowthemselves,moresothantheofficialenforcementagencies,tobevanguardsofthe
environmentandenvironmentallawsandregulations.
II.TheGlobalizationandGreeningofCriminology
Criminologicaljournals,handbooks,andconferencesshowthatcriminologydevotesrelativelylittleattentionto
harmsandcrimesoutsidetheWesternworld.Criminology’sWesternor“Northern”bias(Olmo1984;Nelken1994;
Agozino2003)meansitisdominatedbyWesternresearchthemes,usuallybasedoncrimeprioritiesofWestern
governmentsandtheirlawenforcementagencies,andalsoframedintheirlanguage,asHulsman(1986)in
particularandothercriticalcriminologistsafterhimhaveshown.
Fromaglobalperspective,itwouldbelogicaltoalsopayattentiontotheharmsandcrimesoutsidetheWestern
world.Itcanbearguedthatmostvictimsof(organized)crimelivethere,notintheWest.However,in“Southern”
developingandemergingcountrieswithrelativelyweakergovernmentsandruleoflaw,notmanycriminologists
arearoundand,iftheyare,investigatingillegalactivitiesinwhichtheeconomically,politically,ormilitarilypowerful
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
maybeinvolvedismoredifficultanddangerousthanintheWest.Still,fromtheperspectiveofinternational
victimizationinthisglobalizedage,itwouldbefairtoabandonthelimited,Westernbiasandaddresscrimeissues
onallcontinents.
Criminologicalpublicationsandconferencesgenerallyplaylittleattentiontoenvironmentalharmsandcrimes.
Theseareoftenconsideredmoreenvironmentalthancriminalissuesandinvestigatingthemgenerallyhasalower
statusamongcriminologistsandlawenforcersthaninvestigatingthetraditionalvicesandcrimes.Greencrimesare
oftenconsidered“soft”crimes,lessharmfulandleadingtofewervictimsthanthetraditional,“real”predatory
crimes.Exceptionsareenvironmentalcrimesincorporatecrimestudies(Huisman2010)andwastedisposalin
organizedcrimestudies,becauseoftheinvolvementoftheAmericanandItalianmafiasandJapaneseYakuza
(BlockandScarpitti1985;Hill2003;Ruggiero1996;RuggieroandSouth2010).4
(p.503) Criminology,however,israpidlybecomingmoreinternationalandglobalized(Marshal,InekeHaen,and
KristiinaKangaspunta.2006,p.7).Criminologyisalsobecominggreener,asisshownbytherapidgrowthofoneof
itsyoungestbranches,greencriminology.Ittakesenvironmentalharmasanexplicitperspective,extendsthe
conceptofvictimizationbeyondhumans,andhasintroducedconceptslikeecologicaljustice(White2008).Green
criminologyhandbookshaveappeared(BeirneandSouth2007,Sollund2008,White2010);criminology
conferencesnowhavepanelsongreencriminology;andin2011,thejournalGreenCriminologysawlight.This
essayontropicaldeforestationfitsintobothtrends,byfocusingongreenharmsandcrimesinnon-Western
countries.
Onaglobalscale,theloggingoftropicalrainforestsoccursataspeedofseveralfootballfieldsperminute.Untilthe
firstyearsofthiscentury,deforestationinsomecountrieswithlargetropicalrainforestssuchasBraziland
IndonesiaoccurredatsuchascalethatareascorrespondingtoaquartertoahalfoftheNetherlands,Switzerland,
orTaiwanwereloggedinonesingleyear.5Althoughdeforestationdecreasedinbothtropicalcountriesinthelast
fewyears(LawsonandMacFaul2010),largeareasoftropicalrainforestscontinuetobe—partlyormostlyillegally
—loggedorburnt.6
Illegalloggingiswidelyperceivedtobeamoreseriousissueintropicalcountries(ITTO2009,p.6).Asubstantial
partofthetropicaltimberthatisonthemarketinvolvesillegaltimber.Untilonlyafewyearsago,itwasacommon
estimatethatabouthalfofthetropicaltimberontheEuropeanandWesternmarketswasofillegalorigin(Friendsof
theEarth2001;JaakkoPöyryConsulting2005).Overtheyears,however,illegallogginghasreceivedmuch
attentionbyNGOs,internationalpolicymakers,andthemedia.Thishasresulted,since2002,inasignificant
reductionbyanestimated22percentofillegallogginginsomemajortropicaltimber–exportingcountries(Lawson
andMacFaul2010,p.102).Thisprogress,however,doesnotnegatethefactthatasubstantialpartofloggingin
tropicalrainforestsremainsillegal.Forexample,whileillegallogginginIndonesiawashalvedsince2006(from80
percentto40percentofalllogging),anillegalshareof40percentremainssubstantial(p.94).In2009,morethan
100millioncubicmetersofillegaltimberwerestillbeingfelledworldwide.Theseillegallogs,laidendtoend,would
encircletheglobemorethan10times(pp.102–3).7
Illegalloggingand,moregenerally,illegaldeforestationhaverecentlyenteredtherealmoforganizedcrimestudies
(BoekhoutvanSolinge2008a),aftergroundworkwaslaiddownbyNGOs:EIAandTelapak(2004,2005,2006,
2010),FriendsoftheEarth(2001),GlobalWitness(2002),Greenpeace(2001,2005),andWWFMexico(2004).
Also,academiciansfromthefieldsofanthropology,biology,forestry,andgeographyhavepublishedarticlesabout
illegallogging.8 Surprisingly,consideringthefactthatitclearlyconcernsanillegalactivity,publicationsin
criminologicaljournalsorhandbooksarehardtofind.Numerouswell-documentedreportsandarticlesthusexiston
illegalloggingbutrarelyfromacriminologicalpointofview.Inarecent,well-documentedoverviewstudyonillegal
loggingbytheBritishthink-tankChathamHouse,theterm“criminal”ishardlyusedandtheterms“criminal
organizations,”“criminalnetworks,”and“organizedcrime”arenotmentionedatall—only“timbermafia”appears
onceinafootnote(LawsonandMacFaul2010).
(p.504) Logginganddeforestationareillegalwhenforestareasareexploitedwithout(governmental)permitsor
whenpermitsarenotrespected(FAOandITTO2005;MacAllister1992).Timberproductsthatresultfromillegal
loggingpracticesarelogicallyalsoillegal.
Thevalueandcriminogenicpotentialoftropicaltimberareoftenunderestimated.Somehardwoodsareso
expensivethattheyarepricedinliters.Onetreemaybeworththousandsofeuros.Forexample,theultimateretail
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
valueofonemahoganytree,onceturnedintofurniture,isoverUS$250,000(LondonandKelly2007,p.138).The
annualworldwidesalesofforestproductsareestimatedatUS$1trillion(Khatchadourian2008),whereastheillegal
timbermarketisamultibillion-dollarbusiness.TheWorldBank(2005)estimatedthatgovernmentswerelosingUS$5
billionintaxrevenuesasaresultofillegallogging.
Theharmperspectivethatiscommoningreencriminology(seeBeirneandSouth2007)canbeeasilyappliedto
deforestation,andespeciallytothe(illegal)loggingoftropicalrainforests.DeforestationstudiesbyNGOs,aswell
asthefewexistingcriminologicalpublications(BoekhoutvanSolinge2008a,2008b,2008c,2010a,2010b)show
thereisnothingsoftaboutthesecrimes.First,aswillbecomeclearerfromthecasestudies,tropicaldeforestationis
closelyrelatedtotheuseofviolenceagainstforestinhabitantsoragainstenvironmentalistsandhumanrights
activists.Amongthevictims,indigenouspopulationsarestronglyoverrepresented,whichincludeshumanity’s
oldestsocietiesofhunter-gatherers,whosepopulationsaredwindling.Theworld’slastremainingso-called
uncontactedtribes,estimatedataround100andlivingintherainforestsoftheAmazonandNewGuinea(Middleton
2007),areparticularlythreatened(BoekhoutvanSolinge2010b).Indigenouspeopleare,however,nottheonly
humanvictimsofdeforestation.Itisamisconceptionthatalltropicalrainforestsaremostlyinhabitedbyindigenous
people.IntheBrazilianAmazon,forexample,indigenouspopulations(some500,000people)representonly2.5
percentofthetotalhumanpopulationinthatarea.9
Second,thegreencriminologicalperspectiveusedhereimpliesthatvictimsarenotexclusivelyhumans.Tropical
rainforestsaretheEarth’smostbiodiverseplaces.Theycoverabout6percentofthelandsurfacebutcontain
morethanhalfoftheknownspeciesandorganisms.Theyare,however,“alsotheleadingabattoirsofextinction,
shatteredintofragmentsthatarethenbeingseverelyadulteratedorerasedonebyone”(Wilson2002,p.59).
Tropicaldeforestationdirectlyleadstotheextinctionofanimalandplantspecies,whichstronglycontributestothe
currentextinctioncrisis,whichmaydevelopintoanewmassextinction.10 TheRedListoftheWorldConservation
Union(IUCN)showsthataquarteroftheassessedspeciesarecurrentlythreatenedwithextinction.Asthe
biodiversitydeclineisconsideredaseriousproblem,UNConventionsonBiodiversity(CBD)havebeenadopted.
TheUNdeclared2010astheInternationalYearofBiodiversity,butaSciencepublicationthatyearshowedthat
biodiversitycontinuedtodecline,withincreasingrisksofspeciesbecomingextinct(Butchartetal.2010).
Theanimalsgeneticallyclosesttohumans,thegreatapes,arealsoseriouslythreatenedwithextinctionby
deforestation.Allgreatapes—chimpanzee,bonobo,gorilla,andorangutan—liveintropical,mainlyequatorial
rainforests.Contributingtotheirnear(p.505) extinctioninthewildiswildlifetradeandpoaching(forbushmeat),
bothofwhicharestimulatedbydeforestation(BoekhoutvanSolinge2008b,2008c).
Third,many,ifnotall,humans,andparticularlyfuturegenerations,maypotentiallybecomevictimsoftropical
deforestationasitaccountsfor17percentofglobalcarbonemissions,morethanallformsoftransportcombined
(IPCC2007,p.5;Tollefson2007).Itnowseemstobescientificallyestablishedknowledge,partlyduetotheUN’s
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),thatdeforestationcontributestogreenhousegassesand
climatechange.11
III.TimberSyndicatesinEquatorialAsia
Asia’slargestrainforestsarefoundinandaroundIndonesia,famouslydescribedbyAlfredWallaceinTheMalay
Archipelago:TheLandoftheOrangutan,andtheBirdofParadise(1869).ForeststhatinWallace’stimewere
denseandimmensehaveconsiderablyshrunkordisappeared.MostofJava’sforestshavedisappeared,and
Sumatra’sandBorneo’slowlandshavelargelybeendeforested.12 TheMoluccas,theformerSpiceIslands,also
sufferfromillegallogging.13 Morerecentistheillegalloggingontheonlyremaininglargeislandthathasnotyet
beensubjectedtowidespreaddeforestation:NewGuinea.14
Thelarge-scaleloggingofIndonesia’sforestsstartedinthe1970swhenloggingconcessionsweregiventoforeign
(mostlyJapanese)companies.Itincreasedfurtherduringthe1980sand1990sandstimulatedeconomic
liberalization(Tsing2005),thefalloftheSuhartoregimein1998(Nellemannetal.2007,p.21),andthepolicyof
decentralizationandregionalautonomysince2001(BoekhoutvanSolinge2008c).Combinedwithprevalent
corruption,itresultedinsome80percentofallloggingbeingillegal(Nellemann2007;BoekhoutvanSolinge
2008c).
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
Between1985and1997,Indonesia’snationalforestcoverlosswas1.9percentperyear,withsomeareassuchas
SumatraandKalimantanhavingforestlossesof2.5percentperyear(Wickeetal.2011,p.200).Inthe30years
between1975and2005,Indonesia’sforestcoverdecreasedfrom130millionhectaresto91millionhectares
(Wickeetal.2011).Thiscorrespondstoatotaldeforestationof390,000km2 ,anarealargerthanGermany,andan
averageannualdeforestationof13,000km2 ,anareaslightlysmallerthanNorthernIreland.ThismadeIndonesia’s
forest-clearingrateamongthehighestintheworld(Hansenetal.2009).
ThemaincausesfordeforestationinIndonesiahavebeenloggingfortimber,mining,palmoil,and—lessknown—
paper.Theworld’stwolargestpaperpulpfactories,ownedbyAPPandRAPP,are,however,foundontheislandof
Sumatra.Bothcompanieshavebeenaccused,mainlybyNGOs,ofalsologgingillegally.15Theloggingofrainforest
bypapercompanieshasledtofrictionbetweenthenationalpolice,whohaveconfiscated(p.506) hundredsof
thousandsofcubicmetersofwoodfrompapercompaniesRAPPandIKPPbecauseoftheirallegedillegality,andthe
MinistryofForestry,whohavestatedthattheloggingwaslegal.16
ThedifferentIndonesianelites—economic,military,andpolitical—haveprofitedmostfrom(illegal)deforestation.
Theseelitesregularlyoverlap:somepoliticiansownloggingcompanies,whichfacilitatescorruptionandcollusion.
ComplicatingtheIndonesiancasefurtheristhemajorroleofthearmy,whichownsmanycommercialcompanies,
includingtimbercompanies.17
Tsing(2005)gaveadetailedaccountoftheIndonesiandeforestationdisaster.Ithasledtoconflictsbetween
loggersandvillagersandbetweenvillagesandfueledethnicconflicts.Shedescribedhoweconomicliberalization
madethelinesbetweenpublic,private,andcriminalexploitationunclear.Also,the“slippagebackandforth
betweenmilitaryandprivateenterprise”andthe“fluiditybetweenpublicandprivate”madeitdifficulttodistinguish
betweendomestic,foreign,andgovernmentownership.Themilitary,ofcourse,hastheadvantageofhaving“the
muscletomakethebestdeals”(Tsing2005,pp.34–7).Ithascreatedan“authoritarianlawlessnessthatmade
resourcesfreeforthosewhocouldtakethem,”while“violencebecamekeytoownership”(Tsing2005,pp.67–8).
Notonlythearmybutalsothepoliceareinvolvedinillegallogging,althoughinalessstructuralwaythanthearmy.
In2005,inIndonesianBorneo,hundredsoftruckswithillegalmerantitimberfromBetungKerihunNationalParkwere
traffickeddailytoMalaysianBorneo(Sarawak).18 Anewpolicechiefwasappointed—afterhispredecessorwas
firedforbeinginvolvedintimbersmuggling—whohadarrestedsomeMalaysiansworkingforaChineseMalaysian
timberbaron.Despitethearrest,anyonetravelingintheborderareasawthattraffickingcontinued,withillegallogs
stackeduphighormadeintorafts,waitingforbordercrossing.Thepolicechiefexplainedthelowleveloflaw
enforcementasbeingduetothelackofequipmentsuchasfour-wheeldrivevehicles.Ironically,several
confiscatedMalaysianfour-wheeldrivevehicleswerestationedatthepolicestation.Thescaleofthesmuggling
wassomassivethatcorruptionorcollusionseemslikely.19
EIAandtheIndonesianNGOTelapak(2005)haverevealedsomeofthesyndicatesinvolvedintimbertrafficking
fromPapua.MerbautimberwasillegallyloggedwiththeinvolvementoftheIndonesianmilitary,whilebrokersand
banksinJakarta,Singapore,andHongKongfacilitatedmonthlytimbershipmentsofsome300,000cubicmetersto
China,wherethetimberwasprocessedandconsequentlyexportedworldwide(mainlyforflooringinWestern
countries).ChineseMalaysianscoordinatedthetraffickingandarrangedforMalaysiandocuments.Itpartly
explainswhyforyears,severalmillionsofcubicmetersof“Malaysiantimberarefromunknownsources”(Lawson
andMacFaul2010,p.96).Collusionfacilitatesit,because,justlikeinIndonesia,Malaysia’seconomicandpolitical
elitesoverlap(Jomoetal.2004,p.211).
TheEIA/Telapak2006studypromptedIndonesianPresidentYudhoyonotosendarmytroopstoPapuafora
crackdownonforestryofficials,armypersonnel,militarypolice,Malaysianfinanciers,andtimbertraders.Increased
nationalawarenessand(p.507) (international)attention,ledbymorelawenforcement,reducedillegalloggingby
half,from80to40percentofalllogging(LawsonandMacFaul2010,p.94).AnewEIA/Telapakstudy(2010),
however,showedthatfewofthe(illegal)timberentrepreneursinvolvedorcoordinatingillegalloggingwerecaught
andthatevenfewerweresanctioned.In2010,PresidentYudhoyonoreactedtothepoorperformanceofthe
judicialsystemtowardillegallogging—which,accordingtoa2005estimate,resultedinUS$2billioninlost
resourcesannually.HeconsequentlyorderedthenewlycreatedTaskforcefortheEradicationofJudicialMafiato
examinesuspiciousverdictsinillegalloggingcases(p.3).Surveyedinternationaltimberexpertsconsidered
corruption—particularlyamongthejudiciary—tobethemostimportantaspectofillegallogginginIndonesia
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
(LawsonandMacFaul2010,pp.43,86).
IV.PlunderinEquatorialandWestAfrica
InAfrica,naturalresourceexploitationandtradehavealonghistory,withcaravanroutestransportinggoldfrom
WestAfrica.Later,Europeancolonizersnamedsomecountriesafterexploitedresources,suchasCôted’Ivoire
andGoldCoast,today’sGhana.
Africahasremainedrichinnaturalresources:preciousmetalsandstoneslikegoldanddiamonds,metalsand
mineralslikecopper,cobalt,and,increasingly,coltan,whichisusedinlaptopsandcellphones.Morethan
anywhereelse,naturalresourceexploitationisconnectedtoarmedconflicts.Overthepastdecades,ithasmade
Africathemostwar-hitcontinentandthemaindestinationof“small”armslikeKalashnikovs(IANSAetal.2007;
Naím2007,p.55).
Thecountrythatbestshowstherelationshipbetweenarmedconflictandillegalresourceexploitationisthe
DemocraticRepublicofCongo.Itsconflictofficiallyendedin2003,butinsomeareas,especiallyinEasternCongo,
itstillcontinues.ThiswarissometimesreferredtoastheAfricanWorldWar,becauseitinvolvedeightcountries
andresultedinover5millioncasualties,thelargesthumanlosssinceWorldWarII.Italsoresultedinthelargest
UnitedNations(UN)interventionsintheworld,involvingnearly20,000soldiersfromover40countries(French
2009).TheseUNinterventions,however,couldnotpreventstates,rebels,criminals,companies,andbusinessmen
frombecominginvolvedinplunderingDRCongo’snaturalresourcesandwildlife,therebysustainingtheconflict.
TheUNExpertPanelontheIllegalExploitationofNaturalResourcesinDRCongolabeledthisconflictthereforeasa
“self-financingwar”(UNSC2001,p.27).FormerUSSecretaryofStateHillaryClintondescribestheongoingconflict
inEasternDRCongoas“drivenbyexploitationofnaturalresources.”20
Diamondswerethebest-knownnaturalresourcebeingexploitedillegallyduringtheCongowar.Itledtoanew
expression,“conflictdiamonds,”ordiamondsoriginatinginareascontrolledbyforcesfightingthelegitimateand
internationallyrecognized(p.508) governmentoftherelevantcountry(UNSC2000,p.26).21Othercommodities
thatwereexploitedillegallyinDRCongowerecassiterite(amineral),coltan(ametallicmineral),gold,niobium(a
metal),timber,andtreebarkfromprunusAfricana,whichisusedinmedicineforprostatetreatment(UNSC2001,
pp.8–12).TheCongoUNExpertPanelwrotethatgovernmentstructureswere“theenginesofthissystemicand
systematicexploitation”(UNSC2001,p.3).Forexample,whileneighboringRwandaandUgandadonotproduce
diamonds,theysuddenlystartedexportingthemduringtheconflict.
AlthoughRwanda’sauthoritiesstatedthatRwandahasnodiamondproduction,itexportedroughdiamondsatan
averageannualvalueofoverUS$1million(UNSC2001,p.25).Rwanda’sofficialproductionfiguresalsoshowed
irregularpatternsforcassiterite,coltan,andgold.TheUNExpertPanelconsideredit“revealing”thatthe
productionincreasescoincidedwiththepresenceofRwandantroopsinDRCongo(pp.24–5).
Rwandaalsoexportedmuchcoltan—andcontinuestodoso—fromDRCongo,whichpermitteditsarmytosustain
itspresenceinDRCongo(UNSC2001,p.30).AsFrench(2009)explained,RwandasoughtcontrolofEastern
Congoinordertohave“continuedaccesstotheCongo’seconomicwealth”suchastheabundanceofnatural
resourceslikecoltan.Rwanda’scoltanexportsrosenearlytenfoldbetween1999and2001,surpassingrevenues
fromthecountry’smaintraditionalexports:teaandcoffee(UNSC2001).Itissometimesarguedthattoday’sgold
rushisovercoltan(Viner2011,p.36),whichisessentialfortoday’sdigitaleconomy,beingusedinmobilephones
andlaptops.Thedemandforitisalmostinfinite,andDRCongohasoneofthelargestworldreserves.22
Uganda,althoughnotaproducerofdiamonds,alsostartedexportingroughdiamondsfromthemomentitoccupied
easternDRCongoin1997(UNSC2001,pp.18–21).23 Inaddition,itsgoldexportswere“consistentlygreater”than
itsproductionandincreasedduringUganda’spartialoccupationofDRCongo(pp.19–20).Similarsudden
increasesinUganda’sexportswereseenincassiterite,timber,andcoffee.Uganda’sillegalpracticeswereknown
andessentiallystimulatedbytheWorldBank,whichpraisedUganda’seconomicperformancesandpresenteditas
asuccess(p.39).TheUNExpertPanelnotedthattheWorldBank“wasinformedaboutasignificantincreasein
goldanddiamondexportsfromacountrythatproducesverylittleofthesemineralsorexportsquantitiesofgold
thatitcouldnotproduce”(p.38).
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
InDRCongo,armycommandersandbusinesspeopleformed“criminalcartels”with“ramificationsandconnections
worldwide”(UNSC2001,pp.3,38,41).Planesownedby(in)famousarmstraderVictorBouttransportedcoltanand
otherresources.BusinesswomanAzizaKulsumGulamali—whojustlikeBoutholdsseveralpassportsandwas
previouslyinvolvedinarms,gold,ivory,andcigarettetrafficking—wasanotherimportantcoltantrader.Therebel
groupRCD-Gomaappointedherageneralmanagerofaconglomerateoffourcompanies,whichobtainedthe
monopolyforthecommercializationandexportofcoltanfromRCD-Goma–controlledterritories(UNSC2001,pp.
18–9).BanksinBrusselsandNewYorkfacilitatedfinancialtransactions.
Timberwasalsoextractedillegally.Schemesofinternationaltimbercompaniesallowedforthecertificationof
timberthatwas“characterizedbyunlawfulnessand(p.509) illegality”(UNSC2001,p.10).Thetimberwas
exportedtoAsian,European,andNorthAmericancountriesviaBurundi,Rwanda,andTanzania.
Notonlygovernmentalcrimes,definedbyFriedrichs(2010,p.128)as“thewholerangeofcrimescommittedina
governmentalcontext,”butalsocorporatecrime,illegalactscommittedbylegalcorporations,was—andstillis—
prevalentinCongo’sillegalnaturalresourceexploitation.TheUNExpertPanelmentionedtheopportunistic
behaviorofprivatecompaniesvitalfortheconflictandnamedthemas“theengineoftheconflict”(UNSC2001,p.
42).24
Averydifferentandmuchlesser-knowntypeofillegalnaturalresourceexploitationinCongoconcernscharcoal.In
Africa,charcoalfromtimberisthemaincookingfuel.In2007,afamilyofraregorillas,famousasatourist
attraction,wasmurderedintheVirungaReserveinDRCongo,Africa’soldestnationalparkandaWorldHeritage
Site.25Whileitwasfirstassumedrebelswereresponsible,itlaterturnedoutthatapowerfulcriminalcharcoal
networkwasresponsible.ThemurderwasaresponsetotheenforcementbyVirungaparkrangersagainst
charcoaltraffickingfromtheVirungaReserve.Theillicitcharcoaltradeisestimatedat$30millionannually(Jenkins
2008).Astheraregorillasarethemainreasonforparkrangers’presence,thegorillaswereapparentlyseenasa
hindrancetoillegalcharcoalexploitation.
Twobetter-knownAfricancasesofnaturalresourceexploitationconcernconflictdiamondsfromSierraLeoneand
conflicttimberfromLiberia(BoekhoutvanSolinge2008a).26 DuringSierraLeone’sbloodycivilwar(1992–2002),
diamondextraction,estimatedat$25to$75millionannually(UNSC2000,p.17),allowedrebelsofthe
RevolutionaryUnitedFront(RUF)tobuyweapons.TheRUFrebelsmostlyobtainedtheirweaponsfromneighboring
Liberia,whichwasruledbyformerwarlordCharlesTaylor.MostarmswereimportedfromEasternEuropeby
(in)famousarmstraffickersLeonidMininandthepreviouslymentionedVictorBout.Lebanesebusinessmen
dominatedthediamondtradefromSierraLeone,justlikeinDRCongo(UNSC2001,p.16).Oftheover40different
diamonddealersinSierraLeone,mostofthemwereLebanese(UNSC2000,p.18).ThewealthyLebanese
businessmanTalalElNdinewasdescribedasakeyplayer,bringingforeignbusinessmenandinvestorstoLiberia
to“collaboratewiththeregimeinlegitimatebusinessactivitiesaswellasinweaponsandillicitdiamonds”(UNSC
2000,p.37).
Liberia,inthemeantime,wasexportingunrealisticallylargequantitiesofdiamonds,muchofthemtoBelgium
(Antwerp),Europe’smaindiamondcenter.In1998,forexample,Liberia’sofficialdiamondexportstotaled8,000
carats,valuedat$800,000.“Inthesameyear,BelgiumrecordedimportsfromLiberiaby26companies,totalling
2.56millioncarats,valuedatUS$217million.”(UNSC2000,p.37)Onecompanyaloneimported168,456carats,
valuedat$87million,morethanthehighestestimatesofLiberia’sproductioncapacity,whichdonotexceed
150,000caratsperyear(UNSC2000,p.24).BelgiumalsorecordedsubstantialdiamondimportsfromtheGambia,
whichdoesnotproducediamondsatall.Significantly,manyprominentdiamondexportersfromSierraLeonewere
alsoexportersofdiamondsfromtheGambia(UNSC2001,p.18).TheUNExpertPanelnotedthattheGambiahad
becomea“mini-Antwerp,”with“reputablecompaniessimplybuyingwhatisavailableontheopenmarket”(UNSC
2000,p.26).
(p.510) AsitbecameobviousthatmanyofthediamondsinLiberiaactuallycamefromSierraLeone,theUN
SecurityCouncilimplementeddiamondsanctionsagainstLiberiain2001.TherecommendationoftheUNExpert
PaneltoalsobanLiberiantimber—believedtofacilitatearmstrafficking—wasnotfollowedasChinaandFrance,the
maindestinationsofLiberiantimber,objectedintheSecurityCouncil(Beaumont2001).
Withdiamondsbeingbanned,timberbecameLiberia’smainsourceofrevenue.In2000,Taylorhadadaptedthe
law,allowinghimtoexploitstrategiccommoditiessuchasLiberia’srainforest,thelargestinWestAfrica(Global
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
Witness2001).Taylor’sbrotherwasamemberoftheForestryDevelopmentAuthority(FDA),aswasDutchtimber
baronKouwenhovenandthepreviouslymentionedLebanesediamondtraderElNdine.Internationalarmstrafficker
MininwasanotherkeyfigureinLiberia’stimberindustry(UNSC2000,p.37).
Liberia’srainforestwasbeingexploitedatamuchfasterpacethanbefore.Timberextractionandexportspeaked
at1to1.3millioncubicmetersperannum,withavalueofapproximatelyUS$100million(Shearman2009,p.5).It
rapidlyreducedthesizeofWestAfrica’slargestrainforestandoneoftheplanet’sbiologicalhotspots(Wilson
2002,p.215).NGOs’protestsandrequeststobanthetradeinLiberian“conflicttimber”wereinvain,asthetimber
exploitationwaslegal,beingapprovedbytheLiberianFDA.Inthemeantime,LiberiantimberbroughtKouwenhoven
millions,andin2002,heenteredtheranksofthe500wealthiestDutch(BoekhoutvanSolinge2004,2008b).
KouwenhovenwaslaterindictedintheNetherlandsforusinghistimberbusinessforthetraffickingofweapons.This
courtcaseis,however,afterseveralappeals,stillpending.27
During2001and2002,thenumberofpressandNGOreportsaboutthelinkbetweenLiberiantimberandarms
tradeincreased(BoekhoutvanSolinge2008b).In2003,theUNSecurityCouncildidimplementtimbersanctions
againstLiberia.28 ItdrainedLiberia’smainsourceofrevenue,andonemonthlaterTaylorresignedandfledthe
country.TheUSintelligencecommunity“absolutelyputthefallofTayloronthetimbersanctions”(Khatchadourian
2008).
V.“PirateCows”andViolenceinEquatorialAmerica
LikeAfrica,Americahasahistoryofresourceexploitation,withcountriesbeingnamedafterresources,suchas
Argentina(silver)andBrazil(Brazilwood).AfterSpanishconquistadoresrobbedtheIncasandAztecsoftheirgold
—whichpiratesandprivateersconsequentlytriedtointerceptatsea,29 thegoldquestforElDoradodrovethem
intotheAmazoninterior.ElDoradowasneverfound,buttheAmazon’snaturalresourceshavenevertheless
continuouslyattractedoutsiders.Intheindustrialnineteenthcentury,therewasarunonrubber,alsoleadingtothe
(in)famousbiopiracycaseof1876,when70,000rubberseedsweresmuggledoutoftheBrazilianAmazon.30
(p.511) Today,naturalresourceexploitationintheAmazonusuallyimpliesdeforestation,beitforbauxite,gold,
iron,oil,timber,orlandconversion.31Large-scaledeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonstartedinthe1970s,when
themilitarygovernmentwishedtoopenupthe“undeveloped”AmazonRainforest(LondonandKelly2007).Some
20percentoftheentireAmazonhastodaybeendeforested;80percentofthetotaldeforestationintheAmazon
RainforesthastakenplaceinBrazil,whichhastwo-thirdsoftheAmazonwithinitsborders(Malhietal.2008;
Verweijetal.2009).Between1988and2006,theannualdeforestationrateintheBrazilianAmazonaveraged
18,100km2 .Itpeakedin2004with27,400km2 ,beforegraduallydecreasingtosome11,000km2 in2007(Malhiet
al.2008,p.169).
Thecreationofcattlerancheshasbeenresponsibleforaround70percentofdeforestationintheBrazilianAmazon
(Malhietal.2008,p.169).IntheBrazilianAmazon,thereare70millioncows,almostthreetimesthenumberof
peoplelivingthere.InBrazilasawhole,cowsalsooutnumberhumans(200millionversus190million).Until10
yearsago,Amazonbeefwasprimarilysoldintheregion,butitisnowexportedworldwide.32 Brazilianbeefexports
increasedfivefoldbetween1997and2003,whichmadeBraziltheworld’smainbeefandleatherexporter.FourfifthsofthegrowthhascomefromwithintheAmazon(Pearce2004).
AsmanyofthecattleintheAmazonaregrazingonillegallydeforestedrainforest,theyarelocallycalled“pirate
cows.”Theproblemofillegaldeforestationforcattleisbeingincreasinglyacknowledged.In2009,thenewfederal
prosecutorinBrazil’sstateofParástartedacampaigntopromote“legalmeat,”bydemandingguaranteesof
legalityformeatandbyincreasingenforcementagainstcattlefarmersinvolvedinillegaldeforestation.33
Nexttocattle,asecondimportantdriverofAmazoniandeforestationissoycultivation.Brazilhasbecomethe
world’ssecond-largestsoyproducer(aftertheUnitedStates),producingoveraquarteroftheworld’sproductionin
2010.34 ThesoybeansaremostlyexportedandusedascattlefoodinEuropeandChina.Muchoftheincreasein
soyproductioncomesfromtheAmazon(LondonandKelly2007,p.169).
IntheBrazilianAmazon,asubstantialpartofalldeforestationisillegal.GreenpeaceintheAmazon,usingsatellite
data,estimatesthatbetween60percentand80percentofalldeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonisillegal.Land
35
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
grabbinghasbecome“awayoflifeintheAmazon”(LondonandKelly2007,p.151).35Landtitlesareoften
falsifiedorlandofficialsarebribedtochangetitles.Evenincasesinwhichthelandisownedorleasedlegally,
Brazil’sfederallawsmandatethatamaximumof20percentisdeforestedforagriculturalpurposes,butlandholders
oftendeforestmore(LondonandKelly2007,p.159;BoekhoutvanSolinge2010b,p.271).
AstructuralproblemwithlawenforcementintheAmazonistheremotenessoftheareasandlowpopulation
densities,whichmakesgovernmentalpresencegenerallylow.Agovernmentalofficialmighthavetotraveldaysif
hewantstointerveneagainst,forexample,illegallogging,wherehewouldhaveto“confrontarmedloggersalltoo
readytothreatenhimwithviolenceor,morebenignly,readytoofferabribe”(LondonandKelly2007,p.151).
(p.512) Thelowgovernmentalpresenceisillustratedbythestill-existingslave-likeworkingconditionsthat
particularlyoccurintheAmazononsomeofthecattleranches(andalsoonfarmsgrowingsugarcaneforethanol
production).Itisaformofslaveryorforcedlaborofworkerswhoarekeptindebtbondageandwhohavearmed
guardspreventingthemfromleaving(Breton2003).Aspecialgovernmentaltaskforceraidsfarmsandbusinesses
andfreesseveralthousandworkerseveryyear,butanestimated25,000Brazilianscontinuetotoilindebtslavery
conditions(Phillips2009).36
InLatinAmerica,withahistoryoflatifundia,theWeberianidealtypeofnation-stateshavingthemonopolyon
violencedoesnotexistinallterritoriesofstates(KooningsandKruijt2004).Inruralareas,largelandowners
traditionallyhaveagreatdealofpower,sometimeswiththeirown“hiredguns.”Landowners,loggers,miners,and
prospectorsmayseeforestcommunitiesorenvironmentalistsasahindrancetotheirplans.Itisnotuncommonthat
theyarethreatened,chasedaway,orkilled(Loureiro2001;GreenpeaceInternational2003;CIMI2009;CPT2009).
Afamousmurdercaseoccurredin1988,whenrubbertapperandenvironmentalistChicoMendeswaskilledbythe
sonofarancher(Mendes1989).Mendes’murderledtoworldwideattentionandconcernovertropical
deforestation.Anothermurderattractinginternationalattentionwasthatof73-year-oldAmericannunDorothy
Stangin2005inBrazil’sParástate.Asaprotectorofthepoorandtherainforest,shehadmadeenemiesamong
loggersandranchersandwasreceivingdeaththreats.Inthiscaseaswell,arancherwasbehindthemurder.In
2011,aprominentmarriedcoupleofrainforestactivistsweremurdered,alsoinPará.Theyhadbeenonahitlistfor
alongtimebutwererefusedpoliceprotection.Thedoublemurderwaswidelyreportedintheinternationalpress,
asitoccurredonthedaythattheBrazilianHouseofRepresentativesvotedforanewForestAct,allowingformore
deforestation(Phillips2011).
Whilethesemurdersreceivedinternationalattention,deforestationintheAmazonhasledtonumerousunreported
casesofviolence.BeforeMendes’murder,only10peoplehadeverbeenbroughttocourtforaround1,000
murdersthatoccurredintheAmazoninthe1980s(Phillips2008).InParástatealone,thePastoralLand
CommissionCPTestimatedthat475activistsweremurderedbetween1996and2001(LondonandKelly2007,p.
139).CPTrevealedin2008thatatleast260peoplewereliving“underthethreatofmurderbecauseoftheirfight
againstacoalitionofloggers,farmersandcattleranchers”(Phillips2008).Environmentalistsalsofacedanger.
Tellingly,theheadofGreenpeaceAmazontravelswithbodyguards,andGreenpeace’sofficeintheAmazon(in
thecityofManaus)hasasophisticatedsecurityentrance.
Indigenouscommunitiesarestronglyoverrepresentedamongthevictims,astheyliveintherainforeststhatothers
wishtoexploitandbecausetheyareoftenfoundatthebottomof“society”(CIMI2009).Thesmallandrapidly
decreasingnumberofso-calleduncontactedtribesareparticularlythreatened.Oneofthereasonsthattheyavoid
contactwithWesterncivilizationseemstobethattheyhavebeenattackedbyranchersorloggers.37
WhilelandconversionforcattleandsoyisresponsibleformostdeforestationintheAmazon,theharvestingof
tropicaltimberoftenisthefirststepinthedeforestationprocess.Onetreecanbeworththousandsofdollarsor
euros,whichcanpayforthefirst(p.513) cutsintotheforest:atrailfortrucksandbulldozersandlaterfarmers
(LondonandKelly2007,p.139).IntheBrazilianAmazon,thetimberbusinesshasthereputationofbeingdirtyand
dangerous,withrampantillegalactivityandwidespreadviolenceagainstthoseresistinglogging.38 Itisgenerally
assumedthatillegalloggingrepresentsaround70percentofallharvestedtimberintheBrazilianAmazon(Lawson
andMacFaul2010,p.84).AlthoughinitselfBrazilhasasophisticatedAmazonsurveillancesystem—using
satellites,radar,and900monitoringpostsontheground—thatwhichisobservedfromtheairisrarelyenforcedon
theground(LondonandKelly2007,pp.71–3).Moreover,therearealsootherwaystocircumventsurveillance,
suchasbychangingorarrangingpaperworkbycorruptingofficials.39
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Moresophisticatedmethodsalsoexist.In2008,itwasdiscoveredthathackerschangeddatainthegovernmental
timber-trackingdatabase,allowing107loggingcompaniestofalsifyand“legalize”1.7millioncubicmetersofillegal
logsfromParástate(LawsonandMacFaul2010,p.43).Afederalprosecutorissuingthosecompaniesforabout
$833million,and202peoplearefacingprosecution(Greenemeier2008).
AlthoughlawenforcementintheAmazonstillislimited,itisincreasing,partlyduetoincreasedinvolvementofthe
generallynotcorruptfederalpoliceandprosecutors—comparedwiththemorecorruption-pronestatelaw
enforcers,inparticularthemilitarypolice.Thenumberoffinesforillegaltimberincreasedeightfoldbetween2003
and2007,butonly2.5percentoftheseweresuccessfullycollected,andseizuresstillonlyrepresent5percentof
theestimatedillegalproduction(LawsonandMacFaul2010,p.15).
IllegaldeforestationintheBrazilianAmazonobviouslymeanscorporatecrimesoccur,oftencommittedbytimber
companiesandcattleandsoyfarmers.Thepoweroflargelandholdersandtheviolencethatiscommittedontheir
behalfinremoteareaswithlowgovernmentalcontrolshowsimilaritieswiththemafiaprototypeofnineteenthcenturySicily(Blok2008,p.7).Justlikeinnineteenth-centurySicily,thestatecontrolovertheuseofviolenceis
lowandhasbeentosomeextentreplacedbyadominantclassoflarge(absentee)landholdersormenactingon
theirbehalf.40
VI.DiscussionandConclusion:NaturalResourcesandOrganizedCrime
Thisessayincludedcasesstudiesonresourceexploitationintherainforestsofseveralresource-richtropical
countries—Indonesia,DRCongo,SierraLeone,Liberia,andBrazil.Inallofthedescribedregions,theconceptof
“resourcecurse”initstraditionalsenseadaptswell.Despitetheirwealthinnaturalresources,theyareknownas
economicallyunderdeveloped.41
Inthediscussedcasestudies,theresourcecurseisalsoacrimecurse.Almostallofthenaturalresource
exploitationdescribedthusfarhasbeenmostlyorcompletelyillegal.(p.514) Moreover,thisillegalexploitationis
relatedtoavarietyofotherillegalacts,varyingfromcorruptionandcollusiontosystematicviolence.Intheone
casewheretheresourceexploitationwaslegal—timberfromLiberia—thiswasbecausetheformerpresident
CharlesTaylor,currentlycondemnedforwarcrimes,legalizedLiberia’snaturalresourceexploitation.
Theresourcecurseliteraturementionscorruptionasthemainreasonwhyresource-richcountriesperform
relativelypoorlyineconomicterms(KolstadandSøreide2009).Theliteraturefurthersuggeststhatcountriesare
morelikelytosuffertheresourcecursewhentheyhavepoorinstitutions—suchasthosegoverningtheprivate
sectorbytheruleoflawandinstitutionsthatholdpoliticiansaccountableforusingpublicresources(ibid.,p.217).
Allofthediscussedcountriesorregionsinthecasestudiesindeedperformpoorlywithregardtothepresenceand
functioningofthoseinstitutions.Corruptionoftenfacilitatesillegalexploitationpractices,butthefindingsofthis
essaysuggestthatcorruptionisnotanecessaryconditionfortheappropriationandsometimesblatantplundering
ofacountry’sorregion’snaturalresources.Theinstitutionsthatcouldpotentiallylimittheillegalandharmful
exploitationofnaturalresourcesaresometimes(virtually)absent,suchasinsomeremoteareasoftropical
rainforests.Evenforthemarketingandexportofillegallyexploitednaturalresources,corruptionisnotalwaysa
necessarycondition.Inmanycases,illegallyexploitedproductssuchastimber,diamonds,coltan,meat,andsoy
canbesoldwithoutmuchhindranceontheinternationalmarketasapparentlylegalproducts.Thelackof
institutionalcontrolthusexistsnotonlyonthesupplysidebutalsoonthedemandsideandinthetransitphase.42
Theabsenceofinstitutionalrequirementsandcontrolonthedemandside,combinedwiththelackoftransparency
inproducts’chainsofcustody,resultinillegallyexploitednaturalresourcesbeingeasilysoldinternationallyina
seeminglylegalway.Peoplewithhigh(nonsustainable)consumptionpatterns—inotherterms,largeecological
footprints43 —areinaway,oftenunknowingly,accomplicesofthesecrimesandharms.
Theplayerswhoareinvolvedintheexploitationactivitiesdescribedinthischapterformawidespectrum.In
Indonesia,theeconomic,political,andmilitaryelitesareinvolved.Theseelitesoftenoverlap,whichblursthe
distinctionsbetweenprivate,public,andcriminalexploitations(Tsing2005).Otherplayersinvolvedarecorrupt
officialsfromtheforestrysectorandjudiciary,ChineseMalaysianbusinessmen,brokers,banks,andinternational
loggingcompanies.
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InSierraLeone,diamondswereextractedinrebel-controlledterritories,andmanyofthemweretradedthrough
neighboringLiberia,Gambia,orotherWestAfricancountries—facilitatedbygovernmentofficials,businessmen
(especiallyLebanese),anddiamondcompaniesinBelgium,whichservedasanimportant,albeitnotexclusive,
destination.ThetimberinneighboringLiberiawasharvestedlegally,butquiteanumberoftheplayersinLiberia’s
timberindustrywere,accordingtotheUNExpertPanel(UNSC2000,p.13),alsoinvolvedinotherillegalactivities,
withlargeamountsoftheproceedsbeingusedtopayforextrabudgetaryactivities,includingweaponsacquisition.
(p.515) InDRCongo,alargevarietyofplayerswere,andstillare,involvedintheexploitationofitsnatural
wealth:armies,rebelgroups,stateofficials,corporations,legalandillegalentrepreneurs,and,inaway,theWorld
Bank,whichhasplayedafacilitatingandstimulatingrolebypraisingUganda’s(illicit)economicperformances.The
UNExpertPanel(UNSC2001)explicitlymentionedstatesandcorporationsastheenginesofillegalexploitation.
IntheBrazilianAmazon,“agriculturalcrimes”occur.44 Itiscommonthatlargelandownersillegallyappropriate
publicland(landgrabbing).Inmanycases,thisisdoneby“buying”orforgingdocumentswiththehelpofcorrupt
officials.Inothercases,thelandisjust“taken,”andifnecessary,accompaniedbytheuseofviolence.Themany
murdersthathavebeencommittedinthiscontextgenerallydonotseemtobeindividualactsbutareinaway
orchestratedandorganized,beingprecededbydeaththreatsfromloggersandespeciallyranchersforming
coalitions.Manycattlerancheshavebeencreatedonillegallydeforestedland,whileonsomeremotefarmseven
modernslaveryexists.ThetimberbusinessintheAmazonischaracterizedbymuchillegallogging,corruption,
andviolence.
Towhatextentisitjustifiedtolabelthedifferentillegalactivitiesinthischapterasorganizedcrime?UsingtheUN
definitionoforganizedcrime,45thedescribedcriminalnetworkseasilyfitintothatdefinition.WhilethecurrentUN
definitionoforganizedcrimeremainssomewhatgeneralanddoesnotnecessarilyimplyvictims,anearlierUN
definitionemphasizedtheuseofthreatsandviolence,46 whichcorrespondswithmanyofthecasestudies.
AmoreusefulscientificdefinitionoforganizedcrimeisgivenbyAlanA.Block(1983,p.vii),whoemphasizesthat
“organizedcrimeisasocialsystemandasocialworld.Thesystemiscomposedofrelationshipsbinding
professionalcriminals,politicians,lawenforcers,andvariousentrepreneurs.”Block’sdefinitionbettercoversthe
discussedillegalresourceexploitation.Theterm“socialsystems”and“socialworld”refertothemoresystematic
collaborationsbetweenalargevarietyofactors,fromtheunderworld,aswellasfromtheeconomicandpolitical
“upperworld.”
Thecasestudieshaveshownthatmanytypesofrelationsexistbetweentheactorsinvolved,withoverlappingand
collusionbetweenlegalandillegalentrepreneurs,corporations,traditionalcriminals,aswellasstateactorsand
agencies.47 Insomecases,suchasinWestandCentralAfrica,wheretherewasgovernmentalinvolvement,the
naturalresourceexploitationcanbeconsideredasstatecrimesasGreenandWard(2004)definedthem—state
organizationaldevianceinvolvingtheviolationofhumanrights.ButtheseAfricancases,aswellastheIndonesian
andBraziliancases,alsoshowedthatmanylegalentrepreneursandbusinessesareinvolvedintheexploitationor
tradeofnaturalresourcesthataremostlyexploitedillegally.ItconfirmsRuggiero’s(1996)argumentthatthe
differencebetweencorporatecrimeandorganizedcrimeisdifficulttodefine.Moreover,theIndonesianandAfrican
casesshowedthatcorporatecrimeandgovernmentalcrimearenotcompletelydistinctcategorieseither.The
Africancasesfurtherillustratedthatsomeactivitiescouldbelabeledaspoliticalcrimes(Passas2002,p.17),
consideringthatsomeoftheactorswerenotprimarilymotivatedbyfinancial(p.516) gainbutbypolitical
motives.TheanalysisofPassas(2002,p.22)onthemanyinterfacesbetweentheunderworldandtheupperworld
probablybestfitsthenaturalresourcesexploitationofthisessay.Byemphasizingthesymbioticrelationshipsthat
areformedbetweenlegalandillegalactors,Passasblursthewholedistinctionbetweenunderworldand
upperworld.
Whatthedifferentcasestudiesofthischaptermostlyshowisthatthetraditionaldistinctionsbetweencorporate
crime,governmentalorstatecrime,andorganizedcrimedonotalwayshold.Theyappeartoorigidforthevariety
ofrelationshipsandcollaborationsbetweenlegalandillegalactorsthatareprofitingfromnaturalresource
exploitation.Assuch,naturalresourceexploitationisagoodcaseinpointwherethetraditionalcriminological
distinctionsandcategorizationsdonotapply.AsmostcriminologicaltheoryisstillbasedonWesternsocietiesand
concepts,itshouldalsobeexpandedandrevisedtounderstandandexplainthenaturalresourceexploitation
activitiesinvastandremoteareasofSouthern,tropicalcountries.
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Notes:
(1).Importantnaturalresourcesthataremostlyexploitedlegally,suchasoil,gas,diamonds,andgold—although
(organized)crimeisinvolved—arenotdiscussed.Norisdiscussedtheillegaltradeinwildlifeandwildlifeproducts,
valuedoverUS$10billion(Elliot2009,p.61),inwhichorganizedcrimeisalsoinvolved—e.g.,RussianMafiain
caviar,andChineseTriadsinanimalpartsforTraditionalChineseMedicine.Naylor(2004)howeverstatesthatthe
illegalwildlifemarketisdominatedbythesameactorsasthoseoperatinginthelegalmarket.
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(2).Theworld’slargestforest,inRussianSiberia,whichisnotincludedinthisessay,alsosuffersseverelyfrom
illegallogging.Khatchadourian(2008)describedthelarge-scaleillegallogginginSiberiaandthatseveralmurders
werecommittedrelatedtoillegallogging.Thisessay,however,focusesondeforestationintropicalcountries,
whereillegallogginggenerallyismoreprevalentandwherethehumanandnonhumanvictimsaremorenumerous,
consideringthehigherhumanpopulationsandhigherbiodiversityintropicalrainforests.
(3).Someethnographicfindingsandimpressionscanbefoundinthefootnotes,mainlybasedonvisitsand
researchinIndonesiaandespeciallyBrazil.
(4).ThereisalsoaNorth–Southdimension,withwastebeingexportedtoSoutherncountries,whichonly
sometimesgetsinternationalattention.Forexample,in2006,500tonsoftoxicwastefromatankerofTransfigura,a
SwisstradingcompanyheadquarteredintheNetherlands,wasdumpedatdifferentsitesinAbidjan,Côted’Ivoire.
Over100,000residentssoughtmedicaltreatmentandatleast15died(Faber2009,p.101).
(5).ThesizesoftheNetherlands,Switzerland,andTaiwanare,respectively,around37,000km2 ,41,000km2 ,and
36,000km2 .Inthe1990s,theannualdeforestationrateintheBrazilianAmazonwasaround20,000km2 .In
Indonesia,theannualdeforestationduringthisdecadeaveraged10,000km2 .Anannualdeforestationof10,000
km2 correspondsto5,479footballfieldsperday,228perhour,or3.8perminute.
(6).Tropicalrainforestsnormallycannotburneasily,forthesimplereasonthattheyaretoohumid.Attheendof
thedryseason,however,forestfiresdooccur.IntheAmazon,thesefiresareoftencausedbyranchers,creating
farmlandforcattle(seefurther).Inrecentyears,Indonesia’srainforestssufferedseveraltimesfromextendeddry
periods,suchasin1997and2006,apparentlyrelatedtotheElNinoeffect(Nellemannetal.2007,p.31;Makmur
2009),whichledtoenormousforestfires,whichwerearegionalproblem(smog)andalsoglobalproblem(large
carbonreleases).
(7).Basedonanaverage50-cm-diameterlog;100millioncubicmetersoflogswouldstretch510,000km,whilethe
circumferenceoftheEarthattheequatorisjustover40,000km(LawsonandMacFaul2010,p.103).
(8).Asearchinanylargeacademiclibraryshowsthatarticlesonillegallogginghavebeenpublishedinmany
scientificjournals:ConservationandSociety,EnvironmentalManagement,ForestEcologyandManagement,
ForestPolicyandEconomics,JournalofEnvironmentandDevelopment,TheJournalofDevelopingAreas,Journal
ofSoutheastAsianStudies,MadagascarConservationandDevelopment,RemoteSensingofEnvironment,
SocietyandNaturalResources,WorldDevelopment,andmore.Also,lessspecializedjournalslikeTheEconomist
andNewScientisthavepublishedarticlesaboutillegallogging.
(9).Inthe2000census,some700,000Braziliansclassifiedthemselvesasindigenous,0.4percentoftheBrazilian
population.AmajorityofthemliveintheAmazon(seeIBGE,theBrazilianInstituteofGeographyandStatistics:
http://www.ibge.gov.br).IBGEestimatesthataround1500,whentheEuropeansarrived,theindigenouspopulation
ontheterritorythatnowisBrazilnumberedbetween1and5million.
(10).Today’sextinctioncrisisissometimescalledthesixthextinction(seeLeakeyandLewin1996).Thecurrent
extinctionratesareunprecedentedandmuchhigherthanthefifthextinctionof65millionyearsago,whenthe
dinosaursalsobecameextinct.Thecausesofthecurrentextinctionarepollution,hunting/fishing,theintroduction
ofspecies,fragmentationoflandscapes,climatechange,and,primarily,habitatdestruction.Muchliteratureexists
onthesubject,butitiswellsummarizedinthedocumentaryseriesTheStateofthePlanetbyDavidAttenborough
(2004).
(11).Unliketheimagethatisportrayedinmedia(asifclimatechangeanditsrelationwithincreasedcarbon
emissionsarestillmattersofstrongscientificdebate),thereexistsquiteastrongscientificconsensusthatcarbon
emissionshavestronglyincreasedsincetheindustrialageandthatitisincreasinglylikelythatthisiscausing
climatechange.SeethereportsofIPCC(http://www.ipcc.ch),orforamoreaccessibleoverview,seeFlannery
(2007).Foranexplanationforthedifferenceinperceptionbetweenscientificspecialistsandthegeneralpublic,
seeOreskesandConway(2010).
(12).Borneois,afterNewGuinea,theworld’ssecond-largesttropicalislandandisdividedamongthreestates.
ThemajorpartiscomposedofKalimatan,aregionofIndonesia.AminorpartiscomposedofEastMalaysia,the
provincesSarawakandSabah.AsmallpartiscomposedofthesultanateofBrunei.
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(13).Illegaldeforestationregularlyinvolvesviolence.Iwastoldandshownpicturesofavictimontheislandof
Ceramwho,afterresistingillegalloggingonhisfamilyland,wasbeheadedwithachainsaw.Therenowned
orangutanprotectorWillieSmitshasmadesomanyenemieswithhisworkthathesleepsatmanydifferentplaces,
ashetoldmeinJakartain2005.
(14).Indonesia’sPapuaprovinceisthewesternhalfofNewGuinea;theeasternsideisthecountryPapuaNew
Guinea.
(15).WWFIndonesia(2004)accusedAPP,oneoftheworld’slargestpapercompanies,whichisownedbythe
IndonesianconglomerateSinarMasGroup,oflogginginprotectedreserves.Since2008,anincreasingnumberof
corporationshavestoppedbuyingpaperfromAPP(seeMonbiot2010).In2010,afteraGreenpeacereportstated
thatAPPisresponsibleforthedestructionofrainforests,includingtheBikutTigapuluhforest,oneofthelastrefuges
fortheSumatrantigersandorangutans,FrenchsupermarketmultinationalCarrefourannouncedthatitwouldstop
buyingAPPpaper.Greenpeacedidnotstatethattheloggingwasillegal(Deutsch2010).In2008,RAPP,theother
papergiant,whichisownedbyIndonesianbillionaireSukantoTanoto,suedtheIndonesiannewspaperKoran
TempofordefamationafteritpublishedarticlesaboutRAPPloggingillegally.Judgesorderedthenewspapertopay
damagestoRAPPandtopublishextensiveapologies(Wisnu2008).
(16).PartofthefrictionseemstobethataForestryLaw(No.49/1999)conflictswithanEnvironmentalLaw(No.
23/1997).In2007,theIndonesianHouseofRepresentativesheldhearingsontheloggingbyorforpaperpulp
factories,butthehearingwithRAPPwascancelledasthecompanywasseenasbeinguncooperative.SeeSijabat
(2007).
(17).TheIndonesianarmy(TNI)isonlypartlyfundedbytheIndonesianstateandearnsmuchofitsincome
througharmy-ownedcommercialcompanies,includingloggingandtimber(processing)businesses.Whileitisa
governmentalpolicygoalforTNItonolongerowncommercialbusinesses,thesereformshaveproceededslowly
(see,e.g.,Saragih2011).
(18).Itispotentiallydangeroustoinvestigateillegallogginginthefield.In2005,whentheheadofanNGOofficein
Borneo’sinteriorinvitedmetowitnesstimbertraffickingfromIndonesiatoMalaysia,heinsistedthatIhaveagood
coverstoryandwouldnotpresentmyselfasacriminologist.Hepresentedmetoasoldier,whooriginatedfroma
forestcommunity,whotoldmethathissuperiorswereinvolvedinillegallogging.
(19).Whilethenewpolicechiefwantedtogivemetheimpressionofbeingagoodlawenforcer(alsobyshowing
methedetainedMalaysians),Indonesianenvironmentalistswhohad“checkedhimout”latertoldmethey
suspectedhishandswerenotcleaneither.ThearrestoftheMalaysiansmighthavebeensymbolicorawayto
neutralizecompetitors.
(20).HillaryClintonstatedthisaftervisitingDRCongoin2009(French2009).Differentmediareportssuggestthat
thisdescriptionwasstillvalidin2011(seeHochschild2011;Viner2011).
(21).The“conflictdiamonds”phenomenonledtotheimplementationofastricterpolicy,theKimberleyProcess
CertificationScheme.Althoughanimprovement,itstilllacksindependentmonitoring,andinpracticethesupposed
distinctionbetweenlegalandillegaldiamondsdoesnotexist,asSiegelshowed(2008,2009).
(22).SourcesdifferaboutDRCongo’spercentageoftheworld’stotalcoltanreserves.SomesourcessayDR
Congohas80percentofAfrica’sreserves,othersourcessayithas80percentoftheworld’sreserves,whilesome
sourcesputitat60percentoftheworld’sreservesorless.ThesourcesseemtoagreethatDRCongohasoneof
theworld’smaincoltanreserves.
(23).Inthefirstyearofoccupation,1997,Uganda’sroughdiamondexportswerevaluedat$198,000,butinthe
followingyears,itquicklyrosetobetween$1millionand$2million(UNSC2001,p.21).
(24).AnnexIofthereportoftheUNExpertPanellistsmanyofthesecompanies.Almostathirdofthemarefound
inBelgium,theformercolonizerofDRCongoand(afterWorldWarI)alsoofBurundiandRwanda,whichimplies
thatmany(trade)connectionsstillexist.CompaniesfromtheNetherlandsarealsowellrepresented.Other
EuropeancompaniesarebasedinGermany,theUnitedKingdom,andSwitzerland.SeeUNSC(2001,pp.46–7).
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
(25).Approximately680remainofthismountaingorillaspecies,andmorethanhalfofthem(380)liveinthe
Virungamountains.SeethesectiononmountaingorillasintheRedListof(critically)endangeredspeciesofthe
WorldConservationUnionIUCN:http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/39994/0.Atelevisiondocumentary
(shownbyNationalGeographicandCNN)wasmadeaboutthemurderofthegorillafamily.
(26).While“conflictdiamonds”wasthetermcoinedinUNreports,themediaincreasinglystartedusingtheterm
“blooddiamonds,”perhapsinfluencedbythepopularHollywoodfilmBloodDiamond(2006)aboutSierraLeone.
ThecourtcaseagainstformerLiberianPresidentCharlesTaylor,indictedforwarcrimesbytheUNSpecialCourtfor
SierraLeone(UNSL),receivedmuchmediaattentionin2010,whentopmodelNaomiCampbellwassummonedto
testify,assheapparentlyreceiveda“blooddiamond”fromCharlesTaylor.TheUNSLwassetupjointlybythe
governmentofSierraLeoneandtheUnitedNations.In2012,theUNSLsentencedCharlesTaylorto50yearsinjail.
SeethewebsiteoftheSPSL:http://www.sc-sl.org.
(27).In2006,Kouwenhovenwasconvictedandsentencedto8years’imprisonmentforweaponstrafficking,but
afteranappeal(ofboththedefendantandprosecutor),hewasfoundnotguiltyin2008.Theprosecutorappealed
again,andin2010,theDutchHighCourtoverturnedtheAppealCourt’sdecision—statingthattwoanonymous
witnessesshouldbeheard,whichtheAppealCourthadrefused—andsentthecasebacktotheAppealCourt.See
thedecisionoftheHighCourtintheNetherlands(codeBK8132,08/01322).
(28).AswasdecidedbytheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilResolution1478of2003,thealreadyexistingbanon
diamondexportsfromLiberiawasextendedtotimberaswell.Resolution1343of2001againstLiberiahadalready
installedaweaponsembargo,measuresagainsttheexportofroughdiamondsandtravelrestrictionsonsenior
governmentmembers.Foranoverview,see:http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/committees/Liberia2/LiberiaSelEng.htm.
(29).Inmodernterms,privateerscouldbeconsideredasstate-sponsoredorganizedcrime:raidingandrobbing
shipswiththepermissionofagovernment.Chambliss(1989)labelsitstate-organizedcrime.
(30).TheEnglishmanHenryWickhamsmuggled70,000rubberseedsfromtheBrazilianAmazontoLondon,from
wheretheyweretakentotropicalAsia.ThisbroketheAmazon’smonopolyonhigh-qualityrubber—increasinglyin
demandduringindustrialization—andledtotheeconomicdemiseoftheAmazonand,tosomeextent,Brazil
(Grandin2010,p.26).BraziliansdubbedWickham“theprinceofthieves”and“executionerofAmazonas,”as“his
theftishardlydefensibleininternationallaw”(Jackson2008,p.191).WiththehelpoftheBritishconsul,Wickham
misledBraziliancustomsofficialsbyforgingdocumentsanddeclaringthathisloadcontaineddelicatespecimens
forQueenVictoria’sbotanicalgardens(Jackson2008).Wickham’srubbertheftisconsideredastheclassiccaseof
biopiracy,whichistheappropriation,withoutpayment,ofindigenousbiological(oftenbiomedical)knowledgeand
genes.AsWickhamoperatedfortheBritishEmpire,hisrubbertheftcanbeconsideredasagovernmentalcrime.
Tropicalplantsareanimportantsourceformedicine,andtheycontinuebeingobjectsofbiopiracy,todaymainlyas
targetsofthepharmaceuticalindustry,whichalsopatents(partsof)plants(seeSouth2007).Biopiracytodaycould
becategorizedascorporatecrime.Theprofitscanruninthemillionsorbillions(LondonandKelly2007,p.249).
(31).TheAmazon’ssoilispoorinnutrientsbutrichin(precious)metals.Thepracticeofgoldprospectingisold
andwell-known.Lessknownisthatworld’slargestironmineisalsofoundintheAmazon.Overthelastyears,
bauxitemining(foraluminium)hasincreasedgreatly.Forexample,inJurutí,inParástate,wherebauxiteisfoundat
adepthof12meters,theUSaluminiumcompanyAlcoaisclearingrainforest,whichhasledtoconflictswith
rainforestinhabitants(BoekhoutvanSolinge2010b,p.271).
(32).TheEuropeanUnionisthelargestimporterofBrazilianbeef,followedbyChile,Egypt,theUnitedStates,
SaudiArabia,andRussia(Pearce2004).Someofthebeefisexportedandsoldintins.
(33).Seethewebsiteonlegalmeat(carnelegal)oftheFederalProsecutor’sOffice:
http://www.carnelegal.mpf.gov.br/,whereitisstatedthatin2009,Paráwasthe“championstate”regardingillegal
deforestationintheAmazonregion.SomeBraziliansImetwerewonderinghowlongtheprosecutorwasgoingto
stayinofficeorstayalive,consideringthelarge(commercial)interestsheischallenginginPará,knownforits
lawlessnessandviolence.
(34).Thewebsitesoystats(http://www.soystats.com)showsthatin2010,Brazilproduced27percentofthe
world’ssoybeans,70millionmetrictons.TheUnitedStatesproduces90.6millionmetrictons(35percent).
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
(35).Ifthesubjectofdeforestationandlandgrabbing(“grilagem”inPortuguese)isdiscussedintheAmazonwith
anindependentlawyer,journalist,intellectual,oracademicspecialist,heorshewillalmostcertainlyexplainthat
mostofthelandgrabbingintheAmazonisillegal.AsvariouslawyersexplainedtomeinSantarém(suchasat
UFOPAuniversityinSantarém,in2010and2011),farmersandloggerscommonlytake(grab)publiclandillegally.
Newlandholdersjusttaketheland,ortheyshowsome“bought”paperworktothesometimesilliterateforest
communities.Armed(ex)lawenforcers—hiredforthejob—orgunmenmayaccompanythem.
(36).ThedocumentaryBoundbyPromises:ContemporarySlaveryinRuralBrazil(BeatrizAffonso2009)shows
thatyear,morethan25,000ruralworkersareenslavedbylandowners,mostlyintheAmazonregion.SeealsoBBC
NewsofJune26,2010(Hernandez2010).
(37).The(western)Amazonistheworld’smainareaof“uncontacted”smalltribesofhunter-gatherers—estimated
ataround50.ThesecondmostimportantareaistheislandofNewGuinea.Inbothequatorialforests,most
deforestationisillegal.SeeBoekhoutvanSolinge(2010b).
(38).AnyvisitorwillnoticewhenaddressingthesubjectintheAmazon.IntheBrazilianmediatheterm“timber
mafia”iscommonlyused,whichseemstorefertolarge-scaletimbertraffickingnetworksthatoftenmakeuseof
corruption,collusion,andviolence.
(39).AtimbertraderIoncemetinGermanytoldme,afteralongtalk,thathehadbeentradingillegaltimber.On
paper,thetimbercamefromdifferentBrazilianstates,butinrealityitwasfromParástate.AtimbertraderImetin
Paráexplainedthathetriedtogetlegaltimber,butthatsome30percentofhistimberwasstillofsuspiciousorigin.
Heallowedmetojoinabusinessmeetingwithacolleagueinwhichtheydiscussedtheproblemofthemayor
delayingpaperwork—presumablywiththeintenttobepaid.
(40).InsomecasesofthelargelandholdersintheAmazon,theyareabsenteelandholders,comingfromsouthern
BrazilorthesouthernAmazon(suchasMatoGrossostate),wheretheylivepartormostofthetime.They
resembletheabsenteelandlordsofnineteenth-centurySicily,wholivedmostlyinthecity(Palermo)andtrustedthe
managementtoMafiosi,middlemenorpowerbrokers.
(41).WhileBrazilisnotadevelopingcountrybutanemergingeconomy,Brazil’sNorthRegion,wheretheAmazon
Rainforestisfound,isoneofBrazil’seconomicallyless-developedareas.
(42).Whileresearchingillegalloggingandtimber,IwastoldseveraltimesbyDutchpolicymakersthatitwasnot
possibletodoanythingagainstillegaltimberasWTOfreetraderuleswouldnotallowthis.Isuspectthatthis
nonsensicalargumentoriginatesfromthecorporatetimberlobby.Onseveraloccasions,Iheardcorporate
representativessayingthesame.
(43).Theconceptofecologicalfootprintreferstotheaverageamountofproductivelandandshallowseathata
humanisusing.IfeveryoneweretohaveaEuropeanlifestyle,thiswouldrequirebetweentwoandthreeplanets.A
NorthAmericanlifestyleforeveryonewouldrequirefiveplanets(Wilson2002,p.23).
(44).Ascrimeincitiesissometimesdescribedasurbancrime,theterm“ruralcrime,”ormorespecifically
“agriculturalcrime”maydenotewellthetypesofcrimethatoccurintheprocessofandwiththeobjectiveof
agriculturalproduction.“Cattlecrime”mayalsobeanappropriateterm,asmost(illegal)deforestationinthe
BrazilianAmazonoccursinordertocreatecattlefarms.
(45).TheUnitedNationsConventionagainstTransnationalOrganizedCrime(2000)definesanorganizedcriminal
groupas“astructuredgroupofthreeormorepersons,existingforaperiodoftimeandactinginconcertwiththe
aimofcommittingoneormoreseriouscrimesoroffencesestablishedinaccordancewiththisConvention,inorder
toobtain,directlyorindirectly,afinancialorothermaterialbenefit”(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly2000).
(46).“Thetermorganizedcrimeusuallyreferstolarge-scaleandcomplexcriminalactivitiescarriedoutbytightly
orlooselyorganizedassociationsandaimedattheestablishment,supplyandexploitationofillegalmarketsatthe
expenseofsociety.Suchoperationsaregenerallycarriedoutwitharuthlessdisregardofthelaw,andoften
involveoffencesagainsttheperson,includingthreats,intimidationandphysicalviolence”(UnitedNations1990,p.
5).
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The Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
(47).WiththankstomycolleagueDamiánZaitchforsharinghisideaswithmeonthevariouscriminological
conceptsandhowtheycouldapplytothisfieldofresearch.
TimBoekhoutvanSolinge
TimBoekhoutvanSolingeworksasalecturerandresearcherincriminologyatUtrechtUniversity.Heformerlyspecializedinissues
ofinternationaldrugcontrol,butoverthelastyearshismaininteresthasbeenenvironmentalorgreencriminology,inparticular
illegalloggingandotherillegalorotherwiseharmfulformsofdeforestationinthetropics.Hecoordinatesaninternationalproject,
fundedbytheNetherlandsOrganizationofScientificResearch(NWO),onconflictsandnaturalresourcesinColombiaandBrazil.
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