Intercultural Communication Studies XXI: 2 (2012)
Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
Does What I Wear Help Me Communicate Better? :
An Investigation of Communicative Adaptability
and Clothing Behavior of International Japanese Students in the US
Yumiko Tsuruki, Japan Association for Refugees, Japan
Sakile Camara & Kathryn Sorrells, California State University Northridge, US
Abstract: Clothing behavior is considered a non-linguistic yet symbolic aspect of
communication. As more international Japanese students study abroad, it is important
to update research regarding how to best manage culture shock and adjust in another
culture. An investigation of clothing behavior might assist in that transition. The goal
of this study is to investigate whether clothing behavior is a factor in international
Japanese students’ communicative adjustment to US American culture. This study
examines correlations between communicative adaptability and clothing behavior.
Data were collected from 111 international Japanese students residing and studying
in the United States. Results suggest significant positive correlations between
communicative adaptability and clothing behavior as well as several significant
correlations between various dimensions of communicative adaptability and those of
clothing behavior. Research on communicative adaptability and clothing behavior is
important in providing alternative ways other than language, to effectively adjust to a
new culture, and it should be beneficial for international students who want to live a
more successful and enjoyable life abroad.
Keywords: Communication adaptability, cultural competence, Japanese international
students, clothing behavior
1. Introduction
Adjusting to host cultural differences has been studied for many decades within and
outside the field of Communication (Adelman, 1988; Chen, 1992; Hannigan, 1988; Jou &
Fukada, 1996; Lashutka, 1977; McNish, 2005; Nwanko & Onwumechili, 1991; Robie & Ryan,
1996; Sarkodie-Mensah & Aman, 1998; Ward & Kennedy, 1996). However, adapting to a host
culture requires one to become culturally aware of what adjustments to make, for what reasons
and under what conditions (Monthienvichienchai, Bhibulbhanuwat, Kasemsuk, & Speece,
2002). Cai and Rodriguez (1996) suggest that intercultural adaptation is the process by which
individuals change their communicative behaviors to facilitate their understanding of the host
culture. In other words, people adjust communicatively to lessen misunderstandings when
interacting interculturally.
Intercultural adaptation is further advanced by communication scholars as demonstrating
communication competence (Gordon, 1983; Lee & Chen, 2000). This competence is observed
when people properly interpret messages sent from each other. However, meanings are often
lost through a lack of language skills, the most straightforward way to gain mutual understanding
(Church, 1982; Gudykunst, 1985; Y.Y. Kim, 1986). Likewise, we send and receive messages
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
nonverbally, which facilitates shared meaning. Clothing is one such nonverbal message which
facilitates shared meaning through appearance and is an important part of helping cultures
connect and establish inclusion through social interactions in host culture settings (Gummer,
1998; Mast 2007).
According to Gummer (1998), wearing appropriate clothing is an effective way of managing
apprehension and tension as well as facilitating people to be active in social interactions. In other
words, cultural signs and symbols, like clothing, cannot be understood separately from cultural
meanings, concepts and people’s self-consciousness (Clarke, 1975). Moreover, competence
shown in clothing and clothing behaviors, which reflect common cultural tendencies, might
be an effective tool for expressing one’s adjustment to a certain culture (Biernacki, 2000).
Thus, appropriate clothing behaviors and confidence in clothing may reduce the avoidance of
communication and enhance adaptability to communicate with members of host cultures.
Although there are numerous studies on clothing behaviors (Cosbey, 2001; Fung & Yuen,
2002; Gass & Seiter, 2007; Joyner, 1994; Rowley, 1997; Waguespack, 1996) there has been
no direct study where clothing behaviors and communicative adaptability are analyzed in
detail. This study investigates the use of clothing behavior as an important part of international
students’ transition to host cultural environments and an alternative means of communication,
other than language, to culturally adjust abroad. Clothing communication might be effective for
international students to achieve successful cultural adaptation.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Communicative Adaptability
Communicative adaptability is one theoretical perspective of communicative adjustment
(Duran, 1983). Studies which have examined communicative adaptability in the context
of intercultural communication suggest that there is an interactive relationship between
communicative adaptability and intercultural adaptation (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Chen, 1990;
Hammer, 1987) and communicative adaptability and communicative competence (Y. Y. Kim,
2002). According to Chen (1992), people with high levels of communicative adaptability achieve
better adjustment to a new environment (Chen, 1990). However, competent communicators
are able to apply appropriate verbal and non-verbal communication depending on different
situations (Y. Y. Kim, 2002), and this is often called host communicative competence. People
with host communicative competence choose the most appropriate communicative behaviors
for the host culture.
2.2. Clothing as Communication
According to Eco (1973), people speak through their clothing. Clothing is a style of
communication shaped by social standards and self-expression (Back, 1985). Also, Dichter
(1985) suggests that clothing symbolically communicates people’s social identities such as their
personal characteristics. In other words, we do and can communicate through our clothing.
People intentionally choose their clothing behaviors in social occasions in order to convey
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
notable information such as their status and credibility to others (Gass & Seiter, 2007; Gummer,
1998). Kaiser (1985, 1990) suggests that clothing is also an influential and manageable way
of expressing one’s values. Meyer and Anderson (2000) have also examined the influence of
adjustment in clothing behaviors, and have found that young people often use clothing to adjust
to their peer groups. The authors suggest that people behave in the ways consistent with the
social groups to which they belong. As it relates to international students, Littrell and Eicher
(1972) conclude that one of the most visible ways of adjustment is to choose and wear clothing
that is similar to those of host groups.
However, group adjustment is also related to social values and clothing (Rose, Shoham,
Kahle, & Batra, 1994). One’s social values influence the display of clothing and personal
values influence clothing awareness (Goldsmith, Heitmeyer & Goldsmith, 1990). Clothing
adjustment, on one hand can be explained by social values. For international students,
intercultural adaptation, successful intercultural communication, and social status might
influence their clothing behaviors and choices. When group members have strong interests in
the group, they tend to adapt to and depend on the group (Rose, Shoham, Kahle & Batra, 1994).
Since international students have strong interests in the host cultural groups, they might have
strong willingness to adapt.
The studies show that clothing has important aspects of social function (Lee & Burns,
1993; Lennon, Fairhurst & Peatross, 1991). We argue that we cannot understand communicative
adaptability without understanding clothing behaviors. Focusing on the cultural adjustment of
Japanese international students studying in the United States, this study aims to answer three
research questions related to communicative adaptability and clothing behaviors:
RQ1: Is there any significant relationship between communicative adaptability and
clothing behaviors?
RQ2: Does one’s communicative adaptability enhance or strengthen one’s behaviors and
choices in clothing?
RQ3: Are there gender tendencies in the relationships between communicative adaptability
and clothing behaviors?
3. Method
3.1. Participants
Data were collected from 111 international Japanese students residing and studying in the
United States for approximately 1 to 5 years and ranging in ages from 18 to 35 years. The
gender distribution of 111 participants was 57 male students and 54 female students. In other
words, approximately 51 % of the participants were male and approximately 49 % were female.
Participants in this study were recruited via snowball sampling.
3.2. Instrument
For measuring communicative adaptability, a modified version of CAS, the communicative
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
adaptability scale developed by Duran (1983; 1992), was applied. The communicative
adaptability scale (Duran, 1983; 1992) consists of five dimensions using a 5 point rating format
with 30 questions. For measuring clothing behaviors and choices, a modified scale, consisting
of the clothing behavior scale developed by Nagano (1994) and clothing interest questionnaire
developed by Kouyama (1983), was applied. The clothing behavior scale (Nagano, 1994)
consists of four dimensions using a 5 point rating format with 20 items. Also, the clothing
interest questionnaire (Kouyama, 1983) consists of eight dimensions using a 5 point rating
format with 48 items.
In this study, participants responded to the self-reporting questionnaires using a Likert
scale ranging from 1 = never true of me to 5 = always true of me, regarding statements such as
“In most social situations I feel nervous and constrained” or “I try to make the other person feel
good,” and from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, regarding statements such as “I
always consider whether my clothing is socially appropriate” or “I try to choose clothing which
suits the occasion” (see Appendix A). The questionnaire applied in this study is composed of 67
items or statements to choose from; 30 items for the communicative adaptability section and 37
items for the clothing behavior section. The original version of the questionnaire (see Appendix
A) is attached to this study.
3.3. Procedure
Questionnaires were distributed and collected, and data were accumulated in order to
maintain the confidentiality of participants. Students were recruited from California State
University Northridge, California State University Fullerton, Dartmouth College, DeVry
University, El Camino College, Glendale Community College, Pierce College, University of
California Los Angeles, University of New Hampshire, University of Southern California, San
Diego State University, The Art Institute of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles Japanese
Soccer League, a Japanese soccer team of Los Angeles Central American Soccer League and
other communities. Access to international Japanese students was also gained through the
Language Exchange Program supported by Japanese language class and the Japanese Student
Association at California State University Northridge.
Following the completion of the questionnaires, the data were analyzed using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences version 17.0 (SPSS). This process provided statistical
perspective to this study. In analyzing the results of the questionnaires, the total scores of the
items of communicative adaptability and clothing behavior sections were added separately,
then a correlation coefficient between the total scores of communicative adaptability and that
of clothing behavior sections was calculated to find a correlation. The Pearson product moment
correlation coefficient was calculated. Significance level of .05 was applied for all statistical
tests in this study.
4. Results
To explore clothing and communication adaptability of international Japanese students, the
first research question queried if there was any relationship between communicative adaptability
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
and clothing behaviors of international Japanese students residing in the United States. Pearson
product moment correlation coefficients with a two-tailed test for the collected data showed a
significant positive correlation between communicative adaptability and clothing behavior (See
Table 1).
Table 1. Correlation between Communicative Adaptability and Clothing Behavior of Japanese
International Students
Communicative
Adaptability Total
Clothing Behavior
Total
Pearson Correlation
.44**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.00
Note. N =111. ** p < .01, two-tailed.
To understand clothing choices and adaptation, research question two queried whether
communicative adaptability enhanced or strengthened one’s choice in clothing. Pearson product
moment correlation coefficients were calculated using two-tailed test with a significance level of
.05. The result indicates that there was a significant positive correlation between communicative
adaptability and clothing behavior for international Japanese students (r = .44, p < .01). The
result suggests that students who scored high on the section of communicative adaptability also
scored high in clothing behavior. This suggests if a student has high communicative adaptability,
the student is highly aware of one’s clothing behaviors and choices when interacting with others
from the host culture. On the other hand, a student with low communicative adaptability would
not likely be aware of his or her clothing behaviors and choices. Thus, clothing behaviors of an
international student in the US is dependent on his or her level of communicative adaptability.
As one’s communicative adaptability increases or strengthens, one’s clothing behaviors and
choices are also impacted.
The results not only indicate that there is a relationship between choices of clothing and
communicative adaptability, but there were several significant correlations between clothing
behavior and dimensions of communicative adaptability (See Table 2).
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
Table 2. Correlation between Dimensions of Communicative Adaptability and Clothing
Behavior of Japanese International Students
CB Selfconfirmation
CB Social
Adjustment
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson
CB Social Correlation
AppropriaSig.
teness
(2-tailed)
Pearson
CB
Correlation
Trendiness
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson
CB
Correlation
Clothing
Awareness Sig.
(2-tailed)
CA Social CA Social CA Social CA ApproCA
CompoConfirExperipriate
Articulasure
mation
ence
Disclosure
tion
CA
Wit
-.17
.54**
.50**
.30**
-.04
.26**
.07
.00
.00
.00
.71
.01
-.04
.16
.03
.21*
-.07
.11
.68
.10
.73
.03
.47
.24
-.07
.52**
.37**
.21*
-.01
.10
.48
.00
.00
.02
.89
.29
-.30**
.53**
.39**
.23*
-.04
.23*
.00
.00
.00
.02
.69
.02
-.27**
.53**
.46**
.28**
-.03
.16
.00
.00
.00
.00
.77
.09
Note. N = 111. CA = Clothing Adaptability; CB = Clothing Behavior. ** p < .01, two-tailed.
* p < .05, two-tailed.
The result presented in Table 2 shows several significances between the five dimensions of
communicative adaptability (CA) and five dimensions of clothing behavior (CB). For the first
dimension of communicative adaptability, results indicate that there were negative correlations
between social composure and trendiness (r = -.30, p < .01), and between social composure
and clothing awareness (r = -.27, p < .01). Students who scored high on social composure also
scored high on trendiness, and students who scored low on social composure tend to score high
on trendiness. Also, there was a tendency for students who scored high on social composure
to score low on clothing awareness, and students who scored low on social composure scored
high on clothing awareness.
The second dimension of communicative adaptability showed positive correlations between
social confirmation and self-confirmation (r = .54, p < .01), between social confirmation and
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
social appropriateness (r = .52, p < .01), between social confirmation and trendiness (r = .53, p
< .01), and between social confirmation and clothing awareness (r = .53, p < .01). Students who
scored high on social confirmation also scored high on social appropriateness, trendiness, and
clothing awareness. Students who scored low on social confirmation also scored low on those
four dimensions of clothing behavior.
The third dimension resulted in a positive correlation between social experience and
self-confirmation (r = .50, p < .01), between social experience and social appropriateness (r
= .37, p < .01), between social experience and trendiness (r = .39, p < .01), and between
social experience and clothing awareness (r = .46, p < .01). Students who scored high on the
social experience also scored high on self-confirmation, social appropriateness, trendiness, and
clothing awareness. Students who scored low on social experience also tended to score low on
those four dimensions of clothing behavior.
The fourth dimension showed positive correlations between appropriate disclosure and
all dimensions of clothing behavior. The result indicates significant positive correlations
between appropriate disclosure and self-confirmation (r = .30, p < .01), between appropriate
disclosure and social adjustment (r = .21, p < .05), between appropriate disclosure and social
appropriateness (r = .21, p < .05), between appropriate disclosure and trendiness (r = .23, p <
.05), and between appropriate disclosure and clothing awareness (r = .28, p < .01). Students
who scored high on appropriate disclosure also scored high on self-confirmation, social
adjustment, social appropriateness, trendiness, and clothing awareness. Students who scored
low on appropriate disclosure also scored low on all dimensions of clothing behavior.
The fifth dimension resulted in positive correlations between wit and self-confirmation (r
= .26, p < .01), and trendiness (r = .23, p < .05). Students who scored high on wit also scored
high on self-confirmation and trendiness. There was no significant correlation coefficient
found between articulation and clothing behavior. In other words, the articulation dimension of
communicative adaptability did not influence the clothing behavior of students.
Research question three regarding gender differences queried whether there would be
differences between communicative adaptability and clothing behaviors among male and female
international students. There was a significant positive correlation between communicative
adaptability and clothing behavior for male students (r = .29, p < .05) and female students (r
= .56 p < .01), but the results did not show remarkable differences between male and female
students. However, there were several other remarkable gender based differences for tendencies
(See Table 3). The results show a significant negative correlation between social composure
and trendiness for males and females (r = -.28, p < .05) and (r = -.35, p < .01). Social composure
and trendiness was much more significant for females than males.
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
Table 3. Correlation between Dimensions of Communicative Adaptability and Clothing
Behavior for Male and Female Students Respectively
CB Selfconfirmation
CB Social
Adjustment
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson
CB Social
Correlation
AppropriaSig.
teness
(2-tailed)
CB
Trendiness
CB
Clothing
Awareness
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson
Correlation
Sig.
(2-tailed)
CA Social CA Social CA Social CA ApproCA
Compo- Confirma- Experipriate
Articulasure
tion
ence
Disclosure
tion
-.20
-.18
.13
.18
.01
-.10
.91
.47
-.15
-.02
.26
.89
-.28*
-.35*
.04
.01
-.24
-.36**
.08
.01
.35**
.73**
.01
.00
.07
.22
.58
.10
.32*
.77**
.02
.00
.40**
.65**
.00
.00
.42**
.70**
.00
.00
.47**
.53**
.00
.00
.13
-.09
.32
.52
.20
.57**
.14
.00
.35**
.43**
.01
.00
.46**
.47**
.00
.00
.26*
.36**
.05
.01
.05
.36**
.74
.01
.02
.42**
.86
.00
.15
.30*
.25
.03
.23
.37**
.09
.01
-.18
-.05
.17
.71
-.18
-.10
.18
.46
-.15
-.04
.27
.79
-.15
-.09
.28
.54
-.15
-.12
.28
.38
CA Wit
.32*
.29*
.01
.03
.07
.21
.62
.12
.05
.24
.71
.08
.29*
.24
.03
.08
.22
.20
.10
.15
Note. n = 57. CA = Clothing Adaptability; CB = Clothing Behavior. ** p < .01, two-tailed.
* p < .05, two-tailed.
Significant positive correlations between communicative adaptability and four dimensions
of clothing behavior among male students were as follows: There was a positive correlation
found between social confirmation and self-confirmation (r = .35, p < .01), social appropriateness
(r = .32, p < .05), trendiness (r = .40, p < .01), and clothing awareness (r = .42, p < .01). There
were significant positive correlations between social experience and self-confirmation (r = .47,
p < .01), trendiness (r =.35, p < .01), and clothing awareness (r = .46, p < .01). There was a
significant positive correlation between appropriate disclosure and self-confirmation (r = .26,
p < .05). Finally, there were significant positive correlations between wit and self-confirmation
(r = .32, p < .05), and trendiness (r = .29, p < .05). No significant correlation was found in the
relationship between articulation and any dimension of clothing behavior among male students.
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For female students, results show several significant correlations between dimensions of
communicative adaptability and dimensions of clothing behavior. The results show that among
female students, there were significant negative correlations between social composure and
trendiness (r = -.35, p < .05) as well as clothing awareness (r = -.36, p < .01). Results further
demonstrate significant positive correlations between social confirmation and four clothing
dimensions: self-confirmation (r = .73, p < .01), social appropriateness (r = .77, p < .01),
trendiness (r = .65, p < .01), and clothing awareness (r = .70, p < .01). As for social experience,
results indicate significant positive correlations between self-confirmation (r = .53, p < .01),
social appropriateness (r = .57, p < .01), trendiness (r = .43, p < .01), and clothing awareness
(r = .47, p < .01). There were also significant positive correlations between appropriate
disclosure and self-confirmation (r = .36, p < .01), social adjustment (r =.36, p < .01), social
appropriateness (r = .42, p < .01), trendiness (r = .30, p < .01), and clothing awareness (r = .37,
p < .01). As it relates to wit and females, results also show a significant positive correlation with
self-confirmation (r = .29, p < .05). Just like male participants, no significant correlation was
found between articulation and any dimension of clothing behavior.
5. Discussion
5.1. Interpretation of the Findings
5.1.1. Relationship between CA and CB
A significant positive correlation was found between communicative adaptability and
clothing behavior. When communicative adaptation of international Japanese students
increased, their awareness or involvement in clothing behavior also increased. In other words,
when communicative adaptability of students increased, their attention or awareness of
their clothing behaviors in the intercultural environment also increased. If students had high
communicative adaptability, they considered their clothing behavior more and used clothing
behaviors and choices to adjust to intercultural situations and people. The communicative
adaptability of students influences and enhances their attention to clothing behaviors and
choices in the intercultural environment.
Previous research reviewed for this study has found little to no relationship between
cultural adaptation and clothing behaviors. However, it is important to use both verbal and
non-verbal communication to be a member of a culture (Lustig & Koester, 2006). That is, in
different cultural environments, it might be meaningful for people to adjust to host members
using verbal communication as well as non-verbal communication such as clothing behaviors
which are applied in the culture. By paying attention to the usefulness and the importance of
clothing behaviors and choices as communication means, students could improve their quality
of cultural adjustment and speed up its process.
5.1.2. Factors Affecting Strength of CA
Results suggest that students with high communicative adaptability choose their clothing
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behaviors carefully, and students use clothing behaviors as a means of communicative adaptation
in intercultural environments. Since clothing has various communicative functions and is an
important part of non-verbal communication (Rosenfeld & Plax, 1977), clothing behaviors as a
form of non-verbal communication might offer an alternative to cultural adaptation other than
verbal communication. Also, the positive relationship between communicative adaptability
and clothing behaviors offers international students a means of adjustment and transition into a
new culture. Results point to the importance of clothing behaviors and choices in intercultural
adaptive ability and intercultural communication.
5.1.3. Gender Differences
The results indicate there were no significant correlations found for either male or female
students between the articulation dimension of communicative adaptability and any dimension
of clothing behavior. In other words, the correct use of grammar or language as a factor of
communicative adaptability did not influence any aspect of clothing behavior between males
and females. However, males and females tended to lean toward specific adaptability and
clothing behaviors. The results show that male students who use humor as a useful tool in
social situations also tend to keep up with and be aware of fashion trends of others to perhaps
fit in to the group. Hence, male students with high wit ability might be drawing attention to their
clothing as if to say “I’m just like you,” or to craft interaction as if to say “what I have to say is
worth talking about because I am dressed like you.”
Also, several tendencies were found in female students. First, high social composure of
female students lowered their clothing awareness. Appearance is an important key for many
females, and clothing manages one’s insecurity (Ushida, 1999). If female students have strong
confidence in social situations, they might not need to be aware of clothing as much because
these feelings of confidence mean they don’t have focus on their clothing. Second, the drive
to get along with others in the group (social experience) for Japanese female international
students increased their awareness of how much information to share and disclose (social
appropriateness). According to Celuch, Slama and Schaffenacker (1997) some people are
sensitive to social situations in that they are highly aware of social appropriateness and may
modify their social behaviors depending on the situation. For this study, females were much
more aware of social appropriateness when interacting with members from the host culture.
Third, disclosure enhances social adjustment. Sharma (1980) suggests that female students
with high clothing interest tend to be sociable. Thus, the high ability of appropriate disclosure
among female students might enhance their awareness of clothing and various social trends
such as clothing behaviors. Duran (1983) also notes that appropriate disclosure induces
positive impression, attractiveness and friendliness. Thus, positive impression on others, and
one’s attractiveness and friendliness are very important for successful social adjustment. Too
much self-disclosure or insufficient disclosure through communication could prevent effective
adjustment to others. Cullinan, Osborne, and Epstein (2004) suggest that female students
who are insecure about themselves show poor social adjustment. That is, it might be very
difficult for those females to disclose information about themselves appropriately. Thus, the
high ability to share appropriate information of female students might assist social adjustment
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through clothing behaviors. In other words, appropriate disclosures among female students
might enhance their awareness of clothing and social trends. In order to share information
appropriately, people choose which personal information to share with others. According to
Abe (1999) young people are aware of social trends, and consciously choose information that
is important to them and use such information to communicate with others.
5.2. Conclusions
Since clothing behavior is explained by communicative adaptation, this study should
contribute to further understanding of the communicative aspect of clothing behavior. We are
surrounded by various forms of verbal and non-verbal communication. If one is wearing aschool
uniforms, his or her status as a student would be communicated. If one is wearing a charity rubber
band, the fact that he or she is involved in a charity activity would be communicated. If one is
wearing specific traditional clothes, his or her nationality or culture would be communicated.
Clothing behavior as a form of communication might be useful for international students to
improve the quality of cultural adaptation, but not necessarily confidence in the language of the
host culture. In addition, understanding the effectiveness of clothing communication might also
be meaningful for people involved in education to develop effective adaptation strategies or to
enhance satisfaction of international students in the new cultural environments.
Communication should be the essential aspect in the relationship of communicative
adaptability and clothing behaviors of international Japanese students. Since communication
is necessary for people’s adaption to new environments and since their non-verbal expressions
can be achieved through clothing behaviors, communication might be the key connection
between the two variables. In addition, communication is even more important and necessary
in intercultural environments and intercultural human relationships. In intercultural situations,
adaptation to the new environments through sufficient communication with people is essential,
and clothing behavior works as an important non-verbal communication in intercultural human
relationships. Thus, it can be said that communicative adaptability and clothing behaviors are
related through their communicative aspect.
5.3. Implications of the Findings
First, active socialization with the host culture and participation in social events are important
for international students abroad to feel accepted. Thus, the sense of social acceptance and host
member identification might enhance self-confidence using clothing behaviors as the influence.
Second, students can learn social appropriateness from various experiences of socialization.
That is, students’ active involvement in the socialization process enhances their sense of social
appropriateness. Third, active participation in social situations and socialization with others
might make students aware of social trends and clothing behaviors, which could aid in the
process of cultural adjustment.
On the other hand, knowing and recognizing the self is important for proper self-disclosure
and self-confirmation. In other words, when we are comfortable with self-performance, selfconfirmation increases. Since too much self-disclosure could prevent active adjustment to
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people, appropriate disclosure is important for successful adjustment. The ability to share
appropriate information might enhance social adjustment as well as clothing behaviors and
choices. Third, knowing what is appropriate and what is not is important for appropriate
information sharing through communication and for choosing or conducting appropriate social
behaviors.
Additionally, humor is one of the means to enliven, manage and soften the atmosphere in
social situations when one is seeking to conform to the environment. Humor could encourage
people and help manage an individual’s self-confidence. Humor can be used to manage mood,
feelings and the confidence of individuals in social situations. Thus, one’s ability to use wit well
might enhance self-confirmation especially if it is accepted by others.
5.4. Limitations
This study includes the following limitations that may have an influence on the results
reported and should be taken into consideration in any future research on the topic. Self-report
measurements or interviews were not gathered and could have indicated other tendencies in
communicative adaptation and clothing behavior. Thus, qualitative feedback from students
might be needed in order to gain further insight into the meaning behind the numbers. Therefore,
the triangulation method would fortify future studies. Additionally, correlations may not be
sufficient to interpret research question two. Given that there is a positive correlation in our
findings for research question two, the most we can say is that as communicative adaptability
goes up, so does one’s choice in clothing. Although high levels of communicative adaptability
may impact one’s choice in clothing, we cannot be certain this is the case.
5.5. Future Studies
Although this study focuses only on Japanese international students in the United States,
future studies should be conducted focusing on different ethnic international students. Those
students might also apply clothing behaviors or other appearance adjustments as non-verbal
communication in order to fit into new cultural environments, and they might experience
different adaptation processes from Japanese international students.
The results also present a possible direction for understanding coping strategies and
developing intercultural training. Using the statistical data in this study is one way to begin to
understand how international students handle their communication problems or stress related to
living in different cultures. However, qualitative narratives will get to deeper issues regarding
clothing choices and their impact on communication competence, identity and confidence
in social interactions. This type of research is relevant to cultural trainers who assess and
consider general adaptation approaches to handling diverse social interactions and the needs of
international students.
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Author Note
Sakile Camara is an Associate Professor of Communication Studies at California State
University Northridge (CSUN) where she teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in
interpersonal communication, communication theory and undergraduate courses in intercultural
communication. Issues of discrimination in interpersonal encounters, communication strategies
in intercultural and interracial interactions and perceptions of otherness are at the foundation of
her research interests. Her primary goal is to describe the relationship between communication,
culture and power in interpersonal interactions.
Kathryn Sorrells is Professor of Communication Studies at California State University,
Northridge (CSUN) where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in intercultural
communication, critical pedagogy, performance, cultural studies, and feminist theory. She
combines critical, cultural studies and post-colonial perspectives to explore issues of culture,
race, gender, class and sexuality. Kathryn is author of the book Intercultural Communication:
Globalization and Social Justice and has published a variety of articles related to critical
intercultural communication. She has been instrumental in organizing a campus-wide initiative
on Civil Discourse and Social Change at CSUN aimed at developing students’ capacities for
civic engagement and social justice. Additionally, Kathryn has experience as a consultant and
trainer for businesses and educational organizations in the areas of intercultural communication
and multicultural education. 16
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Yumiko Tsuruki is an MA graduate from the Department of Communication Studies at
California State University Northridge. She currently works for the NPO, Japan Association for
Refugees. This article is a shortened version of her Master’s Thesis.
Appendix
Age (
)
Gender
( M / F )
This section uses a 5 point rating ranging from “never true of me” (1) to “always true of
me” (5) and consisting of 30 questions.
1) I feel nervous in social situations. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
2) In most social situations I feel nervous and constrained. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
3) When talking, my posture seems awkward and nervous. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
4) My voice sounds nervous when I talk with others. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
5) I am relaxed when talking with others. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
6) I try to make the other person feel good. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
7) I try to make the other person feel important. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
8) I try to be warm when communicating with another. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
9) While I am talking, I think about how the other person feels. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
10) I am verbally and nonverbally supportive of other people. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
11) I like to be active in different social groups. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
12) I enjoy socializing with various groups of people. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
13) I enjoy meeting new people. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
14) I find it easy to get along with new people. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
15) I do not “mix” well at social functions. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
16) I am aware of how much I share information about self. (1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5)
17) I am aware of how much others share information about themselves. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
18) I share information about self at the same level that others share with me.
19) I know how appropriately I share information about self. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / )
20) When I share information, I know what I am revealing. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
21) When speaking, I have problems with grammar. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
22) I sometimes do not use appropriate grammar. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
23) I sometimes use one word when I mean to use another. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
24) I sometimes use words incorrectly. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
25) I have difficulty pronouncing some words. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
26) When I am stressed out, I often make jokes. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
27) I often make jokes when in stressful situations. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
28) When I embarrass myself, I often make a joke about it. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
29) When someone makes a negative comment about me I respond with a witty comeback.
( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
30) People think I am witty. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
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Tsuruki, Camara & Sorrells
Next section uses 5 point rating ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree”
(5) and consisting of 37 questions. Based on your experience in “the United States,” please
answer the following questions.
31) Certain kinds of clothing make me feel more confident. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
32) I try to coordinate clothing and accessories. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
33) I feel or behave differently when I am wearing my favorite clothing. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
34) I try to keep up with fashion trends. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
35) I feel sociable and open when I am wearing my favorite clothing. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
36) I buy clothing in order to heighten my mood. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
37) I feel bored if I wear the same clothing for a while. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
38) I discuss the suitableness of each other’s clothing with friends. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
39) I read materials such as magazines in order to get new information on clothing. ( 1 / 2 /
3 / 4 / 5 )
40) Even if I do not intend to wear it myself, I want to know what kind of clothing is in fashion.
( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
41) When I buy new clothing, I try to find accessories that match. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
42) Before deciding what to wear to a certain event, I discuss it with friends who will attend
with me. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
43) I wear clothing which many people wear. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
44) I wear clothing which is fashionable among friends and colleagues. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
45) I try to wear similar clothing as others in the same group. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
46) For a special occasion, if my clothing seems different from that of friends, I choose or buy
clothing that is more similar. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
47) Nice hairstyle makes me feel more confident. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
48) I try to coordinate clothing and hairstyle. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
49) I feel or behave differently when my hair is nice. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
50) I try to take up fashionable hairstyles. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
51) I feel sociable and open when my hair is nice. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
52) I go to a hair salon in order to heighten my mood. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
53) I feel bored if I keep the same hairstyle for a long time. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
54) I discuss suitableness of each other’s hairstyle with friends. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
55) I read materials such as magazines in order to get new information on hairstyles. ( 1 / 2
/ 3 / 4 / 5 )
56) Even if I do not intend to take them up myself, I want to know what hairstyles are in
fashion. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
57) I take up hairstyles which are common. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
58) I take up hairstyles which are fashionable among friends and colleagues. ( 1 / 2 / 3 /
4 / 5 )
59) I try to take up similar hairstyles as others in the same group. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
60) I do not want to wear clothing which people think immodest. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
61) Proper clothing suitable for the occasion is necessary. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
62) I try to choose clothing which suits the occasion. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
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63) It is unpleasant to see people wearing inappropriate clothing for the occasion.
64) I always consider whether my clothing is socially appropriate. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
65) I try to wear new fashion. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
66) I am aware of what fashion is in trend. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
67) I often read fashion magazines. ( 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 )
19