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APPENDIX C
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POETRY AND MUSIC
AS METRICAL ANALOGUES
The subject of this Appendix is not music as poetic subject nor musical themes or
devices as poetic motifs nor musical macrostructure as poetic architectonics, nor even music
as a model to describe poetic meter, but rather the fusion of the two analogues musical
meter and verse meter in the setting of texts to tunes, particularly the traditional ballads.
(Cf. the items in the section on Ballad Meter in Chapter Six.) Carefully treated, this area is
both immensely illuminating (in both directions) and also fascinating in itself as a study of
composition.
Perhaps the best place for the interested student to begin, though, is Nicholas Ruwet's short review essay on "Musicology and Linguistics" tucked away in the International
Social Sciences Journal 19 (1967): 79–87; no one can leave that essay without a profound
sense of our ignorance of "the principles of musical syntax." From that salutary position the
student may then return to leaf through the section on Musical Metrics in Chapter Six
herein for an equally sobering perspective on the equal ignorance (and greater, far greater,
confusion) in the field of versification. From there, if his curiosity still pricks him to know
more about the ways in which poetic and musical substructure can and cannot conjoin, he
may proceed to the works below.
N1 Adams, Stephen J. "Ezra Pound and Music." DAI 37 (1977): 7746A.
Three relationships of music to verse are discerned: as subject, as structure, and
as element of melopoeia.
N2 Alexander, John M. "'Ut Musica Poesis' in Eighteenth Century Aesthetics." English
Miscellany 24 (1973–74): 129–52.
This profuse essay treats not the structural correspondences of poetry and music
but rather the similar effects on the emotions which the eighteenth century attributed to them.
N3 Amis, George T. "The Meter and Meaning of Nashe's 'Adieu, Farewell Earths
Blisse.'" English Literary Renaissance 9 (1979): 78–85.
Yvor Winters took the song's meter as iambic trimeter, J. V. Cunningham as
iambs and amphimacers, but if we recognize the song as song, we will see that
its lines alternate between four and three stresses, the four-stress line being the
norm, as in nearly all Western music.
N4 Armour, Eugene. "The Melodic and Rhythmic Characteristics of the Music of the
Traditional Ballad Variants Found in the Southern Appalachians." DAI 22
(1962): 4368A (New York University).
Analysis of random tunes of the Child ballads in Cecil Sharp's English Folk
Songs from the Southern Appalachians produced 187 tunes in 14 melodic modes
and extensive statistical information on intervals, contours, syncopation, and
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rhythmic figures.
N5 Booth, Mark W. "The Art of Words in Songs." Quarterly Journal of Speech 62 (1976):
242–49.
Intent to explicate the relation of lyrics to their accompanying music, Booth
differentiates the words in songs from true oral poetry and from written texts
of poems. It comes to this: poetry can Make It New, whereas songs can only
reinforce the known: they "must say things that are . . . generally familiar simplifications." Long discussion of devices for repetition.
N6 Boswell, George W. "Metrical Alteration in Folksinging." Journal of American Folklore
85 (1972): 248–59.
Changes of meter within the performance of a folksong are sometimes improvisations or free variations but also demonstrate the control of text over
tune in ballads. The article examines over a hundred examples.
N7 -----. "Pitch: Musical and Verbal in Folksong." Yearbook of the International Folk Music
Council 9 (1977): 80–88.
Boswell wishes to compare the pitch-pattern of a ballad tune with that of the
vowels in a reading of its text, but since phonetics experts themselves are uncertain of precise vowel heights, he is forced to graph out a number of "formants" (energy fields and levels) both separately and in combination. The lowest formant alone matches most closely.
N8 -----. "Reciprocal Controls Exerted by Ballad Texts and Tunes." Journal of American
Folklore 80 (1967): 169–74.
For sheer compression of specific information on the interaction of linguistic
and musical patterns this essay has no equal.
N9 -----. "Shaping Controls of Ballad Tunes Over Their Texts." Tennessee Folklore Society
Bulletin 17 (1951): 9–18.
N10 -----. "Stanza Form and Music-Imposed Scansion in Southern Ballads." Southern
Folklore Quarterly 31 (1967): 320–31.
A discursive catalogue of the meters and accompanying time-signatures of the
Child ballads; the most common setting by far is 4/4 time, since it points up
dipodic stressing. Boswell considers it a moot point that text controls tune.
N10a -----. "Verse and Music in the Sacred Harp." Southern Folklore Quarterly 34
(1970): 53–61.
N11 Brennecke, Ernest, Jr. "Dryden's Odes and Draghi's Music." PMLA 49 (1934): 1–36.
An analysis of the 1687 "Song for St. Cecilia's Day" as compared to the earlier
and less-orchestrated "Alexander's Feast," to show how Dryden mastered the
techniques of vocal polyphony, antiphony, and sequence in the construction of his
choral ode. This meticulous study shows Dryden's grasp of the demands of
pure verbal phrasing and of pure melodic structure, and the concessions of the
two forms to fit each other when melded, to be a very sure grasp indeed.
N12 Bridges, Robert. Preface to his Ode for the Bicentennary Commemoration of Henry
Purcell, with other poems and a preface on the musical setting of poetry. London: Elkin
Mathews, 1896. pp. 5–18. Rpt. as On the Musical Setting of Poetry. No. 21
of his Collected Essays, Papers, &c. London: Oxford University Press, 1927–
35. Vol. 9, pp. 3–16.
See also No. 22, "A Practical Discourse on Some Principles of HymnSinging"; No. 24, "English Chanting"; and No. 26, "Psalms Noted in SpeechRhythm" in the same volume.
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N13
Bridges defends the publication of his Ode as a poem (divested of its music) by
denying that "declamatory" music "is able satisfactorily to interpret" poetry. He
adduces eight reasons, generally to the effect that the rhythmic and inflectional
systems for music and speech are different. "The repetitions in music and poetry are incompatable."
The reader should see N58 and may then wish to consult:
Byard, Herbert. "Robert Bridges: Church Musician." Music & Letters 53
(1972): 44–55.
N14 Bronson, Bertrand H. "The Interdependence of Ballad Tunes and Texts." California
Folklore Quarterly 3 (1944): 185–207; rpt. in The Critics and The Ballad. Ed.
MacEdward Leach and T. P. Coffin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University
Press, 1963. pp. 77–102.
Instances of various sorts of problems in determining form.
N15 -----. "Literature and Music." Relations of Literary Study. Ed. James Thorpe. New
York: MLA, 1967. pp. 127–50.
See pp. 134–42: Bronson shows to what extremes of felicity and infelicity poetic texts can be taken when set to music, and in particular he shows how
much Herrick's poems will suffer when deprived of their unique typographic
form and set to some common meter. Yet on the other hand some Herrick
verses can be set to a ballad tune with unexpected ease, suggesting that perhaps
Herrick knew some ballad music.
N16 -----. "On the Union of Words and Music in the 'Child' Ballads." Western Folklore
11 (1952): 233–49.
Historical scholarship suggests that a tune is not transmitted intact but in a series of variants, all close relatives of a "melodic family," even as a ballad text
will show considerable variation yet preserve intact a general, kernel idea.
Many texts may be set to a given tune, so that the old Gregorian conception
of musical modes seems not to be borne out. About tempo we know little, but
iambic-trochaic meters usually fall into triple (actually dotted duple) time
when given temporal values, the stresses being naturally lengthened a bit.
Much valuable information in this ranging article. Cf. Coffin (E864).
N17 -----. "Traditional Ballads Musically Considered." Critical Inquiry 2 (1975): 29–42.
With graceful erudition, Bronson offers a series of observations on the relations
of text and tune in the evolution of the ballad; some of the remarks are brilliant suggestions.
N18 Brown, Calvin S. Music and Literature: A Comparison of the Arts. Athens, Ga.:
University of Georgia Press, 1948.
Rev.: in Comparative Literature 2 (1950): 370–73.
The major monograph by the major authority in the field. Chapters 2 and 3
(the first of these on "Rhythm and Pitch") face most directly the metrical features in speech, verse, and music; thereafter, chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss the
setting of words to music.
N19 -----. "Musico-Literary Research in the Last Two Decades." Yearbook of Comparative
and General Literature, no. 19 (1970), pp. 5–27.
An invaluable general review essay, cogently organized, assessing the best and
the lastest work in each area. Metrical studies are treated on pp. 24–25.
N20 Brown, John. A Dissertation on the Rise, Union, and Power, the Progressions, Separations,
and Corruptions, of Poetry and Music. London: L. Davis & C. Reymers, 1763.
An early comparative treatise on dance and song in the ancient and modern
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languages, both Oriental and Occidental. Section 13 treats the most contemporary forms. There are stray remarks on meter on pp. 228, 235, 236n. See
Flasdieck (N52).
N21 Bryan, Margaret B. "Recent Studies in Campion." English Literary Renaissance 4
(1974): 404–11.
A review article summarizing the most prominent work on Campion's music
and metrics.
N22 Burgess, Anthony. "Viewpoint." TLS, 13 October 1972, p. 1224.
On the frustrations of writing lyrics to perfectly match a score, including the
paucity of rhymes in English, which necessitate certain guiles:
" . . . tragedy, / . . . glad you de-/cided to smile."
N23 Butt, John. "English Music and English Verse." In his Pope, Dickens, and Others:
Essays and Addresses. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1969. pp. 17–
38.
A fund of fresh and acute observations based on direct and thoughtful inspection of texts. Though verse and music share the same medium, time, and some
of the same inflectional features, their union can only be productive through a
series of graceful compromises. The poet cannot express the finest shades of
nuance without music, but in music a longer time is required to establish an
"idea" or mood clearly. If the verse is isostrophic then the poet's range is severely limited, though the musician's task is conversely simplified. Music can
do nothing with rhyme, poetry, the fugue. Apparently, "musical form and
verse form can only resemble each other when each is at its loosest." Compromise, then, is the essence of the art. Examples from Campion and Dowland.
N24 Campbell, Clare. "Music and Poetry, with Some Notes on Benjamin Britten's
Setting of Words." Critical Quarterly 6 (1964): 253–63.
N25 Childs, Barney. "Articulation in Sound Structures: Some Notes Toward an
Analytic." Texas Studies in Literature and Language 8 (1966): 423–45.
Many of the problems besetting prosodic analysis are also problems in musicology: "what is needed is a more powerful and inclusive concept of dealing
with the phenomena of stress and articulation in any sound structure." The
concept is pulse, "not heard but intensely felt by each performer and intricately
bound up in each performer's physiological and psychological sense of time,"
hence apparently closely related to tempo, and a systemic feature set over
against the counterpointed system of rhythm and meter. This aspect of timing
may be denoted by the various typographical indicators of pause, though
graphic cues are of little assistance to performance. The unit of prominence in
any sound structure is an "energy construct," established by pulse, said energy
being either direct or expectational. Childs' "notes toward" a fully coherent
synthesis are very widely and astutely informed.
N26 Childs, Robert B. "The Setting of Poetry in the English Madrigal, With an Edition
of The Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowful Soule. DA 20 (1959): 1037A
(Stanford).
Includes metrics: thorough technical comparisons.
N27 Clinton-Baddeley, V. C. Words for Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1941. 168 pp.
Rev.: in Review of English Studies 19 (1943): 315–17.
Amounts to a comprehensive history of the setting of English lyrics to music:
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widely informed, though discursive, hence only occasionally technical. Very
close analyses must be looked for elsewhere.
N28 Colles, H[enry] C. Voice and Verse: A Study in English Song. London: Oxford
University Press, 1928. 167 pp.
The whole book is well worth a thorough perusal, but chapter 1, "The Nature
of the Case," will suffice for those too busy for long reading, and who therefore appreciate succinct but informed explanations--here, of the setting of poems to music.
N29 Cone, Edward T. "Words into Music: The Composer's Approach to the Text."
Frye (A15), pp. 3–15.
An extremely valuable account, adroitly balanced between the too-general and
the too-minute, giving us concrete, informative examples of the same poem
(mainly by Goethe) set to music by two different hands and also the variety of
aspects within a poem which a composer may choose to emphasize by a certain melodic structure. But the most valuable point here is that a poem has no
one "form" which must be adjusted to or discarded for the music; poems have
a virtual infinity of latent forms, depending on the perspective, as is the case
with architecture.
N30 Cooper, Grosvenor W., and Leonard B. Meyer. The Rhythmic Structure of Music.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960. 212 pp.
I am appalled to report that I have seen Cooper and Meyer cited only twice in
all the work on versification published since 1960. What is remarkable about
their pioneering study is that--reversing the usual trend--they adopt the terminology of verse to explain music. The rhythmic structure (i.e. stress-patterns) of
music they conceive as composed of a set of "architectonic levels," the group
of each lower level comprising one unit of the group of the next higher level,
these groups being termed iamb, trochee, anapest, dactyl, and amphimacer. This is a
formidable book for anyone not a professional musicologist, but it must not be
ignored by the metrist. But note Yeston (N140).
N31 Crist, Bainbridge. The Art of Setting Words to Music. New York: Carl Fischer, 1944.
95 pp.
A pragmatic treatise by an eminent composer.
N32 Davidson, Audrey. "Milton on the Music of Henry Lawes." Milton Newsletter 2
(1968): 19–23.
From Milton's encomium on Lawes' settings, Davidson concludes that Milton
was sensitive to the disposition of quantities in verse, as in music.
N33 Davis, Walter R. "Melodic and Poetic Structure: The Examples of Campion and
Dowland." Criticism 4 (1962): 89–107.
Two axioms may be established from Renaissance musical treatises: "the music
should serve the words, not vice versa," and "a primary consideration was clarity: music should stress words in the development of the lyric's thought."
Campion's lyrics show a logical, even dialectical structure of contrasts and balances, whereas Dowland preferred the strategies of repetition and amplification, aiming for continuity and unity.
N34 Demmery, Morton. "The Hybrid Critic." Music & Letters 37 (1956): 128–40.
Would be one whose understanding of music was no less informed or incisive
than his grasp of literary form. Demmery reviews the accomplishments of several twentieth-and eighteenth century (Musical) metrists, then indicates some
of the characteristics wanted in our Perfect Critic by analyzing Dryden's 1687
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"From Harmony, from heav'nly Harmony" (pauses, rhymes, meter) and its
musical setting by Handel (1739).
N35 Detweiler, Alan G. "Music and Poetry." British Journal of Aesthetics 1 (1961): 134–43.
An impressionistic argument that if one views music as a contentless patterning
of pure sound, he must view poetry identically, whereas if one admits
"thought-content" in poetry, he should admit its presence in music as well.
The difficulty, we are told, is that music contains two kinds of content, a "descriptive content" and an "artistic content," and though the first is susceptible
to verbalization the second, for some reason, is not: "it is precisely in words
that musical thought cannot be expressed. . . . it is only possible to render musical thought-content in terms of its own language, that is, by performance.
No other way of expression is open to us." This way anarchy lies.
N36 Doughtie, Edward. "Sibling Rivalry: Music vs. Poetry in Campion and Others."
Criticism 20 (1978): 1–16.
A discursive examination of Campion's settings, with the aim of a balanced
view of his accomplishments and failures; Doughtie suggests that part of the
motivation for some of the settings was that other composers had gotten settings of Campion's own songs into print even before he had.
N37 -----. "Words for Music: Simplicity and Complexity in the Elizabethan Air." Rice
University Studies 51 (1965): 1–12.
Assuming that formal simplicity is a requisite for a successful song, Doughtie
analyzes aspects of structural and verbal simplicity/complexity in verse, showing how very weak meter may be overcome by vigorous music, and vice
versa.
N38 Doughtie, Edward, ed. "Introduction." Lyrics from English Airs: 1592–1622.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970. pp. 1–41.
Especially sections II and IV.
N39 Draper, John W. "Poetry and Music in Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics." Englische
Studien 67 (1932): 70–85.
See pp. 78–79 for a survey of those writers who identified poetic meter with
musical scale as correspondent forms of Harmony.
N40 Duckles, Vincent. "John Jenkins's Settings of Lyrics by George Herbert." Musical
Quarterly 48 (1962): 461–75.
N41 Duckles, Vincent, and F. B. Zimmerman. Words to Music: Papers on English
Seventeenth-Century Song. Los Angeles: Clark Memorial Library, 1967.
Two essays.
N42 Eldridge, Muriel T. "Thomas Campion: His Poetry and Music (1567–1620): A
Study in Relationships." DA 19 (1958): 829A (Pennsylvania).
A detailed analysis of Campion settings, including, inter alia, melodic phrasing,
rhyme schemes, meter, and rhythm (rests, syncopation, stress-shifts, timesignatures, and key).
N43 Engsberg, Richard C. "Two by Two: Analogues of Form in Poetry and Music."
DAI 30 (1969): 278A (New York University).
Finds and explores similarities of form in the poetic line and the musical
phrase, on multiple levels of analogy, in the work of Pope, Blake, Wordsworth, Browning, and Yeats.
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N44 Ericson-Roos, Catarina. The Songs of Robert Burns: A Study of the Unity of Poetry and
Music. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1977. 144 pp.
See section 2 of chapter 2 on Rhythm.
N45 Erskine, John. The Elizabethan Lyric. Columbia University Studies in English, no. 2.
New York: Macmillan, 1903.
Examines the lyric both as song (music) and poem (words) throughout the
sixteenth century. Included, inter alia, are: "Lyric Quality and Lyric Form,"
"The Sonnet-series," "The Song-books," and "Metrical Forms in the Elizabethan Lyric." Lengthy bibliography.
N46 Fabry, Frank J. "The Poetry of the Secular Polyphonic Vocal Forms in England
(1588–1627)." DAI 25 (1965): 5255A (Texas).
N47 -----. "Sidney's Poetry and Italian Song-Form." English Literary Renaissance 3 (1973):
232–48.
Proposition: it is through Sidney's translations of Italian songs that trochaic meter
and feminine rhyme entered English poetry in the Renaissance.
N48 -----. "Sidney's Verse Adaptations to Two Sixteenth-Century Italian Art Songs."
Renaissance Quarterly 23 (1970): 237–55.
Reports the discovery of the Italian musical sources for two of Sidney's Certaine Sonnets; complete transcriptions and discussion of Sidney's skill at molding
his English to the meters of both the music and the Italian texts are provided.
N49 Ferri, Mary M. "Modern Songs as Lyric Poetry: Euphony, Rhythm, Metre, and
Rhyme." Style 4 (1970): 245–51.
Remarks on work by Paul Simon, Bob Dylan, and Leonard Cohen. Superficial.
N50 Finney, Oliver J. "Thomas Campion, Music, and Metrics." DAI 36 (1976): 4506A
(Kansas).
From consideration of the musical settings of the Pléiade, Sidney's abortive experiments in quantitative metrics, Campion's Observations (wherein the term
"beat" is used ambivalently for "stress" and "duration") and several of his late
airs, Finney concludes that Campion adopted a temporal theory of metrics,
using variations in note length in the music to indicate metrical deviations in
the text.
N51 Fischer, Marianne. "Zum Stil der elizabethanischen Madrigale." Archiv 133 (1915):
1–44.
N52 Flasdieck, Hermann M. John Brown (1715–1766) und seine "Dissertation on Poetry and
Music." Studien zur englische Philologie, vol. 68. Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1924.
145 pp.
N53 Fowler, Rowena. "Music and Metre: Browning's 'Pietro of Abano.'" Music & Letters
57 (1976): 47–54.
Several features of the poem--eight bars of music Browning appended to its
conclusion, special stress marks, outlandish pronunciations required by rhymes,
foreign words--jointly indicate that Browning intended the meter of the verse
to correspond to a musical meter, and for (intentionally) ludicrous effect.
N54 Fox-Strangways, A. H. "Words and Music in Song." Essays and Studies 7 (1922): 30–
56.
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ate or inappropriate for song. The latter judgment rests on his assumption that
"the root idea of a song is 'action.'"
N55 Fuller, Roy. "Fascinating Rhythm." Southern Review 9 (1973): 857–72; rpt. in his
Professors and Gods. London: Andre Deutsch, 1973. pp. 81–97.
The allusion to Gershwin is emblematic: the subject of this article is the connection between the rhythm of lyrics (words, poems) and the rhythm of their
musical scores. This leads to the larger question of Text and Performance,
fixity and variation, meter and meaning--treated here in the work of Campion, Gershwin, Coward, and Lowell. Remarks on free verse, scansions.
N56 Gibbon, John M. "The Influence of Music on Metre." Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada 23 (1929): 115–23.
Seven of Sir Philip Sidney's poems have extant annotations indicating the tune
they were set to, one of which is that of the current Dutch national anthem.
Another is the Huguenot Battle Hymn in the Geneva Psalter (edited by Calvin), which was also used by Ben Jonson.
N57 -----. Melody and the Lyric from Chaucer to the Cavaliers. London: J. M. Dent; New
York: E. P. Dutton, 1930; rpt. New York: Haskell House, 1964. 204 pp.
N58 Green, Andrew J. "Bridges' Odes for Music." Sewanee Review 49 (1941): 30–38.
Bridges' essay "The Musical Setting of Poetry" is essential to a right understanding and judgment of his two odes for music, for Bridges believed that the
music should carry half, or more than half, the burden of meaning, leaving the
text not as autonomous poetry but as "verse which should adumbrate a setting,
blending perfectly with the music thereof."
N59 Greer, David. "'What if a day'--An Examination of the Words and the Music."
Music & Letters 43 (1962): 304–19.
The song is perhaps Campion's; see pp. 312–14 for remarks on its musical
rhythm, which is relatively faithful to the normal speech-rhythm of the words.
N60 Gross, Harvey. "Music and the Analogue of Feeling: Notes on Eliot and
Beethoven." The Centennial Review of Arts and Sciences 3 (1959): 269–88.
The "music" of poetry is not a matter of sound-effects but of a pattern of abstract relationships, such as in syntax and prosody, which create structures of
"tension, ambiguity, expectation, and fulfillment." These relationships exist in
"affective states below the level of explicit meaning." Eliot's four-stress lines
underneath his pentameters touch these more primitive, pre-cognitive levels in
us.
N61 Hadow, Sir W. H. A Comparison of Poetry and Music. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1926. 41 pp.
Some stray remarks after p. 17.
N62 Hanscombe, Gillian. "John Donne and the Writing of Lyrics." Studies in Music 6
(1972): 10–26.
A very precise and extensive metrical/musicological analysis demonstrates exactly why and how "Donne's poems are too complete for melody." But has it
ever been proven, in fact, that "he expected most of them to be set to music,"
as the author claims?
N63 Hayes, Alfred. "The Relation of Music to Poetry." Atlantic Monthly 113 (1914): 59–
69.
"If [the musician] had adhered closely to the poet's metre, the musical effect
would soon have become monotonous, and he is bound to make the musical
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effect his first consideration."
N64 Heisch, Elizabeth A. "The Problem of Prosody in the Early English Opera, 1660–
1700: A Study of the Setting of Words to Music." DAI 32 (1972): 6377A
(U.C.L.A.).
The Restoration dramatic lyric, having lost its earlier, Renaissance weld to
music based on the Humanist cosmology, deteriorated in power and effect under foreign influences, the "equivalence of note for syllable" being lost, and
verse-rhythm in general being "submerged or dismembered." Imaginative language too is enslaved to convention.
N65 Herbert, Rembert B., Jr. "An Analysis of Nine Holy Sonnets of John Donne Set to
Music by Benjamin Britten." DAI 35 (1974): 2224A (American University).
"We may feel that there is some essential fusion between a poem and a successful setting, but if we try to describe that fusion we cannot do so precisely.
We in fact can speak only of a series of events in the musical medium for
which we are able to posit analogous events in the verbal medium."
N66 Hess, M. Whitcomb. "The Relation Between Music and Poetry." Personalist 15
(1934): 140–47.
Speaks of "the one essence in another kind."
N67 Hollander, John. "Music and Poetry." Princeton (A18), pp. 533–36.
A capsule history of the relations of the two modes from their earliest origin in
the unified performances of music and dance through their long, gradual dissociation and eventual separation.
N68 -----. "A Poem for Music: Notes on the Composition of Philomel."
Appendix to his Vision and Resonance (A13), pp. 289–302.
N69 -----. "The Poem in the Ear." Yale Review 62 (1973): 486–506; rpt. in revised form
as chapter 1 of his Vision and Resonance (A13), pp. 3–43.
Section 2 of the essay reproduces the substance of E358. Section 3 offers further valuable reflections on the historical relations of music and poetry, particularly in the Renaissance settings, the madrigals and ayres. The fallacy of
musical scansion is also discussed.
N70 -----. The Untuning of the Sky: Ideas of Music in English Poetry, 1500–1700.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961; rpt. New York: W. W. Norton,
1970.
Rev.: in College English 23 (1961): 164; in the Yale Review 50 (1961): 625–27;
by Frank Kermode in The New Statesman 61 (1961): 840; in JEGP 61 (1962):
151–55; in Anglia 79 (1961): 481–84; in Shakespeare Quarterly 13 (1962): 564–
66; in Études Anglaises 16 (1963): 80–81; in Review of English Studies n.s. 15
(1964): 307–10.
Required reading, though the subject is not metrical adjustments in setting
verse to music or even versification but rather that great metaphysics or ideology of Music which lay embedded in the Renaissance mind, residue of the
long accretion of classical and medieval philosophy, and which informed so
much of Renaissance poetry both in theory and practice. But see especially the
Introduction and pp. 140–43, 206–20.
N71 Horn, Dorothy. "Tune Detecting in 19th Century Hymnals." Tennessee Folklore
Society Bulletin 26 (1960): 99–109.
N72 Hunter, G. K. "The English Hexameter and the Elizabethan Madrigal." PQ 32
(1953): 340–42.
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Praising Hendrickson (E175), Hunter shows how "the difficulty of singing
Elizabethan airs and madrigals, in the absence of regularly distributed accents,
using the normal accentuation of the words as the main guide to the rhythm,
is exactly parallel to the difficulty of reading English hexameters by wordaccent."
N73 Irwin, John T. "Thomas Campion and the Musical Emblem." Studies in English
Literature 1500–1900 10 (1970): 121–41.
Irwin believes, curiously, that previous characterizations of Campion as a
"musical poet" are forms of condescending special pleading; to restore the balance, he demonstrates complex phonemic patterning, a musical thematic
structure, and the idea of music as constant symbol in "Now Winter Nights
Enlarge." A complex essay, with an astonishingly minute explication, written
from a subtle point of view.
N74 Johnson, Wendell Stacy. "Browning's Music." JAAC 22 (1963): 203–7.
Four types of "musical" poems are analyzed: the fugue ("Master Hughes"), the
toccata ("A Toccata of Galuppi's"), variations-on-a-theme ("Abt Vogler"), and
the march ("Parleying"). Nearly all the detail-work here is prosodic.
N75 Joiner, Mary. "Another Campion Song?" Music & Letters 48 (1967): 138–39.
Campion's example in chapter 4 of the Observations in the Art of English Poesie
(E134), "Harke how these winds," is in fact taken from a song of his own.
N76 Jones, Bill. "Is Music a Language?" British Journal of Aesthetics 10 (1970): 162–68.
Collateral reading. A rejection of the premisses of Deryck Cooke's The Language of Music; Jones denies the existence of specific musical "modes" which
can be correlated to specific emotions or moods and described by precise adjectives or, indeed, any verbal formulation.
N77 Jones, John A. "The Analogy of Eighteenth Century Music and Poetry: Bach and
Pope." The Centennial Review of Arts and Sciences 21 (1977): 211–35.
In the Baroque era, the analogies were: (1) "representative meter" in poetry to
"word-painting" in music; (2) the parallelisms of rhyme to the line-by-line
echoing of thorough bass; (3) thematic development in poetry by variation,
addition, or illustration, to motif development in music by expansion; and (4)
balanced antithesis in poetry to simplified two-part composition in music.
In the Classical era, the balance and closure of the heroic couplet was
formally analogous to the Classical phrase in music, but functionally the analogue
was not the couplet-form but the introduction of the first-person-subjective
point of view. See pp. 219–21 on representative meter.
N78 Kastendieck, Miles M. England's Musical Poet, Thomas Campion. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1938; rpt. New York: Russell & Russell, 1963. 203 pp.
Based on his dissertation at Yale University in 1932.
Rev.: in MLR 35 (1940): 537–40; in Review of English Studies 15 (1939): 99–
101; in MLN 54 (1939): 632.
A study not only of the achievements Campion attained in setting specific
texts to specific songs, but of Campion's life and thought in general, and even
of the wider Renaissance attitudes toward music. Wider in scope than MacDonagh (E302), and still a valuable source on Campion.
N79 Kenyon, Max. "Modern Metres." Music & Letters 28 (1947): 168–74.
Though his definitions of meter and rhythm are disappointing (the former is
"bare mathematical time succession of sounds," the latter "what the soul makes
of them"), Kenyon suggests, more centrally, that the relationship of musical
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meter and rhythm to simplicity and complexity is inverse; as meters are simplified the possibilities for rhythmic complexity and subtlety expand.
N80 Kime, Mary W. "Lyric and Song: Seventeenth-Century Musical Settings of John
Donne's Poetry." DAI 31 (1970): 730A (Denver).
N81 Kinsley, James. "The Music of the Heart." Renaissance and Modern Studies 8 (1964):
6–52.
A wide-ranging though not unified discussion of: the modes of union between
poetry and music in the eighteenth century, especially the libretto; the theoretical work of Beattie and others on musical mimesis, music as a language, and
association of ideas; the classical ideal of simplicity in lyric; and the work by
Burns in traditional songs and folk-poetry.
N82 Krause, Sydney J. "Whitman, Music, and Proud Music of the Storm." PMLA 72
(1957): 705–21.
Musical ideas and scores were for Whitman more a subject than a method-more a source of emotional inspiration than a structural pattern for rhythm.
N83 List, George. "An Ideal Marriage of Ballad Text and Tune." Midwest Folklore 7
(1957): 95–112.
Extensive close analysis of the verbal-melodic "fit."
N84 Lord, Harvey G. "Toward a Theory of the Relationship between Words and Music
in Songs: Emphasis on Thomas Campion." DAI 39 (1978): 899A
(Connecticut).
An inductive study of the successful use of word-painting, conjunction of
meter in text and music, stanza-structure, melodic patterns, and syntax in fitting words to music. Short, but dense.
N85 Lowbury, Edward, Timothy Salter, and Alison Young. Thomas Campion: Poet,
Composer, Physician. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1970.
A synoptic study of the career and works of England's greatest composer-poet.
Persons interested specifically in the intriguing question of how metered verse
is set into (or against) a musical score, and with what effects, should go directly
to Chapter 3. Chapter 5 explicates and places in context the Observations in the
Art of English Poesie (E134); Chapter 11 gives the same for Campion's other
work on musical theory. In between the whole oeuvre is surveyed. Bibliography.
N86 Lyons, Dorothy M. "Music in the Poetry of Thomas Campion." Diss., Boston
College, 1937.
N87 Mace, D. T. "Musical Humanism, the Doctrine of Rhythms, and the Saint Cecilia
Odes of Dryden." Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institute 27 (1964): 251–
92.
A long and very widely informed study of the process whereby the doctrine of
rhythmus [metrical mimesis, the expression of emotion by appropriate metrical
variation] came to replace harmony in the Restoration as the ideal for poetry
set to music and hence as the informing principle of Dryden's great Odes.
Mace shows rhythmus to be a crucial concept in subsequent eighteenth-century
prosodic theory, and he traces in detail its antecedent development in England,
France, and Italy. An impressive and important study.
N88 McGrady, R. J. "Henry Lawes and the Concept of 'Just Note and Accent.'" Music &
Letters 50 (1969): 86–102.
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N89 McIntosh, William A. "The Harmonic Muse: Musical Currents in Literature 1450–
1750." DAI 35 (1974): 3692A (Virginia).
Notwithstanding the dates cited in its title, this thesis surveys the influences of
Boethius' musicae instrumentalis, humana, and mundana on Chaucer, Campion,
Spenser, Shakespeare, Dryden, and Auden. Detailed analysis of Handel's settings of Dryden's St. Cecilia odes and Britten's settings for Auden's similar
odes.
N90 Malcolm, Alexander. A Treatise of Musick, Speculative, Practical, and Historical.
Edinburgh: J. Osborn, 1721; rpt. New York: Da Capo Press, 1970.
Treats the parallel of music to poetry without any direct consideration of prosody at all. For a review essay, see Music & Letters 33 (1952): 226–31.
N91 Marrocco, W. Thomas. "The Fourteenth-Century Madrigal: Its Form and
Contents." Speculum 26 (1951): 449–57.
Examination of rhyme-schemes shows that the forms of the early madrigal
were extremely diverse and irregular.
N92 Maynard, Winifred. "The Lyrics of Wyatt: Poems or Songs?" Review of English
Studies n.s. 16 (1965): 1–13, 245–57.
A wide-ranging search of the three major collections of Elizabethan songs,
compared with Wyatt's verses, reveals the extraordinary difficulty of trying to
match tunes to texts (Maynard is reticent about his criteria for acceptability of
fit), though it does appear that about fifty of Wyatt's lyrics were definitely
meant to be sung. Since many tunes match many texts more or less acceptably,
we must rely on the correspondence of several kinds of evidence taken together to establish matchings. One wants to see a musicologist rewrite this
study.
N93 Mellers, Wilfrid. "Words and Music in Elizabethan England." The Age of Shakespeare.
Vol. 2 of The Penguin Guide to English Literature. Ed. Boris Ford. Baltimore:
Penguin, 1956. pp. 386–415.
N94 Milner, R. "Music and Poetry in the Sixteenth Century." Études Anglaises 9 (1956):
28–33.
A noteworthy review of the published proceedings of two conferences held in
Paris in 1953 and 1954 on poetry and music in Renaissance England, Musique
et Poésie du XVIe Siècle and La Musique Instrumentale de la Renaissance.
N95 -----. "The Study of Elizabethan Music." Études Anglaises 6 (1953): 214–26.
See p. 221 for a scansion of some lines from Campion. Bibliography.
N95a Morris, Brian. "'Not, Siren-like, to tempt': Donne and the Composers." John
Donne: Essays in Celebration. Ed. A. J. Smith. London: Methuen, 1970. pp.
219–58.
N96 Mumford, Ivy L. "The Canzone in Sixteenth-Century English Verse with Particular
Reference to Wyatt's Rendering of Petrarch's Canzoniere." English Miscellany
11 (1960): 21–32.
"Wyatt alone, of the English Petrarchists, attempted the canzone, and in so
doing seems for the first time content to express the subject-matter independently of the prosodic scheme." He altered the form so radically because of
complex metrical and musical requirements in the Italian.
N97 -----. "Musical Settings to the Poems of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey." English
Miscellany 8 (1957): 9–20.
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ems; the author gives full details of transmission.
N98 -----. "Musical Settings to the Poems of Sir Thomas Wyatt." Music & Letters 37
(1956): 315–22; 39 (1958): 262–64.
The tunes for two of the lyrics--"Hevyn and erth and all" and "Blame not my
lute"--having only recently been discovered, they are here submitted to analysis.
N99 -----. "Sir Thomas Wyatt's Verse and Italian Musical Sources." English Miscellany 14
(1963): 9–26.
The principal sources are the frottola of the improvisatore Serafino Ciminelli
d'Aquila and the Petrarchan canzonière.
---- Music & Literature in England in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Los Angeles:
William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California, 1953. 55
pp.
N100
Contains two papers: James E. Phillips's survey of theories on the union of
"Poetry and Music in the Seventeenth Century," and Bertrand H. Bronson's
M101
discernment of two fundamental trends in "Some Aspects of Music and
Literature in the Eighteenth Century."
N102 Nash, Winifred H. "The Inter-Relations of Music and Poetry." Diss., Boston
University, 1931.
N103 Oliva, Joseph. "Structure of Music and Structure of Language: A Semiotic Study."
DAI 38 (1978): 4138A (State University of New York at Buffalo).
Applies Paul Garvin's "functional empiricism" method.
N104 Parks, Edna. The Hymns and Hymn-Tunes Found in the English Metrical Psalters.
New York: Coleman-Ross, 1966. 114 pp.
N105 Pattison, Bruce. Music and Poetry of the English Renaissance. London: Methuen,
1948.
A standard source having much broader scope than its title indicates. It should
be read entire, but probably chapter 5 will most directly interest the metrist.
See N129.
N106 -----. "Sir Philip Sidney and Music." Music & Letters 15 (1934): 75–81.
Discusses Italian meters near the end.
N107 Peltz, Catharine W. "Thomas Campion, an Elizabethan Neo-Classicist." MLQ 11
(1950): 3–6.
By virtue of "his insistence on the importance of form," chiefly metrical.
N108 Pollock, Georgiana. "The Relationship of Music to Leaves of Grass." College English
15 (1954): 384–94.
Rejects the view that Whitman used music as an analogue for the form of his
poetry; rather, we are told, what he took over from opera was the techniques
of the recitative, including hovering stress and extra-metrical syllables. "The relationship of music to Leaves of Grass lies in the resemblance of Whitman's
rhythm to the semi-musical rhythm of recitative rather than to the evenmeasured rhythm of pure music."
N109 Raymond, George L. Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music: Together with Music
as a Representative Art. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1894; 2nd rev. ed.
1909.
Part six of the author's "System of Comparative Aesthetics." Here he conceives
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poetry and music as being similar in that both are "composed of elements of
sound appealing to the ear in the order of time." His conception of meter is
Accentual rather than Quantitative. Chapters 2–11 concern poetry, though on
the whole, they represent little more than a primer of verseform inflated by
grandiose metaphysical speculations. Chapter 13, however, on 'Analogies between the Use of Quality and Pitch in Poetry and Music' is worthy of note, as
are the remarks on clucking hens in Beethoven's Third, p. 316.
N110 Raynor, Henry. "Framed to the Life of the Words." Music Review 19 (1958): 261–
72.
On the English Lutenists.
N111 Rhoads, Kenneth W. "The Musical Elements of T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets." DAI
30 (1970): 5454A (Michigan State).
These are mainly structural, of course, but Rhoads gives considerable attention
to rhythm (and meter) as well, finding jazz rhythms in Sweeney Agonistes, for
example, and a sophisticated counterpointing of accentual against syllabic
rhythms in the mature verse.
N112 Richardson, David A. "The Golden Mean in Campion's Airs." Comparative
Literature 30 (1978): 108–32.
On Campion's unfailing sense of decorum, and his "balanced middle style" in
setting texts.
N113 Roberts, David R. "The Music of Milton." PQ 26 (1947): 328–44.
A wide-ranging study which explicates the key components of Milton's poetic
rhythm--variety and continuous movement--in order to set them against the composers of his day (and in the century following). The similarity is apparent,
even had we not already known of Milton's considerable training and interest
in music.
N114 Rogerson, Brewster. "Ut Musica Poesis: The Parallel of Music and Poetry in
Eighteenth-Century Criticism." DA 12 (1946): 308 (Princeton).
Whereas the French seventeenth-century theories of the relations of these arts
were based on the concept of mimesis, the British eighteenth-century theorists
preferred the concept of expressiveness.
N115 Sachs, Curt. "Rhythm and Tempo: An Introduction." Musical Quarterly 38 (1952):
384–98.
Collateral reading.
N116 Sampson, H. Grant. "Mimetic Relationships Between Music and Literature in
England." Humanities Association Review 25 (1974): 197–210.
An accurate title would have been "The Collapse of the Theory of Imitation
(Which Was the Basis of Musical Mimesis of the Text) In Favor of the Theory
of Expression, In England, In the Renaissance and After." The shift was isolated by John Hollander.
N117 Samson, Patricia. "Words for Music." Southern Review (Australia) 1 (1963): 46–52.
Discusses semantic effects in several of Donne's Holy Sonnets set to music by
Benjamin Britten and by Dorian LeGallienne, and in Campion's songs.
N118 Scher, Steven P. "How Meaningful is 'Musical' in Literary Criticism?" Yearbook of
Comparative and General Literature no. 21 (1972), pp. 52–56.
A penetrating critique of critical abuse of the descriptive term "musical" as applied to poetry; Scher agrees with René Wellek that literary criticism's adoption of terms from another field has had very unfortunate consequences. Dis-- 738 --
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cussion of several examples of usage is followed by Scher's own scheme: the
term may refer to poetic qualities of "the acoustic, the evocative, or the structural." In general he finds the two arts not very similar.
N119 Schleiner, Louise. "The Composer as Reader: A Setting of George Herbert's
'Altar.'" Musical Quarterly 61 (1975): 422–32.
The musical structure of John Playford's 1671 setting mimes the architectonic
and metrical structure of the pattern-poem.
N120 Schueller, Herbert M. "Literature and Music as Sister Arts: An Aspect of Aesthetic
Theory in Eighteenth-Century Britain." PQ 26 (1947): 193–205.
Actually the relationship is better described as "mother-daughter" (respectively). The Augustan conception was not at all that music has a meaning of its
own to express, different from meanings communicable by words, but rather
that music could embellish or augment the sense of poetry by expressive
sounds imitating the tones of the human voice (joy, grief, tenderness, etc.). On
correspondences of structure (meter and measure) in the two "languages," the
two organizations of pure sound, see p. 197.
N121 -----. "The Renaissance Forerunners of the Neoclassic Lyric." MLN 62 (1947):
310–16.
The Neoclassical conception of the lyric is derived in part from the Renaissance madrigal and air, since these embodied, in their shortness of line, close
rhyme, and metrical/stanzaic regularity, the qualities of "conciseness, polish,
and cadence."
N122 Schuman, Sharon. "The Myth of Spontaneity: Musical and Metrical Rhythms in
the Songs of Thomas Campion." Diss., University of Chicago, 1975.
N123 Sharp, Cecil J. "Rhythmical Forms and Melodic Figures." English Folk Song: Some
Conclusions. London: Simpkin & Co., 1907. pp. 73–88.
N124 Siemens, Reynold. "If Music and Sweet Poetry Agree: Thomas Ford's 'Since First I
Saw Your Face.'" Renaissance Quarterly 21 (1968): 153–61.
An exhibition of the graceful strength and simplicity of both the verse and the
music of Ford's well-known air; each can stand alone without support though
both fit together well: the melodic contour enhances the semantic development without becoming over-obvious or extreme. An informed explication.
N125 Smith, Hallet. Elizabethan Poetry: A Study in Conventions, Meaning, and Expression.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952.
The fifth chapter gives a summary of the relations of "Poetry and Music," with
some remarks on quantitative verse at pp. 50–54, 270–72.
N126 Srawley, Stephen. "A Note on Musical and Poetic Rhythm." Agenda 10, 4–11, 1
(1972–73): 114–22.
Discusses the use of repetition in music as it varies from that in verse, concluding with the author's musical score for Charles Tomlinson's "Da Capo"
and discussion.
N127 Sternfeld, Frederick W. "Poetry and Music--Joyce's Ulysses." Frye (A15), pp. 16–
54.
Identifies three types of relation: (1) a musical tune in the mind of the poet,
preceding, shaping, and perhaps generating the poem (especially where a new
text is set to an old melody; (2) other musical techniques which the poet is indirectly aware of and may employ (e.g. irregular lineation); and (3) music as
theme or symbol in verse. Diverse examples.
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N128 Stetson, R. H. "The Teaching of Rhythm." Musical Quarterly 9 (1923): 181–90.
Proposes employing the terminology of versification (iambs, trochees, etc.) to
facilitate the teaching of musical rhythms. Frequent examples from nursery
rhymes and stress-verse.
N129 Stevens, John E. "The Elizabethan Madrigal: 'Perfect Marriage' or 'Uneasy
Flirtation'?" Essays and Studies 11 (1958): 17–37.
A revisionist critique of Pattison (N105) ten years after: Stevens, skeptical of
any "union" of words with music in the Renaissance, argues that poems were
only rarely written to be set to music by showing that for Elizabethan composers literally "any words would do." In fact, "no poet with half an ear could
have learnt anything about poetry from hearing his verses set to madrigal music."
N130 -----. Music and Poetry in the Early Tudor Court. London: Methuen; Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1961.
Rev.: in MLR 57 (1962): 240–41; in Anglia 79 (1962): 484–87; in Medium
Ævum 31 (1962): 220–22; in College English 25 (1964): 307; in MLQ 25
(1964): 494–96; in JEGP 63 (1964): 337–41; in Comparative Literature 15
(1964): 276–78; in Review of English Studies n.s. 14 (1963): 186–89.
N131 Tovey, Donald F. "Words and Music: Some Obiter Dicta." In his The Main Stream
of Music and Other Essays. New York: Oxford University Press, 1949. pp. 202–
19.
N132 Wade, Bonnie C. "Prolegomenon to the Study of Song Texts." Yearbook of the
International Folk Music Council 8 (1976): 73–88.
Beginning on p. 79 the author discusses structure, particularly the crucial
question whether structure per se is meaningful. A full "poetic scansion" of Child
#13 is compared to a marking of a performance, and though Wade does not
clearly differentiate stress and duration, she can show that singing alters the
stress-patterns in the verse.
N133 Wallaschek, R. "On the Difference of Time and Rhythm in Music." Mind n.s. 4
(1895): 28–35.
The first two paragraphs at least--distinguishing the subjective "time-sense"
from objective rhythm--are essential reading.
N134 Weiss, Wolfgang. "Die Airs im Stilwandel." Anglia 87 (1969): 201–16.
N135 Wellek, Albert. "Relationship Between Music and Poetry." JAAC 21 (1962): 149–
56.
" . . . is historically, at least in our occidental music, simply fundamental. . . . "
Absolute music is a relatively late phenomenon. See p. 153 on primitive recitative song and p. 155 on setting poetic texts.
N136 Wilson, Katherine M. Sounds and Meaning in English Poetry. London: Jonathan
Cape, 1930. 353 pp.
Rev.: by Empson in New Criterion 10 (1931): 529–34; in London Mercury 24
(1931): 181; in TLS, 2 October 1930, p. 777.
Pace the title, this is a book mainly about music, and only less so about poetry.
Its central premise is that music arises from the natural inflections of speech,
and thus poetry also shows a residue of inflection (pitch) and cadence patterns.
Much of what is found here will be recognized as technical even though presented as urbane conversation. Much on Campion and Spenser, pitch-patterns,
and devices of sound. Well worth an afternoon digression. See also E411.
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N137 Winkelman, Donald M. "Poetic/Rhythmic Stress in the Child Ballads." Keystone
Folklore Quarterly 12 (1967): 103–17.
The author reinforces his opinion that "on the whole, the ballad tune is a
more potent shaping force than its verbal counterpart" with examples of
wrenched prose accents in lines resulting from the musical stressings, then reverses himself, when he realizes that auditors generally don't mind wrenched accents in the lines of songs, concluding that "the forces of musical and spoken
rhythms are too evenly matched to generalize about domination by one or the
other."
N138 -----. "Some Rhythmic Aspects of the Child Ballad." New Voices in American
Studies. Ed. Ray B. Browne. Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1966.
pp. 151–62.
Identifies a "Law of Symmetry" in the musical rhythm of ballads: no significant
unit is not repeated, counterpoised, or matched. The problem of verse- and
musical-accent is discussed on p. 155 ff.
N139 Yeats, W. B. "Speaking to the Psaltery." The Monthly Review, May 1902; rpt. in his
Essays and Introductions. New York: Macmillan, 1961, 1968. pp. 13–27. (See
also the final page of "Modern Poetry," p. 508.)
Miss Florence Farr's skillful strumming of the psaltery (a medieval harp-like
instrument with sounding-board) seemed to Yeats the perfect accompaniment
for his verse, freeing it of all the unpleasant compromises forced upon it when
fully set to music.
N140 Yeston, Maury. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1976.
Should be consulted after Cooper and Meyer (N30), whose work is criticized
on pp. 28–32 here.
See also: B21, B37, C187, E114, E177, E272, E337, E388, E391, E988–89, E1030,
E1149, G71, K46, K64, K87, K161a, K278, K315, K338, L111, L120, L609,
L611, L613, L622, L811, L924, M260, M271, M276, M302, M306, M309, M311.
And see the section on Ballad Meter in Chapter Six.
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