2012 SOUTH AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK
Chapter 5: Air Quality
Draft 2 version 2
April 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1
Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
1.2
Air Quality ........................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Indoor Air Quality........................................................................ 3
1.2.2 Ambient Air Quality ..................................................................... 5
1.3 Sources of Air Pollution ...................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Vehicle Emissions ........................................................................ 6
1.3.2 Electricity Generation and Consumption ........................................ 9
1.3.3 Domestic Fuel Burning ............................................................... 10
1.3.4 Industrial Emissions .................................................................. 13
1.3.5 Biomass Burning ....................................................................... 16
1.3.6 Landfill site gas emissions .......................................................... 19
1.3.7 Tyre Burning Emissions ............................................................. 20
1.3.8 Airport Emissions ...................................................................... 21
1.3.9 Agricultural Emissions ................................................................ 22
1.4 Common Air Pollutants in South Africa .............................................. 23
1.5
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in South Africa ................................... 23
1.5.1 Monitored Pollutant Concentrations ............................................ 27
1.5.2 National Air Quality Indicator ..................................................... 32
1.6 Ambient Air Quality and Associated Effects ........................................ 36
1.6.1 Health Risks ............................................................................. 36
1.6.2 Plants and Animals .................................................................... 44
1.7 Regional and Global Issues .............................................................. 46
1.7.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants ...................................................... 46
1.7.2 Transboundary Transportation of Pollutants ................................ 51
1.7.3 Acid Deposition ......................................................................... 52
1.7.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ................................................... 54
1.8 Emerging and Pressing Air Quality Issues .......................................... 63
1.8.1 Mercury Emissions .................................................................... 63
1.8.2 Black Carbon ............................................................................ 66
1.8.3 Fishmeal Production .................................................................. 66
1.9 Strategic Programme towards Improving Air Quality .......................... 67
1.9.1 Air Quality Governance .............................................................. 69
1.10
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 73
RefErences ................................................................................................. 75
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Major Industrial Operations by Province ........................................... 14
Table 2: Pollutants of concern in South Africa (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2007) ....................................................................................... 23
Table 3: Pollutants measured at various government ambient air quality
monitoring stations (DEA, 2011) ............................................................ 26
Table 4: Metropolitan and District Municipalities Air Quality Ratings (DEA’s
Indicative Assessment, 2007) and Revised Air Quality Ratings (Scott, G,
2010) .................................................................................................. 35
Table 5: National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Criteria Pollutants ............ 37
Table 6: Exposure to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels by
population group, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ...................... 39
Table 7: Burden attributable to indoor pollution from household use of solid fuels,
South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ................................................ 40
Table 8: Summary of mortality burden attributable to urban outdoor air pollution,
South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ................................................ 41
Table 9: POPs Monitoring Results from the GAP Study (DEA, 2011) ................. 48
Table 10: Consumption of ODS in South Africa (June 2004- June 2009) (DEA,
2009) .................................................................................................. 56
T able 11: National and Provincial Air Quality Management Plans (NAQO Report,
2010) .................................................................................................. 68
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Average residence times of pollutants in the atmosphere and maximum
extents of impacts (UNEP, 2007). ............................................................ 3
Figure 2: Indoor pollution in domestic environment (Example –Fullerton et al,
2009). ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: Vehicles on the highway (www. carhire.southafrica.com, 2011) .......... 6
Figure 4: Number of vehicles in South Africa for the years 1990 to 2009 (South
Africa Department of Transport, 2011) ..................................................... 7
Figure 5: Consumption of petrol and diesel in South Africa from 1988- 2009
(South African Petroleum Industry Association, 2011)................................ 7
Figure 6: Fuel consumption by province (South African Petroleum Industry
Association, 2011) .................................................................................. 7
Figure 7:Modelled exceedances of ambient daily SO2 concentrations resulting
from emissions from power generation in the Highveld Priority Area (DEA Highveld Air Quality Management Plan, 2011) ........................................... 9
Figure 8: Percentage of households living in informal dwellings per province
(2002-2010) (Statistics SA, 2010). ......................................................... 10
Figure 9: Main source of energy used for cooking by year (2002-2010) and by
province (Statistics SA, 2010) ................................................................ 11
Figure 10: Percentage of households connected to the mains electricity supply by
province (2002-2010). .......................................................................... 12
Figure 11: Main source of heating for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010). 13
Figure 12: Main source of lighting for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010). 13
Figure 13: Biomass burning (Stuart Thompson, 2010) .................................... 17
Figure 14: Map of fire incidences in South Africa for January 2000 to December
2008 (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010). .......................................................... 18
Figure 15: Losses to fire in the forest sector (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010) .......... 18
Figure 16: Veld fire risk levels in South Africa for the environmental endpoint
(CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010).................................................................... 19
Figure 17: Tyre burning emissions (Source: eThekwini Municipality and Izwa,
2011) .................................................................................................. 20
Figure 18: Sugar cane burning (James Sparsphatt/Corbis.com, 2005).............. 23
Figure 19: Overview of the government-owned air quality monitoring networks
(National Air Quality Monitoring Final Report, 2011) ................................ 24
Figure 20: Measured PM10 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the
country................................................................................................ 28
Figure 21: Measured PM10 concentrations at the Highveld Priority Area
monitoring stations (DEA, 2011) ............................................................ 29
Figure 22: PM10 trends for various monitoring stations in the country (DEA,
2011) .................................................................................................. 29
Figure 23: PM10 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011) ............... 29
Figure 24: Measured SO2 concentrations at Cape Town .................................. 30
Figure 25: Measured SO2 concentrations at Johannesburg (DEA, 2011) ........... 30
Figure 26: Measured SO2 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the
country................................................................................................ 31
Figure 27: SO2 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011).................. 32
Figure 28: The initial NAQI superimposed on the framework for the use and
application of the standards or objective-based approach to air quality
management (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on Air Quality
Management, 2010). ............................................................................ 33
Figure 29: Framework for the use and application of the standards or objective
based approach to air quality management (DEA- The 2007 National
Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa, 2007). ................ 34
Figure 30: Age-standardised indoor air pollution attributable mortality rates by
population group and sex, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007).......... 40
Figure 31: Burden of disease attributable to indoor air pollution from household
use of solid fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ...................... 40
Figure 32: Years of life lost attributable to urban outdoor air pollution, South
Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007). ......................................................... 42
Figure 33: Total cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) ..... 43
Figure 34: Total non-cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005)
.......................................................................................................... 43
Figure 35: Adjusted prevalences for respiratory outcomes by school (Prevalences
adjusted for age, gender, race, education, annual household income, and
school (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). ........................................... 44
Figure 36: Adjusted prevalences for adult health outcomes by community
(Predicted prevalences have been adjusted by the following covariates: age,
gender, race/ethnicity, education, current smoker, and community
(Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). ..................................................... 44
Figure 37: Air pollution emissions in South Durban Industrial Basin (Batterman
and BatterRobins, 2005) ....................................................................... 49
Figure 38: Comparison of PCDD/PCDF (left) and PCB (right) concentrations
expressed as TEQs at three sites in Durban (Batterman et al, 2007). ........ 50
Figure 39: Seasonal atmospheric transport from Zambia over the southern Africa
subcontinent (North West Air Quality Management Plan, 2009) ................ 52
Figure 40: The passive diffusive sampling network distribution [with locations of
wet chemistry deposition sites (green lettering) in relation to this study sites
(black and green lettering) (Josipovic, 2009). ......................................... 53
Figure 41: Total (dry plus wet) acidic deposition rates (meq/m2 per year
(Josipovic, 2009). ................................................................................. 54
Figure 42: Ozone depleting substances consumption trends in South Africa (June
2004- June 2009) (DEA, 2009) .............................................................. 57
Figure 43: UVI values and exposure categories with corresponding colour codes
(Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) ........................................................... 58
Figure 44: Average maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) ...... 59
Figure 45: Maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) ................... 59
Figure 46: Potential total daily child solar UV radiation exposure at Pretoria,
Durban, Cape Town, Cape Point, De Aar and Port Elizabeth (SED= standard
erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011)........................... 60
Figure 47: Ambient 1 hour solar UV radiation exposure for midday maximum
between 12h00 and 13h00 at six monitoring stations across South Africa in
2006 (SED= standard erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al,
2011) .................................................................................................. 61
Figure 48: Total number of days per season that school children of varying skin
types may be at risk of experiencing sunburn from excess solar UV radiation
exposure depending on activity and sun protection, using an estimated
personal exposure of 5% of the total daily ambient solar UV radiation levels
(Coetzee et al, 2011) ............................................................................ 61
Figure 49: Extrapolated intra annual changes in biologically weighted UVB
exposure over the period 1979-2003 and those modelled for 2051 (Musil et
al, 2010).............................................................................................. 62
Figure 50: Average atmospheric Hg emissions (1 metric ton= 1 Mg) estimated for
different source categories in South Africa during 2004 ........................... 64
Figure 51: The environmental governance cycle (DEA, 2007).......................... 70
LIST OF ACRONYMNS
µg/m3
2.3.7.8
ALRIs
AMD
APCDs
AQA
AQMPs
ARIs
Microgrammes per cubic metre
TCDD- 2.3.7.8 tetrachlordibenzodioxin
Acute Lower Respiratory Infections
Acid Mine Drainage
Air Pollution Control Devices
Air Quality Act 39 of 2004
Air Quality Management Plans
Acute Respiratory Infections
ASP
Africa Stockpile Programme
BCM
Bromochloromethane
BTEXBenzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, Xylene
C6H6
Benzene
CBD
Central Business District
CFCs
Chlorofluorocarbons
CO
Carbon monoxide
CO2
Carbon dioxide
COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CSIR
Council for Research and Industrial Research
DACERD
North West department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment
and Rural Development
DAEA&RD
KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs
and Rural Development
DALYs
Disability-adjusted life years
DDT
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DEA
Department of Environmental Affairs
DEA&DPWestern Cape Department of Environmental Affairs
DEDET
Mpumalanga Department of Economic Development, Environment
and Tourism
DMEDepartment of Minerals and Energy (now Department of Energy)
DNADeoxyribonucleic acid
DPSIR
Driver–Pressure-State-Impact-Response
ESPs
Electrostatic precipitators
FRIDGE
Fund for Research into Industrial Development, Growth and Equity
GAPS
Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling
GDARD
Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
GWPs
Global warming potentials
HCHs
Hexachlorocyclohexanes
HCs
Hydrocarbons
HFCs
Hydrofluorocarbons
Hg
Mercury
HPAHighveld Priority Area
LTO
Landing and take off
MDGs
Millennium Development Goals
MeBr
Methyl bromide
MOA
Memorandum of Understanding
MONET Africa Monitoring Network in the African Continent
MRAs
Mine Residue Areas
N2O
Nitrous oxide
NAAQMN
National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network
NAAQS
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAQI
NEMAQA
NFAQM
NGOs
NH3
NO
NO2
NOx
NRL
O3
ODS
PAFs
PAHs
Pb
PCBs
PCDDs
PCDFs
PM10
PM2.5
POPs
ppb
ppm
SAAQIS
SANAS
SAPIA
SDIB
SO2
Stats SA
TCDD
TCA
TRS
TSP
UNEP
US-EPA
UVUVEry
UVI
VOCsVTAPA
WHO
YLLs-
National Air Quality Indicator
National Environmental Management: Air quality Act 39 of 2004
National Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa
Non-governmental organisations
Ammonia
Nitrogen monoxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
National Reference Laboratory
Ozone
Ozone depleting substances
Population attributable Fractions
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Lead
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
Particulate matter measuring 10 micrometres or less
Particulate matter measuring 2.5 micrometres or less
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Parts per billion
parts per million
South African Air Quality Information System
South African National Accreditation System
South African Industry Association
South Durban Industrial Basin
Sulphur dioxide
Statistics South Africa
Tetrachlordibenzodioxin
Tichloroacetic acid
Total Reduced Sulphur
Total Suspended Particulates
United Nations Environment Programme
United States Environment Protection Agency
Ultraviolet
‘Sunburning’ or erythemally weighted radiation
Ultraviolet Index
Volatile Organic Compounds
Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area
World Health Organisation
Years of life lost
1.1
Introduction
The atmosphere is the earth’s largest single shared resource which protects and
supports life through the absorption of dangerous ultraviolet solar radiation,
warming the surface and temperature reduction. However, these vital roles that
the atmosphere plays are under serious threat due to anthropogenic (humandriven) activities that result in the introduction of pollutants into the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is used as a repository for air pollutants generated as a result of
drivers such as industrialization, urban growth, population growth and changing
consumption patterns, transport, power generation, incineration activities, waste
generation, biomass burning and changing consumption patterns.
Major types of pollutants including criteria pollutants such as sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), benzene
(C6H6), persistent organic pollutants (POPS) and particulate matter (PM). These
air pollutants can be dispersed by winds to other areas posing another problem
of environmental challenge- trans-boundary pollution. Some of these pollutants
undergo mixing and chemical transformation in the atmosphere. In South Africa,
air pollution poses challenges in the achievement of sustainable development,
environmental sustainability, Millennium Development Goals, fulfillment of the
environmental rights enshrined in the South African Constitution, the 12
Outcomes, especially Outcome 10 which promotes the protection and continual
enhancement of environmental assets and natural resources.
Other global environmental challenges with local significance in South Africa
include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion and mercury deposition
due to power generation and other sources such as cement production. Fossil
fuels such as coal contain trace amounts of mercury and the burning of this coal
during power generation releases mercury. General environmental degradation
and the depletion of natural resources are also major challenges facing the
country. Although South Africa is generally considered to be a country with
abundant natural resources, some natural resources such as water, forests and
soil are quite limited and hence the drive towards resource management and
conservation.
Given the fact that many human activities require the consumption of energy, for
example, burning of coal to generate electricity, burning of oil or gas for factory
operations, burning of petrol or diesel fuel to power mobile fleets or vehicles, the
level of air pollution has been a growing concern in the country and other parts
of the world. This is especially so given that the price that we have to pay for our
1
lifestyles is increased amounts of pollution, which in turn affects the ecosystems,
human health and well-being.
One of the reasons that air pollution is such a threat to human health is that we
have no choice over the air we breathe (Koenig, 2000). Thus in our homes,
outdoors and workplaces, we often breathe air which is not as clean as we would
prefer. Inhalation is the major route of entry into the body for toxic chemicals,
resulting in respiratory illnesses such as asthma and acute respiratory infections,
cancer, heart and lung related diseases (cardio vascular) etc. Along with harming
human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects which
include acid rain which can damage trees and causes soil and water bodies to
acidify, making the water unsuitable for fish and wildlife. Other environmental
effects include eutrophication, a condition in a water body where high
concentrations of nutrients such as nitrogen, stimulates blooms of algae leading
to death of fish and loss of plant and animal life, crop and forest damage, effects
on wildlife which include health problems due to inhalation of toxic air pollutants.
It is clear that there is a cause-effect relationship where air pollution and other
environmental problems are concerned. The purpose of this chapter is to report
on the causes of air pollution, the pollutants, state of air quality in various parts
of the country, impacts of air pollution and responses or mitigation measures to
address air pollution problems and hence the use of the Driver–Pressure-StateImpact-Response (DPSIR) framework. The framework allows a structured, easy
and gradual presentation of cause and effect relationships on a set of indicators
that represent the different compartments of Drivers–Pressures-State-ImpactsResponses. Air pollution represents the pressures that result from human
activities or drivers. These pressures cause the state of the environment to
change, resulting in health, environment and economic impacts. Responses from
policymakers and the public may address the driving forces themselves as well as
seek to reduce their direct pressures or indirect effects on the state of the
environment and human health.
1.2
Air Quality
Air quality depends on both the amount of pollutants released into the
atmosphere by the various human activities and the rate at which pollutants
disperse. Dispersion is largely dependent on both wind direction and strength.
Strong winds result in rapid dispersal of air pollution to other areas whereas little
or no wind results in the accumulation, and in some cases, high concentration of
air pollution. However, local factors such as topography (hills and mountains),
proximity to the coast, building height and time of the year all affect local wind
2
conditions and can play a role in increasing air pollution levels (www.mfe.govt.nz,
2011). In addition, air quality is also determined by the residence times of air
pollutants in the atmosphere. Air pollutants have varying residence times in the
atmosphere with air pollutants with very short residence times affecting indoor
and outdoor air quality, while those with very long residence times result in
continental and global effects (Figure 1). Also, the amount of pollutants varies
from one area to another, depending on the type and concentration of human
activities and on the measures taken to reduce emissions (United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), 2007).
In South Africa, outdoor and indoor air pollution continues to be perceived as a
serious problem, with emissions for SO2, PM, NO2, NOx, VOCs, O3, C6H6 and the
corresponding concentrations a cause of concern. Air quality in various areas of
the country is affected by pollutants emitted by numerous sources. These
sources include power generation activities, industrial processes, waste disposal,
transportation (private and public vehicles), biomass burning, domestic fuel
burning, landfill sites, waste water treatment and agriculture.
Figure 1: Average residence times of pollutants in the atmosphere and
maximum extents of impacts (UNEP, 2007).
1.2.1 Indoor Air Quality
Indoor pollution sources that release pollutants into the air are the primary cause
of indoor air quality problems in homes. Poor ventilation can increase indoor
pollutant levels due to weak dilution of emissions from indoor sources and
conditions that are not conducive for pollutant dispersal. There are numerous
sources of indoor air pollution and these include domestic fuel sources such as
3
coal, wood, paraffin, oil, tobacco products, asbestos products, pesticides used in
the home, household cleaning products, etc (US-EPA, 2010).
Public exposure to air pollution has been largely associated with outdoor
pollution. However, on the contrary, the largest exposures to health-damaging
indoor pollution probably occur in the developing world among the poorest and
most vulnerable populations, largely women and young children who are most
exposed to the indoor pollution sources (Figure 2) (Smith, 2002).
Indoor activities such as cooking and heating using coal, wood, paraffin and
other traditional sources of fuel such as dung and agricultural residues produces
high levels of smoke that contains a variety of pollutants that affect health.
Exposure to indoor air pollution is dependant on type of fuel, indoor
concentrations of pollutants in the indoor environment, type of equipment used,
and location. According to studies undertaken in various parts of the world,
including Africa, indoor pollution levels in households reliant on domestic fuel
sources are extremely high. Average daily PM10 concentrations in households
that use biomass fuels and coal are around 1000 µg/m³, exceeding the World
Health Organisation (WHO) PM10 average daily guidelines and other
international guidelines. In general, concentrations of indoor air pollutants
exceed WHO guideline limits many times (WHO, 2002).The fact that domestic
fuel burning occurs under unfavourable combustion conditions largely impacts on
indoor air quality. This is because this incomplete combustion of the fuels results
in the release of high concentrations of the air pollutants associated with
combustion into the living environment.
Figure 2: Indoor pollution in domestic environment (Example –Fullerton et al,
2009).
4
1.2.2 Ambient Air Quality
Ambient air quality is defined as the physical and chemical measure of pollutant
concentrations in the ambient atmosphere to which the general population will
be exposed to. A growing concern in many parts of the world is the level of air
pollution mainly from human- induced activities which are discussed in detail in
the section below. In most developing countries, ambient air quality is reported
to have deteriorated seriously, especially in urban centres, exposing people to
pollutant levels above the limits recommended by the WHO (UNEP, 2002).
Increasing levels of urbanisation caused by natural growth of the urban
population and migration, especially rural-urban migration, have resulted in the
deterioration of air quality and general environmental degradation in most
developing countries. Urban poverty is reported to be among the major drivers of
environmental degradation. In South Africa, this is more evident in deteriorating
ambient air quality levels in domestic fuel burning areas, which also have the
highest numbers of low income households.
Outdoor air pollution is perceived a serious problem due to elevated
concentrations of some pollutants which result in adverse health and
environmental effects. However, the realization of the health effects associated
with air pollution has led to various responses at international, national and local
levels aimed at improving air quality.
1.3
Sources of Air Pollution
Air pollution emanates from various drivers or sources which include natural and
anthropogenic sources. Natural sources of air pollution include volcanoes, which
produce sulphur, chlorine, ash and particulates. Wildfires result in the production
of smoke, CO2 and CO. Other natural sources of air pollution include domestic
animals such as cattle which release methane and pine trees which release
VOCs. Most forms of air pollution are a result of human activities and include
fossil fuel burning (coal, oil and natural gas in industrial processes), electricity
generation, vehicle emissions, airport emissions, domestic fuel burning, the use
of household materials that contain persistent organic pollutants, biomass
burning, domestic fuel burning, waste disposal etc.
5
1.3.1 Vehicle Emissions
Vehicle emissions contribute to the deterioration in air quality, especially in urban
areas (Figure 3). Some of the pollutants associated with vehicle emissions
include the greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, CO, NO2, NOx and C6H6), PM, O3,
aldehydes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Lead (Pb) emissions
have ceased to be a pressing issue in South Africa due to the phasing out of
leaded petrol.
Figure 3: Vehicles on the highway (www. carhire.southafrica.com, 2011)
There is an increase in the number of vehicles in the country (Figure 4). Lack of
public transport has been identified as a contributing factor to the increased
dependence in the number of private vehicles. The increase in the number of
vehicles has, as expected, resulted in an increase in fuel consumption (Figure 5).
Gauteng province is the major consumer of fuel in the country and this could be
attributed to the fact that the province is the country’s economic hub,
contributing 33% to the national economy (Figure 6). Concerns on the
contribution of vehicle emissions to air pollution and the associated effects have
been raised in the country, especially in urban areas where vehicle traffic has
significant implications for urban air quality. In urban areas, vehicle emissions
may be responsible for 90-95% of CO and 60-70% of NOx (Schwela, 2004).
Emissions from vehicles contribute to photochemical smog and this occurs
especially in areas that experience high traffic density such as central business
districts (CBDs). The effects of vehicle emissions in South Africa have been more
evident in Cape Town where brown haze still remains an air quality problem.
Motor vehicle pollution is rapidly worsening due to the increasing vehicle fleet
growth, increasing distances travelled and high rates of emissions from the
vehicle fleets. The causes of the high emission rates include road congestion,
which increases emissions per kilometre travelled, poor maintenance and high
average age of the vehicle fleet.
6
Figure 4: Number of vehicles in South Africa for the years 1990 to 2009 (South
Africa Department of Transport, 2011)
Figure 5: Consumption of petrol and diesel in South Africa from 1988- 2009
(South African Petroleum Industry Association, 2011)
Figure 6: Fuel consumption by province (South African Petroleum Industry
Association, 2011)
7
Box 1.1: Carbon Dioxide Vehicle Emissions Tax
A carbon tax is an environmental tax levied on the carbon content of fuels and is a form of
carbon pricing. Fuel combustion results in the release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas
contributing to the threat of human-induced climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions are a
result of fossil fuel combustion are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels
they originate from. It is for this reason that a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing
the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel.
In September 2010, South Africa implemented a carbon dioxide emissions tax on new
passenger vehicles as part of a sustainable development initiative and climate change
mitigation measure. This CO2 tax currently applies to new passenger vehicles at the time of
sale but will in future include commercial vehicles once carbon dioxide standards have been set
for these vehicles. Passenger vehicles which emit over 120 g/km are subject to a tax of R75
per g/km over this figure. The main objective of this CO2 tax is to influence the composition of
South Africa’s vehicle fleet to become more energy efficient and environmentally friendly while
generating revenue.
There are however concerns that this carbon dioxide tax will increase the price of new vehicles
and reduce sales, thereby negatively affecting the automobile industry. It has also been argued
that the tax is discriminatory as it targets new vehicles and not the existing vehicles in the
country. However, the new CO2 tax is expected to add around 2% to the cost of a new vehicle,
and some doubt has been expressed as to whether this will have a significant affect on
motivating new vehicle buyers to purchase environmentally friendly vehicles
(http://www.bidorbuy.co.za, 2011). Another negative comment expressed by many is that the
current standard of South African fuel makes it almost impossible to either import or
manufacture a passenger vehicle in South Africa that can achieve the 120 g/km threshold.
South Africa CO2 Emissions Tax (Image from http://www.sacarfan.co.za)
A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to
carbon content. For example, environmental taxes with implications for greenhouse gas
emissions have been levied in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) countries on energy products and vehicles rather than CO2 emissions directly.
8
1.3.2 Electricity Generation and Consumption
The generation of electricity in South Africa is largely dependant on the most
abundant indigenous source of energy- coal. The majority of the coal rich
deposits are concentrated in the north east of the country resulting in the
location of the majority of the coal fired power stations in Mpumalanga Province.
81% of domestic coal is utilized for electricity production in the country and the
state owned power utility- ESKOM provides about 95% of the country’s electrical
power and more than 60% of Africa’s energy needs. A significant proportion of
liquid fuels and other sources such as renewable energy are also used as energy
sources. The country’s electricity capacity has generally increased over the last
few years, with conventional sources of energy (coal, petroleum and gas),
nuclear power and hydro pumped storage accounting for 99.35% of total
electricity generated. Detail on the sources of electrical energy and energy
consumption in South Africa is provided in the Energy Chapter.
The generation of electricity through coal-fired power stations results in the
emissions of pollutants such as particulates, SO2 and NOx and mercury (Hg). The
air quality impacts of the pollutants that are produced by power generating
activities are largely felt in the province of Mpumalanga. For example,
exceedances of the ambient 1 hour and 24 hours SO2 standards due to power
generation are modelled for certain areas in Mpumalanga which fall within the
Highveld Priority Area (Figure 7).
Figure 7:Modelled exceedances of ambient daily SO2 concentrations resulting from
emissions from power generation in the Highveld Priority Area (DEA -Highveld Air
Quality Management Plan, 2011)
9
1.3.3 Domestic Fuel Burning
A growing concern in the country is the level of pollution from domestic fuel
burning and the associated health effects. In dense, low income households and
informal settlements, the use of domestic fuel sources such as coal, paraffin, and
wood for cooking and heating is more common. Informal settlements are a
common feature in most of the country (Figure 8) and this could partly be
attributed to the increasing levels of urbanisation with natural growth of the
population and migration being major contributing factors. Gauteng Province has
the highest percentage of informal settlements and this is largely due to natural
population growth and the fact that the province is the economic hub of the
country and experiences a huge influx of migrants searching for better
opportunities. This has also resulted in another challenge- infrastructural
development cannot keep up with the ever increasing need for shelter and
services for the growing population and hence the proliferation of informal
settlements.
Figure 8: Percentage of households living in informal dwellings per province
(2002-2010) (Statistics SA, 2010).
The main sources of energy used by households for cooking between 2002 and
2010 for each province are shown in Figure 9. During this period, the use of
paraffin declined from 16.1% to 8.9%. The use of wood also declined during the
same period. However, a significant percentage of households still used wood
(14.3%) as compared to paraffin (8.9%) in 2010. There was also a noticeable
decline in the percentage of households using coal and gas during this period
(Statistics SA, 2010). Nationally, the use of electricity for cooking has increased
10
by 13%, since 2002, to 71.1% in 2010 (Figure 10). Provincially, the use of
electricity as the main source of energy for cooking was highest in the Western
Cape Province (85.4%), Free State (85%) and Gauteng (83.8%). The use of
electricity for cooking was lowest in provinces such as Mpumalanga (61.9%),
Eastern Cape (53.7%) and Limpopo (47.1%). Eastern Cape contained the
highest proportion of households using paraffin (21.1%), followed by North West
(12%) and Gauteng (10.3%). Less than 3% of households in the Western Cape
used paraffin for cooking (Figure 10). In Limpopo, almost half of the households
still used wood for cooking, followed by the Eastern Cape (20.9%), Mpumalanga
(20.2%) and KwaZulu Natal (20.4%). The lowest use of wood for household
cooking was in Gauteng and Western Cape (approximately 1% of households for
each of these provinces). The increase in the number of households using
electricity for cooking can be attributed to the National Electrification Programme
(NEP). This programme has had a strong focus on household electrification,
increasing access to electricity for the poor in the country. Nationally, the
percentage of households that were connected to the electricity mains supply
increased form 76.6% to 82% in 2010 (Figure 10).
Figure 9: Main source of energy used for cooking by year (2002-2010) and by
province (Statistics SA, 2010)
11
Figure 10: Percentage of households connected to the mains electricity supply
by province (2002-2010).
The main energy source for heating and lighting in the country for 2010 was
electricity, 56.8% for heating (Figure 11) and 83.5% for lighting (Figure 12).
Most households do not use electricity for heating as this has proven to be more
expensive, but would rather use electricity for lighting as this is affordable.
Despite electrification, most poor households still rely on the use of multiple fuels
for their domestic energy needs. Paraffin remains a major concern in poor urban
environments, not only from an indoor air quality perspective, but also because
of association with child poisoning and damage of property (Barnes et al, 2009).
Coal continues to be used for space heating and cooking in high density areas.
This is especially the case in the informal settlements of Sasolburg, Vereeniging
and Vanderbijlpark in the VTAPA. The intensive domestic use of coal is also
evident in some areas in Mpumalanga due to availability and affordability.
Domestic fuel burning results in pollutants such as SO2, NO2, NOx, CO, O3, VOCs,
toxic hydrocarbons and particulates which all have health impacts. The release of
nitrogen and sulphur oxides is dependent on combustion and fuel characteristics.
Complicating issues further is the fact that most of the household activities are
undertaken using simple, small scale devices such as household cook stoves. A
large fraction of these stoves are not vented (do not have flue or hoods for the
exit of pollutants from the living environment). In addition, unprocessed solid
fuels have large emissions rates of health damaging pollutants which in turn
significantly affect local ‘neighbourhood’ air quality. In most cases, the pollution
levels have implications for total exposure.
12
Figure 11: Main source of heating for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010).
Figure 12: Main source of lighting for households in 2010 (Statistics SA,
2010).
1.3.4 Industrial Emissions
South Africa is no exception to air pollution problems caused by industrialisation.
These direct and indirect effects of air pollution are particularly a major concern
in areas of heavy industrial development such as the Vaal Triangle Airshed
Priority Area (VTAPA), South Durban Industrial Basin (SDIB) and the Highveld
Priority Area (HPA). The majority of the industries in the country fall within the
metallurgical industry (28.38%), with the least dominant industries being the
pharmaceutical and hazardous waste disposal and general waste industries. The
industrial processes are located in various areas of the country, with the major
industrial processes in each province shown in Table 1. Industry is a major
consumer of energy and depends mainly on fossil fuels, especially coal for most
13
of its needs. The industrial sector is also a major consumer of electricity
nationally. The largest industrial consumer of electricity is the mining industry
followed by the iron and steel and non-ferrous metals industries.
Table 1: Major Industrial Operations by Province
Province
Eastern Cape
Free State
Gauteng
Major Industrial operations
• Brickworks
• Animal Reduction (Tanneries and
Rendering Plants)
• Waste incineration
• Waste incineration
• Organic/inorganic industries
• Asphalt plants
• Metallurgical
• Ceramic/ Brickworks
• Organic/inorganic industries
Associated Main Pollutants
• PM, SO2, CO2, CO
• CO2, PM, CH4, NH3, VOCs
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
PM, SO2, VOCs, CO2, CO
PM, CO2, VOCs, CO2, CO
PM, VOCs, SO2, NH3, CO2,NOX
PM, SO2, NOx, CO, Hg, Pb, VOCs
HF, PM, CO, CO2, VOCs, SO2, NO2
PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs
PM, VOCs, SO2, NH3, CO2,NOX
KwaZulu Natal
•
•
•
•
Pulp and Paper/ Wood Products
Ceramic/ Brickworks
Organic/inorganic industries
Asphalt plants
•
•
•
•
PM,
PM,
PM,
PM,
Limpopo
•
•
•
•
•
•
PM, SO2, VOCs, CO2, CO
PM, SO2, CO2, CO
, NO2, VOCs and PM
Mpumalanga
•
•
•
•
Incineration
Ceramic/ Brickworks
Wood Products (Sawmills and
Charcoal)
Power Generation
Ceramic/ Brickworks
Wood Products
Metallurgical Industries
•
North West
•
•
•
Mining Operations
Ceramic/Brickworks
Incineration (Medical Waste)
•
•
•
•
•
•
PM, NO2, SO2, CO and Mercury
(Hg)
PM, NO2, VOCs and PM
PM, CO2, SO2, H2S, VOC, Cl2
HF, PM, CO, CO2, VOCs, SO2, NOx
PM and vehicle emissions
PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs
PM, SO2, VOCs, CO2, CO
Northern Cape
•
•
•
•
•
Mining Operations
Ceramic/Brickworks
Ceramic/Brickworks
Metallurgical
Animal Reduction matter
•
•
•
•
•
PM and vehicle emissions
PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs
PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs
HF, PM, CO, CO2, VOCs, SO2, NOx
CO2, PM, CH4, NH3, VOCs
Western Cape
CO2, SO2, H2S, VOC, Cl2
SO2, CO2, CO
VOCs, SO2, NH3, CO2,NOX
SO2, NOx, CO, Hg, Pb, VOCs
Air pollution assumes priority due to the proximity of human settlements and in
South Africa poor land use planning has culminated in the positioning of heavy
industrial development and other operations in close proximity to heavily
populated residential areas. The negative environmental effects of air pollution as
a result of industrial activities are mostly experienced during operations.
However, in some cases, these negative effects- whether foreseen and
unforeseen- can be experienced long after industrial operations have ceased.
This is evident in Gauteng where mine residue areas (MRAs) due to intensive
mining activities which were undertaken in the Witwatersrand have become an
14
important emerging issue. Compounding the problem is the close proximity of
human settlements to these MRAs as this could have serious health implications.
Box 1.2: Mine Residue Areas in Gauteng Province
Mine residue areas (MRAs) in Gauteng include tailings disposal facilities, waste rock
dumps, open cast excavations and quarries. The majority of these MRAs are sources of air
pollutants: particulates, dust and release radioactive substances. A major cause for
concern is the fact that some residential areas are located in close proximity or downwind
of these sources of dust and/or radioactive dust. Gauteng Province currently has 380 MRAs
of which the majority are gold-mining residues and are radioactive due to the presence of
uranium (GDARD, 2009). The normal dust and radioactive dust associated with MRAs have
health implications, especially given the fact that residential areas are located relatively
close to most of the MRAs. In addition, gold tailings contain compounds such as cyanide
and heavy metals which pose additional health risks.
Air quality (dust pollution and radioactive substances) is one of the main issues relating to
MRAs in Gauteng (GDARD, 2009).
Main types of MRA in Gauteng (GDARD, 2009)
15
Box 1.2: Mine Residue Areas in Gauteng Province
Radioactive (red), non-radioactive (green) and undetermined (blue-very
few) MRAs in Gauteng
1.3.5 Biomass Burning
Biomass burning is a significant source of gaseous and particulate matter
emissions to the atmosphere (Figure 13). Pollutants associated with biomass
burning include greenhouse gases (CO2, NH4 and NO), CO, and VOCs especially
in the tropical and subtropical regions. The emission of CO, CH4 and VOC affect
the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere, by reacting with hydroxyl (OH) radicals
and emissions of NO and VOCs lead to the formation of O3 and other
photochemical oxidants. Almost 90% of all biomass burning emissions are
thought to be anthropogenic (Koppman et al, 2005). Human induced fires are
used for a variety of purposes which include agricultural expansion, bush control,
weed and residue burning and harvesting practices. Biomass burning affects the
biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and carbon.
16
Figure 13: Biomass burning (Stuart Thompson, 2010)
Veld fires are a persistent problem in South Africa as they pose a risk to life,
cause damage to property and the environment. Fire activity is strongly
influenced by four factors: fuels, climate and weather, ignition agents and
people. The fuel type, continuity, structure, moisture, and amount are critical
elements of fire occurrence and spread (Forsyth et al, 2010).
According to a study undertaken by Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) (National Veldfire Risk Assessment), there was a marked trend in fire
incidence from the eastern to western parts of the country and, to a lesser extent
from north to south (Figure 14). The north-western quarter of the country where
the dominant biomes are the Succulent Karoo, Desert and Nama Karoo had few
if any fires. The highest fire incidence was found in the mountain areas,
particularly the eastern Langeberg, and the incidence increased from west to
east across the biome (Forsyth et al, 2010). The very low fire incidence on the
western and southern coastal lowlands was due the exclusion of most of these
areas from the analysis because of the high proportion of cultivated lands. Data
indicated that these extensively cultivated areas actually burnt quite frequently
because the farmers burn the stubble remaining after harvesting the wheat
crops, particularly on the West Coast (Forsyth et al, 2010).
17
Figure 14: Map of fire incidences in South Africa for January 2000 to December
2008 (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010).
Although information on veld fires is limited, the best documented losses are in
the forest sector. Data indicates that the incidence of fires in the forest
plantations has increased significantly over the years and the likely causes are
less effective fire protection and additional sources of ignition (Figure 15). It is
stated that the continuation of these trends is likely to constitute a serious threat
to the viability of the forestry industry.
Figure 15: Losses to fire in the forest sector (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010)
Veld fires cause economic, social and environmental losses. Economic losses
include industrial losses of infrastructure and the related financial implications,
destroyal of power lines and other infrastructure such as farm and country
resorts. The social impacts of veld fires include loss of homes and resources for
18
rural livelihoods and stock losses for grazing. The environmental damaging
effects of veld fires include the loss of biodiversity, damage to vegetation and the
release of pollutants to the atmosphere. The veld fire risk levels for an
environmental end point for various areas in the country are shown in Figure 16.
The risk levels are low within most fire-ecology types. This is because much of
South Africa’s vegetation is fire-adapted and recovers rapidly from veld fires
provided there are no complicating factors such as the invasion of the veld by
woody alien plants or the presence of commercial timber plantations as these
factors increase the fuel load markedly (Forsyth et al, 2010).
Figure 16: Veld fire risk levels in South Africa for the environmental endpoint
(CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010).
1.3.6 Landfill site gas emissions
Land fill sites are major sources of gases such as CH4 and CO2 which are
primarily of concern as they are greenhouse gases and pose a threat to climate
change mitigation efforts if not addressed. A range of odiferous gases and toxic
gases such as hydrogen sulphide and VOCs are also emitted from landfills.
Carcinogens such as benzene and methylene chloride are also released from
landfills. The gases generated from landfills result from the process of waste
decomposition and are related to the landfilled waste and landfill technologies
used. Landfill gas constituents are of further concern due to their potential
impacts on human health, especially carcinogens and several non-carcinogenic
toxins such as phenols and chlorobenzene.
19
1.3.7 Tyre Burning Emissions
Air emissions from tyre burning or combustion include uncontrolled and
controlled emissions. Uncontrolled sources are open tyre fires, which produce
many products of incomplete combustion and release them directly into the
atmosphere (Figure 17). Controlled combustion sources include boilers and kilns
specifically designed for efficient combustion of solid fuel (Reisman, 1997).
Emissions from controlled combustion sources are much lower and more often
than not, these sources also have appropriate air pollution control equipment for
the control of particulate emissions (Reisman, 1997). Open tyre burning
emissions include criteria pollutants such as PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2 and NO2.
Other emitted pollutants include NOx, sulphur oxides (SOX), VOCs, PAHs, dioxins,
furans, hydrogen chloride, C6H6, PCBs and metals such as arsenic, cadmium,
nickel, zinc, mercury, chromium and vanadium. Emissions from open tyre burning
can represent significant acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) health
effects such as respiratory effects, cancer and nervous system depression, and
cancer (US-EPA, 1997). However, significant amounts of liquids and solids
containing dangerous chemicals can also be generated by burning tyres. These
can lead to the pollution of soil, surface water, and ground water and an
integrated approach must be applied to manage these impacts. The
indiscriminate burning of tyres to recover the scrap metal has been a major
concern in many parts of the country. For example in Cape Town, it has been
reported that at Cape Town International Airport, the black smoke impairs the
vision to such an extent that the pilots are forced to use their instruments to
assist with the landing of aircraft.
Figure 17: Tyre burning emissions (Source: eThekwini Municipality and Izwa,
2011)
20
In South Africa, a draft Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) has been discussed
between the Department of Environmental Affairs and the waste tyre industry
(DEAT, 2006). Within the MOA, “waste tyre users” are defined as “any tyre
derived fuel user or waste tyre recycler”, which are respectively defined as “a
person or institution engaged in energy recovery from waste tyres” and “any
person or institution, using any process by which waste tyres are converted or
transformed into new products, or raw materials for any purposes, excluding
energy recovery and/or any other process by which a used tyre is retreaded or
repaired for return to its original intended use” (GroundWork, 2006). About 1.2
million tonnes of coal is currently used by the South African cement industry, and
about 25% of this could be replaced by tyres. The currently available volume of
spent tyres equates to about 154 tonnes of coal per day (1kg of rubber = 33
mega-Joules (mJ) of energy while 1kg of coal offers about 27 mJ [ibid]), while
25% of 1.2 million tonnes of coal is 672 tonnes per day (GroundWork, 2006).
Part of the solution to reducing heavy dependence on fossil fuels for energy is
their use as sources of fuel in cement kilns and other combustion equipment.
This is becoming the most popular way of disposing of tyres. However, this has
raised increasing concern from environmentalists and scientists due to the
pollutants emitted from tyre burning and their associated health effects.
1.3.8 Airport Emissions
There are various sources of emissions associated with airport activities. These
include road traffic at and around airports, aircraft exhaust fumes, emissions
from ground service equipment and auxillary power units and airport buildings.
Aircrafts often travel for great distances at varying altitude, generating emissions
that can potentially impact local, regional and global air quality (ICAO, 2011).
Emissions associated with aircraft activities include CO2, PM, NOx, CO, VOCs, SO2,
HCs, NH4 and non -methane VOCs. Aircraft emissions are a function of the fuel
specifications, number of aircraft operations which include landing and take off
(LTO) cycles, aircraft fleet mix, length of time aircrafts spend in each of the
modes of operation: takeoff, climb-out, approach and idle (ICAO, 2011). South
Africa has a number of domestic and international airports. Although
comprehensive emissions inventories were undertaken for the international
airports in Cape Town (Cape Town International Airport) and in Johannesburg
(O.R Tambo International) and the results reported in the 2005 State of Air
Report, a lot of research in this field is still required.
21
Airport emissions are of concern, especially in areas and regions adjacent to
airports. High levels of NO2 cause breathlessness and coughing while long-term
exposure results in chronic coughing and infections such as bronchitis. High PM
levels have mortality and morbidity effects (WHO, 2003, 2004).
1.3.9 Agricultural Emissions
Agricultural activities are part of economic activity in provinces such as the Free
State, Limpopo, KwaZulu- Natal, North West, Western Cape and Mpumalanga in
the country. Agricultural activities can be considered a significant contributor to
particulate emissions, although tilling, harvesting and other activities associated
with field preparation are seasonally based. Agricultural activities associated with
the release of particulates and gases to the atmosphere include;
• Particulate emissions generated due to mechanical action of equipment
used for tilling and harvesting operations;
• Particulate emissions generated due to wind erosion from exposed areas;
• Vehicle entrained dust on paved and unpaved road surfaces;
• Gaseous and particulate emissions due to fertilizer and chemical
treatment.
• Gaseous and particulate emissions due to agricultural land resource
management practices such as burning of residue crops and vegetation.
This has been particularly a huge issue in South Africa with regards to sugar
cane burning (Figure 18). The sugar cane industry burns 90% of its crop at
harvest, while 10% is harvested green. In 2008, the KwaZulu-Natal province
identified sugar cane burning as a significant source of air pollution. It has been
established that during sugar cane burning, incomplete combustion occurs, with
the formation of compounds that are not completely oxidized.
Fine particulates, typically acidic, containing secondary nitrates, sulphates and
organic species are released into the atmosphere. It has been established that
children are more susceptible to health effects caused by sugar cane burning.
However, measures being taken to reduce emissions from sugar cane burning
include sugar cane burning policies, green harvesting and sustainable sugarcane
farm management system (SuSFarMS) (KwaZulu-Natal DAEA&RD, 2011).
Internationally, the main focus with respect to emissions generated due to
animal husbandry as an agricultural activity, is the malodours generated as a
result of feeding and cleaning the animals such as pigs, sheep, goats and
chickens. Emissions assessed include ammonia (a greenhouse gas) and hydrogen
sulphide.
22
Figure 18: Sugar cane burning (James Sparsphatt/Corbis.com, 2005)
1.4
Common Air Pollutants in South Africa
It is clear that most human-induced activities result in the release of air
pollutants to the atmosphere. The most common air pollutants (pressures) in the
country are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Pollutants of concern in South Africa (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2007)
Current Criteria
Pollutants
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Ozone (O3)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Lead (Pb)
Particulate Matter (PM10)
Benzene (C6H6)
1.5
Possible Future Pollutants
National Pollutants
Local Pollutants
Mercury (Hg)
Particulate matter (PM2.5)
Dioxins;
Furans;
POPs
Other VOCs
Pollutants controlled by
international conventions
ratified by South Africa
Chrome (Cr6+)
Fluoride (particulate and
gas);
Manganese (Mn)
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in South Africa
One of the most important aspects of air quality management and methods of
determining ambient air quality or state is monitoring of air quality related data.
Monitoring fulfills a central role by providing the necessary sound scientific basis
for policy and strategy development, objective setting, compliance
measurements against targets and enforcement action. In South Africa, a
23
substantial amount of ambient air quality monitoring is conducted by a wide
range of monitoring agencies, using a range of monitoring methodologies and
approaches. Currently, the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network
(NAAQMN) has 94 government air quality monitoring stations operated by all
three spheres of government (Figure 19).
The DEA currently operates a total of 11 stations with 6 located in the Vaal
Triangle Airshed Priority Area (VTAPA) and the other five in the Highveld Priority
area (HPA). Only four provincial departments currently operate a total of 21
stations, with the Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA&DP)
operating four stations, KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture, Environmental
Affairs and Rural Development (DAEA&RD) operates 6 stations, North West
Department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and Rural Development
(DACERD) run 7 stations, Mpumalanga Department of Economic Development,
Environment and Tourism (DEDET) operates 4 stations. The DEA has also
recently commissioned three continuous air quality monitoring stations in the
Waterberg District in Limpopo as a proactive approach to air quality
management. The Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development’s
(GDARD) four monitoring stations are in the process of re-commissioning.
Figure 19: Overview of the government-owned air quality monitoring
networks (National Air Quality Monitoring Final Report, 2011)
24
The remaining significant portion of the 73 stations is currently owned by
municipalities. For the most part, air quality monitoring activities are conducted
by metropolitan councils and by industry. As a result they are mostly located in
close proximity to the major urban areas and industrial development nodes (DEA,
2007). The most commonly monitored pollutants are SO2, NOX (NO2 and NO), O3,
and particulate matter (ambient PM10 and PM2.5) (Table 3). The other pollutants
measured include Pb, CO, TSP, VOCs, BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
xylene components or just benzene), H2S, and total reduced sulphur (TRS).
Ambient air quality monitoring also occurs in background and rural sites in the
country. Monitoring campaigns have also been driven by the implementation of
the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (NEMAQA) No. 39 of
2004. This legislation saw a shift from individual source-based controls to an
ambient air quality objectives approach and more focus on the receiving
environment including human communities.
A baseline study was undertaken to assess the operational status of air quality
monitoring stations operated by the various spheres of government for the
supply of air quality data to the South African Air Quality Information System
(SAAQIS) and to assess a number of air quality monitoring stations that are
currently being operated in terms of the requirements of the South African
National Accreditation System (SANAS) (DEA, 2011). This study culminated in the
NAAQMN Audit report which states that most of the stations complied with the
technical requirements of the SANAS TR07 document, “Supplementary
requirements for the accreditation of continuous ambient air pollution monitoring
station’’. In addition, the monitoring equipment utilised in most of the sites
complied with the US-EPA and other internationally recognised standards.
However, lack of capacity and sufficient training in the field of air quality
monitoring were identified during the study. Proposed recommendations from
the study include;
•
•
•
•
•
The establishment of an intensive training programme for the training of
all air quality monitoring officials in all spheres of government.
Extension of current air quality monitoring initiatives in South Africa.
Putting in place a programme towards SANAS accreditation of all
government monitoring networks to ensure that credible and validated
data can be supplied to the SAAQIS.
An air quality monitoring strategy to identify key focus areas for air
quality monitoring in the country. This is even more crucial issue given
that air quality monitoring has been identified as a deliverable for
Outcome 10.
The development of the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) which will
be crucial in the generation of air quality information that can support
25
decision making and compliance monitoring in South Africa. The NRL will
also be used for ensuring traceability and standardisation of
measurements in the air quality monitoring field and capacity
development and guidance to all air quality monitoring networks in the
country (DEA, 2011).
Table 3: Pollutants measured at various government ambient air quality
monitoring stations (DEA, 2011)
Network
Number of
Stations
Measured Pollutants
Vaal Triangle Priority Area
(VTAPA)
6
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, Pb and
BTEX
Highveld Priority Area
5
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, Pb, Hg and
BTEX
Western Cape Province
3
PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, BTEX, Pb and VOCs
KwaZulu-Natal
6
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and H2S
Mpumalanga Province
4
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, CO, Pb,
Hg and BTEX
Limpopo
2
PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and CO2 (in Sekhukhune
DM) and SO2 in Capricorn DM
North West Province
7
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO, O3 and VOCs
Rustenburg Local
Municipality
3
PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, BTEX (at some of
the stations)
City of Johannesburg
7
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX
Ekurhuleni
9
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX (at
most of the stations)
City of Cape Town
12
PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, H2S and BTEX
Nelson Mandela Bay
3
PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX
City of Tshwane
5
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX
eThekwini
12
PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, TRS, BTEX
Msunduzi Local municipality
2
PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, H2S and BTEX
Mangaung Local Municipality
3
PM10, PM2.5, NOx and CO
Buffalo City
3
PM10, SO2, NOx, O3 and CO
Notes:
BTEX- Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylene
TRS- Total Reduced Sulphur
26
1.5.1 Monitored Pollutant Concentrations
1.5.1.1 Particulates
Annual ambient air PM10 concentrations recorded from the various monitoring
stations in the country are presented in Figure 20, Figure 21, Figure 22 and in
Tables A –D in Appendix A.
Elevated PM10 levels still occur in various parts of the country, exceeding the
annual PM10 ambient air quality standard, especially in residential household fuel
burning areas where multiple sources of fuel such as paraffin, coal and wood are
used for cooking and heating instead of electricity and gas. The use of these
multiple sources of fuels varies in the country depending largely on availability
and affordability. For example, in Gauteng, paraffin and coal are the most
common sources of fuel, while in Mpumalanga, coal is the most common
household source of energy due to its abundance and hence affordability. In the
coastal provinces such as Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, wood and paraffin
are the most common sources of fuel. In Limpopo province, wood is the most
common source of fuel. Elevated PM10 concentrations in excess of air quality
limits are also recorded in some industry monitoring sites. However, with proper
control equipment and abatement measures, it is expected that particulates from
industrial activities can be further reduced.
It is also evident that most of the exceedances of the PM10 annual standard
occur in the priority areas, hence re-affirming the declaration of these areas.
Particulates are therefore a cause of great national concern due to exceedances
of the NAAQS which are designed for the protection of the environment and
human health. This is especially a concern given that it is proposed that by
2020, air quality in all low income settlements should be in full compliance with
ambient air quality standards.
27
Measured PM10 concentrations at Johannesburg stations (DEA, 2011)
Measured concentrations of PM10 in Cape Town (DEA, 2011)
Measured PM10 concentrations at eThekwini stations (DEA, 2011)
Measured PM10 concentrations at the VTAPA stations (DEA, 2011)
Figure 20: Measured PM10 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the country
28
Figure 21: Measured PM10 concentrations at the Highveld Priority Area
monitoring stations (DEA, 2011)
Figure 22: PM10 trends for various monitoring stations in the country (DEA,
2011)
In summary, PM10 annual data from the various stations in the country indicates
that a small percentage of stations fall in the green zone (below 25 µg/m³)
(Figure 23). The implications are that continued and increased efforts are
required for the reduction of particulate concentrations to acceptable levels.
Figure 23: PM10 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011)
29
1.5.1.2 Sulphur dioxide
The annual ambient SO2 concentrations for various monitoring sites in the
country are presented in Figure 24, Figure 25, Figure 26 and in Tables A –D in
Appendix A. In the domestic fuel burning areas, the annual air quality standard
for SO2 are rarely exceeded except in Alexandra in Johannesburg. Although
concentrations of SO2 in some industrial sites at the Highveld Priority Area
exceed the SO2 annual air quality standard, significant improvements in the
reduction of SO2 emissions have been reported at Cape Town Metro (Figure 24),
eThekwini Metro and Richards Bay (Figure 26). However, contributions to SO2
emissions in the country vary according to industry types, raw materials and
location. Petrochemical, metallurgy, power generation, pulp and paper, ceramic
processes are some of the industrial processes that contribute to SO2 emissions.
Figure 24: Measured SO2 concentrations at Cape Town
Figure 25: Measured SO2 concentrations at Johannesburg (DEA, 2011)
30
Measured SO2 concentrations at the Vaal Triangle (DEA, 2011)
Measured SO2 concentrations at eThekwini (DEA, 2011)
Measured SO2 concentrations at the Highveld Priority Area (DEA,
2011)
Inter-annual comparison of RBCAA annual average SO2 (Annual
Ambient Air Quality Report, 2009)
Figure 26: Measured SO2 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the country
31
The assessment of all the SO2 data monitored from various stations indicates that
more stations are recording annual concentrations below 8.5ppb (Figure 27)
(DEA, 2011). This is an indication that there are significant improvements
towards SO2 reduction.
Figure 27: SO2 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011)
1.5.1.3 Nitrogen dioxide and Ozone
Air quality limits for NO2 and O3 are exceeded at road traffic-related sites, some
domestic fuel burning areas and industrial areas (Table B and Table C
respectively- Appendix A). NO2 and O3 concentrations are particularly high in the
busy traffic routes (highways and other busy roads) within metropolitan areas.
The increasing number of vehicles in the country is also expected to have an
impact on future traffic-related NO2 emissions.
1.5.2 National Air Quality Indicator
A National Air Quality Indicator (NAQI) has been proposed for South Africa. The
purposes of the NAQI are to;
• Monitor national progress in implementing AQA policy targets including
national compliance to air quality standards by 2020.
• Assess the condition and reflect nationally air quality trends
• Inform the objectives of the AQA (enhancement, protection, governance)
• Measurable indicators that are informed by goals
• Support tool for policy makers
• Raise public awareness and support
• Assist in the determination of the efficacy of interventions.
32
The proposed NAQI will be based on national monitoring of PM10 and SO2, which
are the most prevalent pollutants associated with bad air quality in the country.
Use of annual averages of PM10 and SO2 from all monitoring stations will be
made to determine the NAQI. Equal weightings for PM10 and SO2 that are linked
to the NAAQS will used to derive the NAQI (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers
Report on Air Quality Management, 2010).
Using this proposed methodology for the NAQI and data from 41 monitoring
stations across the country, indications are that the NAQI is in the vicinity of the
minimum quality level and is also above this level in the red zone (Figure 28).
This has been a cause of concern as the NAQI, (when superimposed on the
framework for the use and application of the standards or objective-based
approach shown in Figure 29), indicates a deterioration trend in air quality since
2000. However, this trend is largely (but not entirely) due to the addition of data
from identified pollution ‘hotspots’. There is however a possibility that after the
deterioration trend since 2000, the index may be reaching a plateau over the last
years (Figure 28). It is apparent that continued and increased efforts by various
stakeholders are required in order to meet the Presidential Outcome 10 target for
full air quality compliance by 2020 (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on
Air Quality Management, 2010).
Figure 28: The initial NAQI superimposed on the framework for the use and
application of the standards or objective-based approach to air quality
management (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on Air Quality
Management, 2010).
33
Figure 29: Framework for the use and application of the standards or objective
based approach to air quality management (DEA- The 2007 National
Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa, 2007).
While a national air quality indicator can be extremely useful in communicating
environmental information in a form that is easily understood to the public,
health and air pollution authorities, private sector, government officials,
regulators, academics etc, criticisms have been directed at the use of such an
indicator. The most common ones include;
• The national air quality indicator can be misleading as there is a
possibility of masking significant changes in pollutant trends; especially if
long term averaged data is used to determine the indicator (Hunt, 2006).
• The danger of information loss when multiple pollutants are combined
into a single index and hence suggestions that multiple air quality
indicators and indices should be developed for each criteria pollutant
(Hunt, 2006).
• In South Africa, concerns about the determination of the NAQI include
the exclusion of other criteria pollutants such as C6H6, CO, Pb, O3 and NO2
which raises issues of representativeness and comprehensiveness. The
exclusion of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) is also a major concern. The
addition of a component addressing HAPs can be considered in the
determination of the NAQI. Benzene, for example, is a suitable pollutant
to report on HAPs as it commonly occurs in ambient air and is currently
monitored in some ambient monitoring stations.
• Good quality data from a well-maintained and representative national
monitoring network is required for use in calculating the air quality
34
indicator. In South Africa, this could be a potential problem as air quality
data is not available for all areas, especially in air quality management
areas that currently have no ambient air quality monitoring activities
taking place.
The Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) conducted an initial assessment
of the current air quality status of various areas in the country which include the
metropolitan and district municipalities in South Africa based on available
information. The areas were rated as follows;
• Acceptable: generally good air quality
• Potentially Poor: air quality may be poor at times or deteriorating
• Poor: ambient air quality standards regularly exceeded
However, a robust and transparent methodology for identification of air quality
management areas in the country was developed taking into account national
circumstances. This methodology resulted in the development of an Air Quality
Impact Rating which takes into account the population density, industrial and
domestic emissions, topography and administrative boundaries (DEA, 2010). The
methodology acknowledges the scarcity of data and information required in the
identification of air quality management areas. The preliminary findings of the
DEA assessment and the developed methodology are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Metropolitan and District Municipalities Air Quality Ratings (DEA’s
Indicative Assessment, 2007) and Revised Air Quality Ratings (Scott, G, 2010)
Province
Gauteng
Metro
District/Municipality
Initial Air
Quality Rating
Revised Air
Quality Rating
Westonaria
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Mandeni
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
KwaDukuza
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Uthungulu DM
uMhlathuze
Poor
Potentially poor
Ugu
Umdoni
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Capricorn DM
Polokwane
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Vhembe
Thulamela
Acceptable
Potentially poor
West Rand
iLembe DM
KwaZulu-Natal
Local
Municipality
Limpopo
Madibeng
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Rustenburg
Poor
Potentially poor
Dr Kenneth Kaunda
City of Matlosana
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Frances Baard
Sol Plaatjie
Potentially poor
Potentially poor
Bojanala Platinum DM
North West
Northern Cape
35
However, despite the availability of continuous monitored data from the various
stations which make up the NAAQMN, there is limited air quality monitoring
capability in South Africa. In some areas in the country, no air quality monitoring
activities exist. As a consequence, it has become increasingly difficult to monitor,
verify and validate the air quality ratings of areas that are anticipated to have air
quality problems. These areas are identified in Table 24 of the 2007 National
Framework for Air Quality Management (NFAQM). However, with the
development of the NAQI and the finalisation of the Government –owned Air
Quality Monitoring Network Audit, the DEA has identified the need to develop an
air quality rating system based on robust data and information. The audit
confirmed the need to expand the current air quality monitoring network in the
country. Given the expensive nature of operating continuous air quality monitors,
a national passive sampling campaign targeting especially areas identified in
Table 24 of the NFAQM, has been identified as a cost effective means of
identifying of developing sound data and information.
1.6
Ambient Air Quality and Associated Effects
1.6.1 Health Risks
Humans can be adversely affected by exposure to air pollutants in ambient air
and these effects represent the impacts of air pollution. In response to this issue,
human health based standards and objectives for a number of air pollutants were
developed in South Africa. Air quality standards are pivotal tools in air quality
management. Associated with air quality standards are values which indicate safe
exposure levels for the majority of the population. Specific averaging periods
(generally 1 hour, 24 hour, 1 month, annual and instantaneous) are given for the
air quality standards and guidelines for various pollutants. The DEA developed
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for various criteria pollutants
such as PM10, SO2, NO2, Pb, O3 and CO (Table 5). The NAAQS apply over
differing periods of time because the observed health impacts associated with
each pollutant occur over different exposure times and the severity of health
outcomes associated with air pollution exposure is not uniform within
populations. In South Africa, the problem is exacerbated by the fact that
vulnerable communities reside on land in close proximity to pollution sources and
the relationship between air pollution, poverty and health is more evident.
36
Table 5: National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Criteria Pollutants
Pollutant
Sulphur
dioxide (SO2)
Averaging
Period
Concentration
Frequency of
Exceedance
Compliance Date
10-min average
500 µg/m (191ppb)
3
526
Immediate
1-hr average
350 µg/m (134 ppb)
3
88
Immediate
3
125 µg/m (48 ppb)
4
Immediate
3
50 µg/m (19 ppb)
0
Immediate
200 µg/m3 (106 ppb)
88
Immediate
24-hr average
Annual average
Nitrogen
dioxide (NO2)
1-hr average
Annual average
40 µg/m3 (21 ppb)
0
Immediate
Carbon
monoxide
(CO)
1-hr average
30 mg/m3 (26 ppm)
88
Immediate
8-hr
running
average
10 mg/m (8.7 ppm)
11
Immediate
8-hr
running
average
120 µg/m (61 ppb)
3
11
Immediate
4
Immediate- 31
December 2014
Ozone (O3)
3
120 µg/m
3
24-hr average
Particulate
Matter
(PM10)
75 µg/m
3
4
1 January 2015
50 µg/m
3
0
Immediate- 31
December 2014
40 µg/m
3
0
1 January 2015
3
0
Immediate
Annual average
Lead (Pb)
Annual average
0.5 µg/m
Benzene
(C6H6)
Annual average
10 µg/m (3.2 ppb)
Annual average
5µg/m (1.6 ppb)
3
3
37
Immediate- 31
December 2014
1 January 2015
Box 1.3: Links between Indoor Pollution, Poverty and Health
In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the close inter-relationship of domestic
energy use, health and poverty, with the later being a barrier in the transition to ‘cleaner’ sources
of fuel such as electricity and liquefied petroleum gas.
Summary of health and development issues associated with the use of domestic energy
in developing countries (WHO, 2002).
The reliance on biomass and coal as sources of domestic energy hinders development due to the
burdens on the health system, loss of time and opportunities for economic development. The lack
of access to more modern fuels also limits the quality of life. In some sub Saharan African
countries, 80-90% of the population still relies on biomass fuel and coal, with the use of domestic
sources of fuel on the increase, especially among the poor. In South Africa, a combination of fuels
is used in many households, for example coal and wood for heating and cooking, paraffin for
cooking, electricity for lighting. Although with development, it is expected that energy use will
follow a general transition pattern of energy use or ‘energy ladder’ towards fuels which are
progressively more efficient, this is not the case in most developing countries. For example, most
areas (poor, high density, informal settlements and rural areas) in South Africa, where domestic
fuels are commonly used, there is little prospect of completely switching the use of these fuels to
modern, ‘cleaner’ fuels such as electricity and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This is mainly due to
economic reasons such as lack of finance for these sources of fuel and hence for many households,
the prospects of completely switching the use of these fuels to modern fuels are limited or nonexistent.
Pollutants such as particulates (PM10 and PM2.5), CO, NO2, SO2, (mainly from coal), formaldehyde,
carcinogens such as benzene and benzo (a) pyrene are responsible for most of the health effects of
air pollution. A number of epidemiological studies from developing countries have reported on the
association between indoor air pollution exposure and acute respiratory diseases such as chronic
lung disease, asthma, bronchitis, chronic pulmonary disease, lung cancer, acute lower respiratory
infections (ALRI). ALRI is reported to be amongst the top four killers of South African children less
than five years old. The health effects of air pollution, especially chronic respiratory diseases, are
reported to be high among the poor who in most cases cannot afford the cost of medical attention.
38
Air pollution from the domestic sources of air pollution (coal, wood, paraffin etc)
has been described as the single largest contributor to the negative health
impacts of air pollution. This was confirmed by the Fund for Research into
Industrial Development, Growth and Equity (FRIDGE) Study, a study undertaken
to assess the social and economic impacts of phasing out ‘dirty’ fuels in South
Africa (FRIDGE, 2004).
A study was also undertaken in the country to estimate the burden of respiratory
ill health among children and adults in 2000 from exposure to indoor air pollution
associated with household use of solid fuels. The results of the study indicated
that exposure to solid fuels was estimated at 24% in the black African, followed
by 9% in the coloured and about 1% in both the Indian and white population
groups (Table 6).
Table 6: Exposure to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels by
population group, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007)
The results of the study also indicated that in the year 2000 in South Africa,
about 24% of the burden from Acute Lower Respiratory Infections (ALRIs) in
children under 5 years was attributable to indoor air pollution from household
use of solid fuels (Norman et al, 2007). For chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), female population attributable fractions (PAFs), were more than
double those in males. Indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels was
estimated to cause 2489 deaths of all deaths in South Africa in 2000. Since most
indoor smoke-related respiratory diseases events occurred in very young children
or in middle or old age, the loss of healthy life years comprised a slightly smaller
proportion of the total: 60934 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). The age
standardised indoor air pollution attributable mortality rates by population group
are presented in Table 7. Large population group differences were observed,
with the highest rates seen in black African males and females, followed by
coloured males and females (Figure 30). The Indian and white population groups
showed very low rates. Adult women were observed to have increased risk
compared to adult men (Figure 30). Nationally, the burden of disease attributed
to the use of household solid fuels is dominated by the burden caused by ALRIs
39
in children under 5 years of age, which accounts for almost 80% of the total
attributable burden (Figure 31). COPD accounts for almost all of the remainder,
with lung cancer burden a relatively minor contributor (Norman et al, 2007).
Table 7: Burden attributable to indoor pollution from household use of solid
fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007)
Figure 30: Age-standardised indoor air pollution attributable mortality rates
by population group and sex, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007)
Figure 31: Burden of disease attributable to indoor air pollution from
household use of solid fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007)
40
A similar study was also undertaken to estimate the burden of disease
attributable to urban outdoor air pollution in South Africa for the year 2000.
Outdoor air pollution in urban areas was estimated to cause 3.7% of the total
mortality from cardiopulmonary (heart and lung) disease in adults aged 30 years
and older, 5.1% of mortality attributable to cancers of the tranchea (windpipe),
bronchus and lung in adults, and 1.1% of mortality from acute respiratory
infections (ARIs) in children under 5 years of age. This amounts to an estimated
4637 deaths or 0.9% of all deaths and 42 219 or 0.4% years of life lost (YLLs) of
all YLLs in persons in South Africa in 2000 (Table 8). The results of the study also
showed that most of the YLLs (86.3%) attributable to exposure to urban outdoor
pollution are due to cardiopulmonary mortality in adults aged 30 years and older
(Figure 32) (Norman et al, 2007). Lung cancer mortality in adults (8.5%) and
ARIs in children under 5 years of age (5.2%) accounted for much smaller
proportions of the total attributable burden (Figure 32).
Table 8: Summary of mortality burden attributable to urban outdoor air
pollution, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007)
41
Figure 32: Years of life lost attributable to urban outdoor air pollution, South
Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007).
One of the health studies undertaken in the country is the South Durban Health
Study. The study included South Durban (Bluff (Dirkie Uys), Merebank (Nizam),
Wentworth/Austerville (Assegai), Lamontville (Entuthekwini) North Durban:
KwaMashu (Ngazana), Newlands East (Ferndale) and Newlands West (Briardale).
The research estimated lifetime cancer risks (Figure 33) from inhalation and this
was above guideline levels at Wentworth and the largest risks were posed by;
• VOCs especially benzene - Major sources included point and fugitive
releases from petroleum refining, storage & distribution facilities, and
vehicle emissions.
• Semi-volatile compounds - dioxins, furans, PAHs and naphthalene. Major
sources included biomass/waste burning, diesel, large “point” sources
(incinerators).
• Metals - chromium, nickel, lead, and manganese.
According to the study, the non-cancer risks were below significance level for
most of the measured toxic compounds (Figure 34). The most important air
toxics included manganese, benzene, p,m-xylene, phenanthrene, and
naphthalene. Lead remains a concern since a higher than desirable fraction of
children have blood lead levels above guidelines. Other main findings of the
study indicated that attending primary school in South Durban, as compared to
the north, was significantly associated with increased risk for persistent asthma
and for marked airway hyperactivity (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). Higher
outdoor concentrations of NO2, NO, PM10, and SO2 were strongly and
significantly associated with poorer lung function on following days among
42
children with persistent asthma and children with certain genes (Figure 35). For
adults, living in communities in the south, as compared to the north was
significantly associated with hayfever, and somewhat associated with chronic
bronchitis, wheezing with shortness of breath, and hypertension (Figure 36).
Figure 33: Total cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005)
Figure 34: Total non-cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins,
2005)
43
Figure 35: Adjusted prevalences for respiratory outcomes by school
(Prevalences adjusted for age, gender, race, education, annual household
income, and school (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005).
Figure 36: Adjusted prevalences for adult health outcomes by community
(Predicted prevalences have been adjusted by the following covariates: age,
gender, race/ethnicity, education, current smoker, and community (Batterman
and BatterRobins, 2005).
1.6.2 Plants and Animals
Air pollution also has effects on plants and animals although limited research on
these effects has been undertaken in South Africa. The most common pollutants
44
which have got adverse effects on plants include SO2, fluoride, chlorine, ozone
and ethylene. The effects of pollution in plants include “burning” at leaf tips or
margins, stunted growth, premature leaf growth, delayed maturity, early drop of
blossoms and reduced yield or quality. In general, the three most common visible
injuries to plants include collapse of the leaf tissue with the development of
necrotic patterns, yellowing or other colour changes and premature loss of
foliage and alterations in growth (Enviropedia, 2011). However, complicating
issues is the fact that injuries or damages to plants from air pollution can be
confused with the symptoms caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes,
insects, nutritional deficiencies and toxicities, environmental factors such as
temperature, wind and water. Other pollutants such as SO2, NO2 and CO2 can
dissolve in water to form acid rain. Depending on the pH level, effects of acid rain
can range from plant damage to plant death, depending on concentration and
period of exposure to toxins. Entire ecosystems are also in danger because of
changes in soil chemistry (Enviropedia, 2011).
Damage to plants caused by air pollution is most common close to large urban
areas and industrial areas such as power generation plants, smelters,
incinerators, landfill sites, pulp and paper mills, fossil fuel burning etc. The extent
of damage of vegetation by plants depends on the type and concentration of
pollutants, distance from the source, length of exposure and meteorological
conditions.
Air pollution has also been identified as a major contributor to degradation of
vegetation and desertification, in addition to climatic changes and overexploitation of natural resources in Africa. In South Africa, a study was
undertaken which indicated that the organic compound tichloroacetic acid (TCA),
which originates in an enhanced presence of several C2-chlorohydrocarbons (C2CHCs) in the atmosphere (Weissflog et al, 2004). During the study, the burden
on vegetation resulting from C2-CHCs pollutants was assessed by sampling the
concentration of TCA in pine needles along a 600 km air pollution gradient
ranging from highly industrialized areas in Gauteng to rural areas in the Eastern
part of South Africa. Parallel measurement of the TCA content of pine needles
and their vitality over an air pollution gradient ranging from Potschefstroom
eastwards towards Sasolburg and further south in the direction of Heilbron,
revealed a decline in the TCA content of the needles with increasing distance
from Sasolburg in the Vaal Triangle, a ‘hot spot’ of anthropogenic air pollution in
South Africa.
Studies in South Africa and Russia have shown that large vegetation fires lead to
a substantial increase in the C2-chlorohydrocarbon content of needles of pine
trees growing on the side of the fire zone (Weissflog et al, 2004).
45
Animals are exposed to air pollutants through three pathways which are the
inhalation of gases or small particles, ingestion of particles suspended in food or
water and absorption of gases through the skin. Pollutants such as O3, SO2 and
NO2 primarily affect the respiratory system. Heavy metals (e.g. lead, arsenic, and
cadmium) are emitted from various operations such as smelters. Metals may
affect the circulatory, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems
of animals. The most affected organs are the kidney, liver, and brain. Entire
populations can be affected as metal contamination can cause changes in birth,
growth, and death rates (www.air-quality.org.uk, 2011). Acid rain has effects on
animals, can lead to a decline in, and loss of, fish populations and amphibians.
Although birds and mammals are not directly affected by water acidification, they
are indirectly affected by change in the quantity and quality of their food
resources (www.air-quality.org.uk, 2011).
1.7
Regional and Global Issues
1.7.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds of anthropogenic
origin that resist degradation and accumulate in the fatty tissue of living
organisms including humans, and are found at higher concentrations at higher
levels in the food chain (WHO, 2003). These pollutants can be transported over
long distances in the atmosphere and this trans-boundary transportation results
in the widespread global distribution to regions where these substances have
never been used. The toxicity of POPs and the threat they pose to human
health, other living organisms and the environment, has resulted in a global
response to these chemicals in recent years (WHO, 2003). The Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is one such global response to POPs.
It is essentially a global treaty to protect human health and the environment
from POPs. Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as the causal agents of
adverse effects on humans and the environment. These were placed in three
categories which include:
• Pesticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane( DDT) and chlordane
• Industrials chemicals
• Chemical by- products such as dioxins and furans which are
produced from combustion processes such as waste incineration and
industrial processes.
However, nine additional chemicals have been listed as POPs and other
chemicals are under review for classification as POPs by the POPs Review
Committee.
46
Box 1.4: Africa Stockpile Programme: Achievements in South Africa
In response to the problems of pesticides in Africa, The African Stockpiles Programme (ASP) was
initiated for the clean up and safe disposal of over 50,000 tonnes of obsolete pesticide waste
stockpiled across Africa (http://www.africastockpiles.net, 2011).
In South Africa, a decision was made to implement a pilot collection and inventory exercise in the
Limpopo province as the province has a strong agricultural sector. As part of this exercise in the
province, a strategy was developed in co-operation with farmers’ cooperatives and pesticide
distributors for the delivery of obsolete pesticides from farms to the network of existing pesticide
distribution centres in the province. A total of 24 centres were established and adequate safety
and containment for stocks upon delivery was provided. Information was also provided to
farmers on how to safely package and transport the stocks and a comprehensive communication
and awareness campaign was initiated (http://www.fao.org, 2011). The collection phase of this
project took place for a period of 60 days and at the end of this period, stocks were in the main
storage location. A total number of between 60-80 tonnes of stocks have been collected from
various farms and provincial sectors in Limpopo. Current project activities in the province include
the completion of an inventory of these stocks and thereafter the repackaging of the pesticides
for safe interim storage before suitable disposal (http://www.fao.org, 2011). The collection phase
of the project has been considered a huge success and an indication of multi-stakeholder
cooperation among national and provincial government departments, pesticide industry, NGO
groups and farmers.
Stocks of obsolete pesticide stocks in
Limpopo (http://www.fao.org, 2011)
Stocks of betadine in Limpopo
(http://www.fao.org, 2011)
On the basis, of the obsolete pesticide collection campaign undertaken in Limpopo Province, it is
estimated that there is sufficient funding from the World Bank grant to collect obsolete stocks
from two additional provinces, after which the pesticide industry will collect pesticides from the
remaining provinces. In consultation with the pesticide industry, a decision has been taken to
collect stocks from the Free State and Western Cape Provinces and pre-identified stocks already
held in storage by the pesticide industry. The Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Association
of South Africa (AVCASA), has committed to providing a long term sustainable solution to
unwanted pesticide and empty container management. The DEA has embarked on a process to
collect and dispose of these obsolete stocks from the two provinces.
Challenges
The main challenges for the project so far include financial constraints in some areas and the
large scale of the project. This effectively means that obsolete pesticides will not be cleared in all
countries simultaneously, but in various phases.
47
Concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been rarely
measured in urban Africa communities. Combustion processes can generate
many POPs, e.g., polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and atmospheric
transport is often the primary route transporting these contaminants into the
environment (Batterman et al, 2007). For airborne PCDDs, recent inventories
show that the largest single category contributor of emissions is uncontrolled
combustion processes, e.g., biomass burning (forest, grassland, crop residue),
waste burning, and accidental domestic/industrial fires (Batterman et al, 2007).
There is currently no comprehensive monitoring program to monitor POPs in
South Africa. However, in line with the requirements of the Stockholm
Convention for establishing baseline trends at global background sites, two
programmes monitoring POPS in the environment were set up for the African
region. These programmes are the Global Passive Sampling Programme and
MONET Africa. South Africa was a participant in both monitoring programmes
and three sampling sites were selected in the country. These include Molopo
Nature Reserve- a background site with no industrial sources, Barberspan another non-industrial rural background area and Vanderbijlpark- an industrial
site affected by the iron and steel manufacturing, petrochemical plant, power
plant and coal mining within a 20 km radius (DEA, 2011). The Molopo Nature
Reserve was sampled for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Mirex, Chlordane, DDT and
Heptachlor while the Vanderbijlpark and Barberspan sites were sampled for DDT
and PCBs. Molopo Nature Reserve and Barberspan showed very little air pollution
(not detectable- ND) (Table 9). Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Mirex, Chlordane, and
Heptachlor emissions were below the Limit of Quantification (LOQ). The levels of
DDT were quantifiable, but the levels were very low (DEA, 2011).
Table 9: POPs Monitoring Results from the GAP Study (DEA, 2011)
Determinants
Molopo site
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Mirex
Chlordane
DDT
Min
ng/filter
<LOQ
<LOQ
<LOQ
<LOQ
<LOQ
1.1
Max
ng/filter
<LOQ
<LOQ
<LOQ
<LOQ
<LOQ
3.1
Heptachlor
<LOQ
<LOQ
Barberspan site
Vanderbijlpark site
Min
ng/filter
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
1.0
Max
ng/filter
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
5.5
Min
ng/filter
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
1.5
Max
ng/filter
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
6.5
ND
ND
ND
ND
48
In South Africa, an extensive ambient air monitoring programme was also
undertaken in Durban (eThekwini Municipality). The monitoring programme
focused on the South Durban Industrial Basin, an area with one of the highest
industrial concentrations in South Africa and Africa (Figure 37) (Batterman et al,
2007). Industrial activities in the SDIB include petroleum refineries, a paper mill,
international airport, landfill sites, incinerators, processing and manufacturing
industries, harbour and rail facilities, major tracking and other industries. In most
cases, residential areas (low income households) are generally located close to
these industrial activities (Batterman et al, 2007).
Figure 37: Air pollution emissions in South Durban Industrial Basin (Batterman
and BatterRobins, 2005)
Monitoring was conducted for PCCDs, PCDF and PCBs at three sites: Nizam in the
southern part of SDIB, Wentworth in the central portion of the SDIB and
Ferndale in an urban community located approximately 20 km north with
Durban’s central business district lying between these areas. The results of the
monitoring campaign indicated that the average levels of PCDFs at the sites were
fairly uniform, within about 50%, and the Wentworth site tended to have the
highest concentrations of 5 most congeners (Figure 38). PCDDs showed
somewhat greater site-to-site variation, and Nizam had the highest levels of most
congeners. PCDFs Hx234678 and Pe23478 contributed the most toxicity in the
collected samples. All of the PCDDs and PCDFs were found predominantly in the
particulate phase. In contrast, PCBs were found predominantly in the vapour
phase, and the highest levels were found at the central Wentworth site
(Batterman et al, 2007).
49
Figure 38: Comparison of PCDD/PCDF (left) and PCB (right) concentrations
expressed as TEQs at three sites in Durban (Batterman et al, 2007).
Humans can be exposed to POPs through diet, occupation, accidents and the
environment, including the indoor environment. Exposure to POPs, either acute
or chronic, can be associated with a wide range of adverse health effects,
including illness and death. Human acute exposure to dioxins and furans can
occur, for example, in the occupational setting - herbicide production, industrial
accidents or chemical fires -, and through burning of garbage in dump areas.
According to recent data from poisons centres from different parts of the world,
cases of organochlorine pesticide poisoning are still occurring, and are mainly
due to aldrin, dieldrin, HCB and chlordane. The greatest part of human exposure
to the specified POPs is attributed to the food chain (Stober, 1998).
Contamination of food may occur through environmental pollution of the air,
water and soil, or through the previous use or unauthorized use of
organochlorine pesticides on food crops. Episodes of massive food contamination
have been reported. Some chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides have been
known to be the cause of many serious, acute poisonings. This particularly refers
to endrin, aldrin and dieldrin (Stober, 1998).
The contamination of food, including breast milk, by POPs is a worldwide
phenomenon. A number of incidents of acute toxic effects in humans, including
death, have occurred as a result of contaminated food. Edible oils and foods of
animal origin are most often involved. Short-term exposure to high
concentrations of certain POPs has been shown to result in illness and death.
Studies of carcinogenesis associated with occupational exposure to 2.3.7.82.3.7.8 tetrachlordibenzodioxin (TCDD) also seem to indicate that extremely
high-level exposures of human populations do elevate overall cancer incidence
(Ritter et al, 1996). Laboratory studies provide convincing supporting evidence
50
that selected organochlorine chemicals (dioxins and furans) may have
carcinogenic effects and act as strong tumour promoters. More recently,
literature has been accumulating in which some researchers have suggested a
possible relationship between exposure to some POPs and human disease and
reproductive dysfunction (Ritter et al, 1996).
1.7.2 Transboundary Transportation of Pollutants
Pollutants emitted from natural or anthropogenic sources to the atmosphere may
be transported over short or long distances, with global dispersion resulting in
ultra-long range transport. The air pollutants cross geographical boundaries or
migrate across several geographic zones and the pollution is hence referred to as
transboundary. Since the atmosphere is a shared resource, concerns have arisen
from the effects of this trans-boundary pollution which is capable of affecting
systems at a regional scale.
A broad range of pollutants have been described to share the common
phenomena of transboundary transport. Research shows that transboundary
transport occurs either because the pollutants have very low deposition velocities
(for example pollutants associated with haze and fine particulate matter), or an
extended period of time is required for the pollutant to develop from the
precursor compounds (smog, acid rain) or are chemically inert (mercury) or go
through a multi pathways as in the case of POPs. There are two major challenges
with transboundary pollutants and these include the international cooperation
required to address them and the provision of appropriate data upon which
reduction decisions can be made.
In South Africa, air pollution from the Mpumalanga Highveld is still a major
concern, especially given the large proportion of the industrial infrastructure that
is concentrated on the Highveld Plateau. The Highveld region accounts for the
majority of air pollutants (industrial particulates, SO2 and NOX) (Freiman and
Piketh, 2002). Due to the presence of mercury in coal, the Mpumalanga Highveld
is a potential significant source of this pollutant due to the majority of coal fired
electricity generation plants located in this region. Emissions from the Zambian
copper belt are still a significant source of aerosols over southern Africa (Meter et
al. 1999). Southern African transport reaching the Highveld frequently carries
previously injected industrial aerosols and trace gases (D’Abreton and Tyson
1996; Piketh et al. 1998).
The role of biomass burning emissions in contributing to the air pollution loads
cannot be underestimated. Biomass burning is an important source in long-range
51
transport of air pollution. Biomass burning is dependent on seasons and is
therefore a highly seasonal source. The biomass burning season starts near the
equator around June and moves southward where it reaches maximum intensity
in Southern Africa around September (Figure 39). Associated with biomass
burning is the long-range transport of both aerosols and trace gases across the
subcontinent.
Figure 39: Seasonal atmospheric transport from Zambia over the southern
Africa subcontinent (North West Air Quality Management Plan, 2009)
1.7.3 Acid Deposition
Acidic deposition occurs when emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and
other industrial processes undergo complex chemical reactions in the atmosphere
and are deposited as wet deposition and dry deposition. The main chemical
precursors leading to acidic conditions are atmospheric concentrations of SO2 and
NOx (Ecological Society of America, 2000).
In South Africa, the industrial Highveld plateau is still considered as a significant
source of pollutants associated with acid deposition and accounts for
approximately 90% of South Africa’s scheduled emissions of industrial dust, SO2
and NOx (Wells et al., 1996 as cited in Josipovic, 2009). In addition to primary
pollutants, a major secondary pollutant, O3, is formed from naturally occurring
52
and anthropogenic chemical precursors, including NOx and VOCs that can be
emitted from by industry (Josipovic, 2009).
Research on acid deposition has been limited in the country. However, a widely
referenced research study on acid deposition was undertaken in the country and
is referenced in the 2005 State of Air Report. As part of this study, a passive
monitoring network was devised to measure monthly mean atmospheric
concentrations of three trace gas species, SO2, NO2 and O3 in the Highveld
region. Total dry and wet deposition estimates for sulphur and nitrogen
compounds were based on the concentrations of these pollutants. The network
comprised of 37 monitoring sites at remote locations over the northern and
eastern portions of South Africa, at 1° grid intervals (0.5° for several sites)
(Figure 40).
Figure 40: The passive diffusive sampling network distribution [with locations
of wet chemistry deposition sites (green lettering) in relation to this study
sites (black and green lettering) (Josipovic, 2009).
The results of the research study indicated that concentration distributions for
acidic gases SO2 and NO2 show prevailing high concentrations over the industrial
Highveld. Acidic deposition distributions showed a direct relationship to high
atmospheric concentration distributions (Figure 41).
53
Figure 41: Total (dry plus wet) acidic deposition rates (meq/m2 per year
(Josipovic, 2009).
Acid rain affects plants, animals and produces complex changes in normal soil
chemistry and causes staining and chemical corrosion of buildings and
monuments resulting in high economic costs.
1.7.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
The ozone layer is a belt of naturally occurring ozone gas that is located
approximately 15 to 30 kilometres above the earth and serves as a shield from
the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted by the sun. There is widespread
concern that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution
containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioration allows large
amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth, which can cause skin cancer and
cataracts in humans and harm animals as well.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray aerosols heavily
used by industrialised nations for much of the past 50 years, are the primary
culprits in the breakdown of the ozone layer. Halons and other chemicals that are
used in refrigerators, spray cans, air conditioners are also sources of ozone
depleting substances (ODS). The presence of CFCs in the atmosphere results in
the breakdown of the ozone layer. This is because in the upper atmosphere,
CFCs are exposed to ultraviolet rays, which causes them to break down into
substances that include chlorine. The chlorine reacts with the oxygen atoms in
ozone and destroys the ozone molecule. According to the United States
54
Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA), one atom of chlorine can destroy
more than a hundred thousand ozone molecules. The ozone layer above the
Antarctic has been particularly impacted by pollution since the mid-1980s
(National Geographic, 2011). This region’s low temperatures speed up the
conversion of CFCs to chlorine. In summer, when the sun shines for long periods
of the day, chlorine reacts with ultraviolet rays, destroying ozone on a massive
scale, by up to 65 percent (National Geographic, 2011).
Stratospheric ozone destruction is an essentially separate process from GHG
accumulation in the lower atmosphere although there are several important and
interesting connections. Several of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases (for
example CFCs and N2O) are also ozone depleting gases. Tropospheric warming
apparently induces stratospheric cooling that exacerbates ozone destruction
(Shindell et al, 1998 and Kirk- Davidoff et al, 1999). As more of Earth’s radiant
heat is trapped in the lower atmosphere, the stratosphere cools further,
enhancing the catalytic destruction of ozone. Further, that loss of ozone itself
augments the cooling of the stratosphere. Interactions between climate change
and stratospheric ozone may delay recovery of the ozone layer by 15–20 years
(Kelfkens et al, 2002). The depletion of stratospheric ozone and global warming
due to the build-up of greenhouse gases interact to alter UVR related effects on
health (Kelfkens et al, 2002).
1.7.4.1 Consumption of Ozone- Depleting Substances
The consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) is a major global
environmental concern. Although the consumption of several ozone- depleting
substances in South Africa decreased from 1998 to 2002, the analysis for the
period June 2004 to June 2009, highlights the fact that hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) dominate consumption at approximately 25,759 tons (81.4%) of total
ODS consumed during the period 2004 to 2009 (Table 10 and Figure 42) (DEA,
2009). This is followed by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) at 3,439 tons (10.9%).
Hydrofluorocarbon blends (HFC blends) are in third place with 1,089 tons
(3.4%). Methyl bromide (MeBr) follows with 747 tons (2.4%) and
bromochloromethane (BCM) at 624 tons (2%). Since the previous DEA report on
this issue, HFC blends have overtaken MeBr consumption as a result of
consumers exploring alternatives to HCFCs (DEA, 2009). It is anticipated that the
consumption of both HFC and HFC blends will continue to rise due to the above
mentioned reason. From the climate change point of view, this has serious
environmental implications as these substances have high global warming
potentials (GWPs). Figure 51 shows that HCFC-22 is the most consumed ODS in
South Africa.
55
Table 10: Consumption of ODS in South Africa (June 2004- June 2009) (DEA,
2009)
56
Figure 42: Ozone depleting substances consumption trends in South Africa
(June 2004- June 2009) (DEA, 2009)
1.7.4.2 Effects of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
There is a range of certain or possible health impacts of stratospheric ozone
depletion. Many epidemiological studies have implicated solar radiation as a
cause of skin cancer (melanoma and other types). Assessments by the United
Nations Environment Program (1998) projected significant increases in skin
cancer incidence due to stratospheric ozone depletion (UNEP, 1998). The
assessment anticipates that for at least the first half of the twenty first century
(and subject to changes in individual behaviours) additional ultraviolet radiation
exposure will augment the severity of sunburn and incidence of skin cancer. High
intensity UVR also damages the eye’s outer tissues causing “snow blindness”, the
ocular equivalent of sunburn (UNEP, 1998).
Research also shows that the incidence of skin cancer, has been increasing
steadily in some populations over the past few decades (Armstrong and Kricker,
1994).This is particularly evident in areas of high ultraviolet radiation, particularly
ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure such as South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
Research studies also indicate that ultraviolet radiation suppresses components
57
of both local and systemic immune functioning. An increase in ultraviolet
radiation exposure therefore may increase the occurrence and severity of
infectious diseases and, in contrast, reduce the incidence and severity of various
autoimmune disorders. There has been concern that increased exposure to ultra
violet radiation due to stratospheric ozone depletion could hamper the
effectiveness of vaccines, particularly, measles and hepatitis. Eye disorders are
also expected to increase due to exposure particularly to UVB (UNEP, 1998).
South Africa has very high levels of solar radiation) over twice that of Europe and
1.5 times higher than in the United States making it one of the highest in the
world (Eumas et al, 2006). Proximity to the equator and with much of the
country lying at a high altitude, the natural level of ultraviolet intensity is high,
particularly in summer. As in any part of the world, UVB in our region is affected
by many factors that are of temporal, geographical and meteorological in nature.
Currently, there are six stations for monitoring UVB radiation. The stations are
located in Pretoria, Cape Town, Durban, MEDUNSA north of Pretoria, Cape Point,
De Aar and Port Elizabeth. The main purpose of the UVB network is to create and
enhance public awareness and provide real time information of the hazard of
exposure to biologically active UVB radiation reported using the ‘sunburning’ or
erythemally weighted radiation (UVEry) (McKenzie et al, 2004). The UVI is the
maximum amount of UV radiation to reach the earth’s surface at solar noon that is when the sun is at its highest angle in the sky (Ncongwane and Coetzee,
2010). The UVI values and exposure categories with the corresponding colour
codes are shown in Figure 43.
Figure 43: UVI values and exposure categories with corresponding colour
codes (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010)
The monthly maximum UVB levels occur in January and the minimum levels in
June. A comparison of the stations indicates that UVB levels in De Aar are the
highest while Port Elizabeth is the lowest. UVB levels in Pretoria are second
highest, followed by Durban, Cape Town International and Cape Point (Figure
44).
58
The use of the UV Index indicates that maximum UVB levels for all stations
except Port Elizabeth lie within the extreme exposure category. 66% of the UVB
levels recorded annually in this station lie in the high exposure category.
Maximum UVB levels in Port Elizabeth lie within the high exposure category, and
are comparably very low when compared to the other five stations. Extreme UVB
levels are observed in De Aar with UVI reaching values of 11 very frequently
(Figure 45).
There is similar correlation in the seasonal and annual variation in UVB radiation
levels among all the stations. The strong contrast of annual variation (high
summer – low winters) have important implications on health and other aspects.
Figure 44: Average maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010)
Figure 45: Maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010)
Given the detrimental health effects of excess personal solar UV radiation
exposure which include sunburn and skin cancer, a research study was
undertaken in South Africa on the effects of UV radiation on school going
children (Coetzee et al, 2011). The study involved the estimation of national
potential child sunburn risk patterns, monitored ambient solar. UV radiation levels
59
at six sites in South Africa were converted into possible schoolchild solar UV
radiation exposures by calculating the theoretical child exposure to 5% of the
total daily ambient solar UV radiation as derived from personal child exposure
studies. The results indicated that school-going children with skin types I, II and
III had the greatest risk of sunburn (Coetzee et al, 2011) (Figure 46 and Figure
47). There were 44 and 99 days in a year when schoolchildren with skin type III
(moderately sensitive) living in Durban and De Aar, respectively, would be likely
to experience sunburn. Schoolchildren with skin type I (extremely sensitive) were
at risk of experiencing sunburn on 166 days in De Aar, and those with skin types
I and II were at risk on at least 1 day per year at all six locations. Seasonal
patterns show that schoolchildren with sensitive skin types may experience
sunburn in spring, summer and autumn months. Differences in child sunburn risk
were evident, mainly due to latitude and atmospheric aerosols (Coetzee et al,
2011) (Figure 48).
Figure 46: Potential total daily child solar UV radiation exposure at Pretoria,
Durban, Cape Town, Cape Point, De Aar and Port Elizabeth (SED= standard
erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011)
60
Figure 47: Ambient 1 hour solar UV radiation exposure for midday maximum
between 12h00 and 13h00 at six monitoring stations across South Africa in
2006 (SED= standard erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011)
Figure 48: Total number of days per season that school children of varying
skin types may be at risk of experiencing sunburn from excess solar UV
radiation exposure depending on activity and sun protection, using an
estimated personal exposure of 5% of the total daily ambient solar UV
radiation levels (Coetzee et al, 2011)
Ozone depletion is also expected to have an effect on plants and other forms of
biodiversity although research studies in this field are limited. However, in one of
the research studies undertaken in the country, spatial and temporal changes in
South African solar UVB exposure were modelled using ozone, relative humidity,
cloud amount and elevation data. Computations indicated large natural gradients
61
in UV-B exposure ranging from a 34.2% change over 14° of latitude to a 44.2%
change over 16° of longitude (Musil et al, 2010). Modelling of future scenarios in
annual UVB exposure indicated small increases ranging from 2.5% in the year
2003 (best-case ozone depletion scenario) to 8.1% in the year 2051 (worst-case
ozone-depletion scenario) (Figure 49). Notable were substantial increases in
intra-annual variability in UVB radiation with ozone depletion. Exposure exhibited
a 12% increase during late autumn (May) in the year 2003 and a 35% increase
during this season in the year 2051. Taxonomic, life form and functional
attributes were analyzed in 2146 threatened (rare, endangered, vulnerable)
species and their distributions compared with modeled spatial and temporal UV-B
distribution patterns (Musil et al, 2010). The high fractions of evergreen and
succulent life forms and geophytes, present among threatened taxa, indicated a
high degree of physiological resilience to increased solar UVB stress, though
some vegetation such as trees, appear relatively less resistant. Reductions in per
capita reproductive output and overall plant fitness were indicated in some plant
functional types, e.g. herbaceous annuals, which may lead to altered patterns of
species coexistence, floristic composition and diversity (Musil et al, 2010).
Figure 49: Extrapolated intra annual changes in biologically weighted UVB
exposure over the period 1979-2003 and those modelled for 2051 (Musil et al,
2010).
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1.7.4.3
Responses to stratospheric ozone depletion
About 90 percent of CFCs currently in the atmosphere were emitted by
industrialised countries in the Northern Hemisphere. The international response
to CFCS was initiated in the mid-1980s, with various governments, responding to
the emerging problem of ozone destruction. International responses include the
Montreal Protocol of 1987, followed by the London (1990), Copenhagen (1992),
Vienna (1995), another Montreal (1997), and Beijing (1999) amendments. The
effect of these agreements was that by 2003, the total annual global
fluorocarbon production came down to below the production levels of 1969.
These countries banned CFCs by 1996, and the amount of chlorine in the
atmosphere is believed to be decreasing. The latest synthesis report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that the ozone layer will
slowly recover over the next 50 years, and the Antarctic hole will slowly recover.
South Africa acceded both to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer in 1990, and to the London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol in 1992.
South Africa has also developed an Ozone Layer Protection Strategy as a
response measure necessary to mitigate ozone layer depletion. The DEA has
started the process of developing a national strategy for phasing out ozonedepleting substances and is formulating a full phase-out plan for methyl bromide.
1.8
Emerging and Pressing Air Quality Issues
South Africa already faces various air pollution challenges which include
persistent issues such as domestic fuel burning and industrial emissions. In
addition to these problems, the country faces other pressing emerging air quality
issues. These emerging issues include waste disposal emissions, tyre burning
emissions, emissions from filling stations, small boilers, asphalt plants and
emerging priority pollutants such as dioxins and furans, formaldehyde and poly
aromatic hydrocarbons.
1.8.1 Mercury Emissions
Mercury (Hg) is a transboundary pollutant which has both natural and
anthrpogenic sources. Important human activities that result in mercury release
include Hg coal combustion, waste incineration, cement production and ferrous
metals production. However, despite the identification of the important sources
of mercury in South Africa and other Southern African countries, information on
specific Hg sources and concentrations in the region is poorly understood.
63
(Leaner et al, 2009). For example, South Africa is a major producer of a variety
of metals such as gold, platinum, lead and zinc. Although the production of these
minerals and materials is known to contribute to Hg Pollution, detailed Hg
emissions inventories for these sources is not available (Leaner et al, 2009).
Attempts have however been made by various stakeholders in South Africa to
quantify emissions of Hg from various sources. For example, limited Hg inventory
and development and monitoring have been undertaken through the South
African Mercury Assessment Programme (SAMA).
Based on calculations and analysis of different Hg source categories, coal
consumption by coal-fired power plants was identified as the largest potential
source of Hg emissions, especially given the fact that the country is a major
producer and consumer of coal (Figure 50) (DME, 2003). Most of the coal fired
power plants and the coal mines that supply coal to these power plants are
located in the Highveld. However, coal-fired power plants have air pollution
control devices (APCDs) such as fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators
(ESPs) for particulate control. Some of these devices have some impact on
mercury speciation and emissions (Senior, 2000). Removal of mercury in the
APCD depends on chlorine content, temperature and type of particulate control
device. In some cases, the composition of the gas and of the ash may also have
an effect on mercury speciation and removal. If there is mercury in the
particulate phase at the inlet to an ESP or fabric filter, these devices will remove
it efficiently (Senior, 2001).
Figure 50: Average atmospheric Hg emissions (1 metric ton= 1 Mg) estimated
for different source categories in South Africa during 2004
64
Cement production, coal gasification, non-ferrous metals production and fuel
production, crude oil refining, coal combustion in residential heating, non-ferrous
metals production and medical waste incineration are some of the significant Hg
source categories identified in South Africa. The total atmospheric Hg emissions
from all potential sources in South Africa in 2004 were estimated to be about
40Mg (Figure 50) (Leaner et al, 2009).
Once mercury has reached surface waters or soils, micro organisms can convert
it to methyl mercury, which is absorbed faster by most organisms and is known
to cause nerve damage. Fish absorb great amounts of methyl mercury from
surface waters leading to bioaccumulation in fish and in the food chains that they
are part of. Mercury has effects on animals and causes kidneys damage, stomach
disruption, intestinal damage, reproductive failure and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) alteration. Mercury also has a number of effects on humans and the main
effects include the disruption of the nervous system, damage to brain functions,
damage to DNA and chromosomal damage. Allergic reactions include skin rashes,
tiredness and headaches. Negative reproductive effects, birth defects and
miscarriages are also some of the main effects of mercury in humans
(Oosthuizen et al, 2010).
The extent of mercury exposure in communities in South Africa is largely
unknown (Oosthuizen et al, 2010). However a study was undertaken on the
effect of mercury inhalation in a community in Cape Town by Dalvie and Ehrlich
(Dalvie and Ehrlich, 2006). The mercury concentrations in urine samples from
residents in the vicinity of waste sites and fossil fuel burning operations were
compared with those from a control area. The mercury concentrations found in
both groups were below the WHO guideline. However, a statistically significant
difference was noted between the two groups, the exposed group having higher
concentrations than the control group (Dalvie and Ehrlich, 2006).
International responses to mercury, as it is a transboundary pollutant, include
the mercury guidelines under the Basel Convention, international trade in
mercury under the Rotterdam Convention, methylmercury under Stockholm
Persistent Organic Pollutants Convention. However, the year 2013 will be of
particular public importance as this will be the year of the launch of the United
Nations Environment Programme Global Legally Binding Treaty on Mercury. The
DEA is a participant in the development of this global legally binding instrument
on mercury and has already identified mercury as a national pollutant of concern.
In addition, the DEA is working in partnership with UNEP to populate and gain a
better understanding of the country’s mercury emissions. UNEP has also provided
funding to undertake mercury emission measurements at two Eskom power
stations and is in discussions regarding a possible demonstration project that will
65
seek to reduce mercury emissions from coal-fired power generation (Leaner et al,
2009).
1.8.2 Black Carbon
Black carbon (BC) is an air pollutant formed through the incomplete combustion
of fossil fuels, biofuels and biomass and is a component of PM2.5. This pollutant
is associated with significant adverse health effects such as lung cancer,
respiratory and cardiovascular (heart and blood veins) conditions (United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe, 2011).
In South Africa (and in general), anthropogenic sources of black carbon include
domestic fuel burning, road transport, especially diesel-fuelled transportation and
biomass burning. These sources have also been identified to be the most
important with regards to BC mitigation potential. For example, domestic fuel
burning mitigation measures include the use of modern combustion stoves and
substitution of biomass fuels with ‘cleaner fuels’ such as electricity in residential
areas. Vehicle emissions can be reduced through elimination of high-emitting
vehicles and accelerated (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
2011).
Black carbon is also known as a ‘short lived climate forcer’ (SLCF). This
effectively means that it is a warming agent with a relatively short lifetime in the
atmosphere, ranging between days and weeks and contributes to global warming
through the absorption of sunlight as it penetrates from space. This leads to
direct heating of the atmosphere.
The reduction of BC and other SCLFs such as tropospheric ozone and methane
will provide significant benefits through improved air quality and mitigation of
climate change (UNEP, 2011).
1.8.3 Fishmeal Production
Fish meal production in South Africa has over the years been transformed into a
multi-million rand industry. Fish unsuitable for human consumption, together
with cannery waste (heads, tails and guts) are converted into valuable fish meal
at various factories along the west and southeast coasts of South Africa (de
Koning, 2005). The process of making fish meal from fish processing plants
generates various pollutants and one of the major pollutants from fish processing
is odour released from the decomposing, cooking and drying of fish and by
products. Fish meal driers are the largest source of odour pollution within food
processing plants (de Koning, 2005).
Concerns have been raised in some communities located close to the fish
processing plants about adverse health effects associated with emissions from
66
fish processing plants. One such community in South Africa is that of St Helena
Bay in the Western Cape Province. In response, the DEA, initiated a human
health risk assessment which included measurements of gases in four fish
processing plants. The assessment included those compounds known to be
emitted by the fish industry that are also known to be toxic at certain
concentration levels, namely hydrogen sulphide, trimethlyamine and
formaldehyde. The initial draft findings of the human health risk assessment
were submitted to the DEA in January 2011. The report findings will be discussed
with the Fish-Meal Intergovernmental Task Team (FMIGTT, the affected
industries and affected community with a view to formulating an appropriate
response to the issue (National Air Quality Officer’s Report, 2010).
1.9
Strategic Programme towards Improving Air Quality
The aim of air quality management (as a response) is to protect public health
and the environment from the damaging effects of air pollution and to eliminate
or reduce to a minimum human exposure to hazardous air pollutants. South
Africa has a constitutional obligation to ensure that everyone has the right to an
environment that is not harmful to their health and well being. Some of the
obligations include meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and
Presidential Outcome 10 (environmental assets and natural resources that are
valued, protected and continually enhanced) and the key role of environmental
sustainability in meeting these goals cannot be underestimated. The key role of
the environment in achieving all the MDGs calls for the need for South Africa to
integrate the principles of sustainable development into its national policies and
programmes (UNDP, 2010). In addition, South Africa also has obligations under
multi-lateral environmental agreements. To achieve sustainable development, it
is necessary to develop air quality policies and strategies and government policy
is the foundation for air quality management. Various air quality management
instruments have been developed over the years and include environmental
legislation, emissions inventories, dispersion modelling and concentration
inventories. South Africa has responded to its air pollution challenges in various
ways which include legislative reform, revision of ambient air quality limits,
proactive planning by local authorities and sector specific controls.
•
•
The promulgation of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act
(AQA) (No. 39 of 2004). Key elements of this the establishment of clear
institutional and planning framework for air quality management.
The development of a South African Air Quality Information System (SAAQIS)
to ensure the availability of credible and readily available air quality data. This
data is in turn used to ensure that appropriate measures to improve air
quality are taken.
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•
•
•
The development and maintenance of an effective governance framework for
air quality management, National Framework for Air Quality Management in
South Africa, as provided for in AQA, so as to ensure that current and future
impacts of atmospheric emissions are avoided, minimised, mitigated or
managed.
Declaration of priority areas, as provided for in AQA and ensuring that there
are significant improvements in air quality in the declared priority areas and
compliance with the ambient standards.
Development of national, provincial, municipal and priority area Air Quality
Management Plans (AQMPs) in fulfilment of the requirements of AQA) in
areas with poor or potentially poor air quality (Table 11).
T able 11: National and Provincial Air Quality Management Plans (NAQO
Report, 2010)
NATIONAL AND PROVINCIAL AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANS IN PLACE
Department/ Municipality
Current Status
NATIONAL
Department of Environmental
Affairs
The 2007 National Framework serves as the DEA’s AQMP
PROVINCIAL
Gauteng
AQMP completed and under implementation
Free State
AQMP development complete and under implementation
North West
AQMP was completed, gazetted and officially launched in 2009.
Province is currently developing an emissions inventory.
Western Cape
Mpumalanga
Limpopo
KwaZulu-Natal
Eastern Cape
Northern Cape
•
Completed and planning to start implementation
Priority area AQMP developed. About 80% of the hotspot areas
are included in this AQMP.
Currently planning to develop AQMP. Development will feed
from information from district AQMPs.
Province has finalized the emissions inventory project, with
plans to develop an AQMP.
Province has the intention to develop AQMP despite financial
challenges
‘In-house’ development of AQMP despite financial and capacity
problems
Improvement of indoor and ambient air quality in dense, low income urban
settlements through ambient monitoring, Basa njengo Magogo (BnM), a topdown fire making method which has been demonstrated to reduce particulate
emissions by 90% and fuel consumption by 20% (Pemberton-Pigott et al,
2010), housing guidelines, energy carrier options and the Strategy for
Addressing Air Pollution in Dense- Low-income Settlements, especially given
the fact that it is proposed that by 2020, air quality in all low income
settlements should be in compliance with National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS).
68
•
•
•
•
•
•
Atmospheric Emissions Licence (AEL)- AQA provides for the control of air
pollution through an AEL which must be held by anyone undertaking any
listed activity. The AEL should be issued by the relevant metropolitan or
district municipality, except when the provincial department has been
requested to do so or except when the metro or municipality itself is the
applicant.
Vehicle emissions control in the country include the introduction of Euro
vehicle emissions regulations for petrol-driven vehicles, the on-going National
Vehicle Emissions Strategy and a reduction in the maximum sulphur content
of diesel and benzene content of petrol.
Due to the dependence of coal and other fossil fuels for energy, an
Integrated Energy Plan has been developed by the Department of Energy for
South Africa with a national final energy demand reduction of 12% by 2015
The targets for the various sectors for 2015 are industry and mining sector15%, power generation- 15%, commercial and public building sectors- 15%,
residential sector- 10% and transport sector- 9%.
The recognition of source-based (command-and-control) measures in
addition to alternative measures, included market post-compliance
programmes and education and awareness of the major polluters.
Programmes aimed at creating sufficient capacity in the public sector to
effectively implement air quality planning, management and enforcement.
Addressing climate change through the development of a National Climate
Change Response Strategy and Implementation Plan and a National
Greenhouse Emissions Inventory.
1.9.1 Air Quality Governance
Air quality governance is best described in terms of a simplified environmental
governance cycle (Figure 61). The governance cycle provides a useful framework
for achieving continuous improvements over time and is promoted by AQA (DEA,
2007). Informed decision-making is important for good governance and access to
accurate, relevant and up to date information is crucial for decision makers. The
information management component of the governance cycle is therefore
critical and is often described as the engine that drives the cycle towards
continuous improvements in environmental quality. Other important aspects of
the governance cycle include problem identification and prioritisation which
entails the analysis of information for the identification of air quality problems
being experienced and also to establish whether air quality interventions are
effective. Strategy development is the next step after problem identification
and prioritisation, followed by standard setting for the achievement of
environmental improvements and policy and regulation development. The
safety, health and environmental impacts of developments and activities are
scrutinised through the Environmental Impact Management process. This
69
process encourages participation by all stakeholders and assists decision makers
with detailed information on whether an activity may proceed or not. An
authorisation is a key component of ‘traditional command and control’ regulatory
practice. The principle authorisation in the AQA is the AEL. Compliance
monitoring is crucial in the governance cycle as laws and regulations can be
ineffective if they are not properly enforced. However, compliance with norms
and standards is an important element of the environmental governance cycle
and follows authorisation. Enforcement under AQA can be through penalties to
offenders and can be undertaken by the ‘Green Scorpions’.
Figure 51: The environmental governance cycle (DEA, 2007)
70
Box 1.5 Declaration of Priority Areas in South Africa
Several pollution ‘hotspots’ or priority areas exist in South Africa and in line with the
requirements of the AQA of 2004, two areas have been declared as priority areas- the
Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area (first priority area to be declared) and the Highveld
Priority Area (second priority area to be declared), with intentions to declare the
expanded Waterberg as the third National Priority Area.
Location of Vaal Triangle Priority Area in South Africa (Leaner et al, 2009)
Location of the Highveld Priority Area in South Africa (Leaner et al, 2009)
71
Box 1.5 Declaration of Priority Areas in South Africa
Priority areas are generally areas where ambient air quality standards are being or may be
exceeded. The declaration of these priority areas is as a result of the high pollution levels
associated with heavy industrial activities in these areas and the associated health and negative
environmental effects. Several activities such as heavy industries, transportation, landfill and
waste incineration and domestic fuel burning are characteristic of the Vaal Triangle Airshed
Priority Area (Leaner et al, 2009). A range of activities such as industrial, mining and agricultural
activities which include coal fired power stations, timber and related industries, metal smelters,
petrochemical plants and heavy and small industrial operations exist in the Highveld Priority
Area. Following the declaration of these priority areas, AQMPs have been developed with the
goal of improving air quality. In addition, the DEA has been investigating means of optimising
the implementation of the Vaal Triangle AQMP and this has resulted in the initiation of a medium
term review of the plan’s implementation status.
Box 1.6 Human Capital Development Strategy for South Africa
The Human Capital Development Strategy (HCDS) has been developed in South Africa to fulfill
the environmental rights enshrined in the South African constitution and to strengthen
opportunities associated with a green economy for the country. The time frame for the
strategy is 2009-2014 and this timeframe is aligned with the Medium Term Strategic
Framework (MTSF of 2009–2014). The MTSF is a statement of intent identifying the
development challenges facing South Africa and outlining the medium-term strategy for
improvements in the conditions of life of South Africans and for enhanced contribution to the
cause of building a better world (RSA public document, 2009). The HCDS identifies the
importance of implementing skills development initiatives that respond to South Africa’s social
and economic needs, and development skills that improve service delivery (DEA, 2010).
The human resource demands of achieving the Delivery Agreement for the Presidential
Outcome 10 are prioritised by the HCDS. The HCDS particularly addresses human capacity
development to ensure the availability of a sustainable supply of human resources fro
achieving certain outputs of the Delivery Agreement. The Delivery Agreement also
emphasises the need for specific development initiatives to ensure a sustainable supply of the
necessary skills required for implementing the targets of the agreement (DEA, 2010).
The HCDS is directly aligned with, and addresses the need for human capacity development
based on the Strategic Plan for the Environmental Sector (2009-2014) that emphasises the
need for capacity building particularly for vertical and horizontal environmental governance.
The key areas of the Strategic Plan for the Environmental sector (2009-2014) are to
o
o
Provide leadership and coordination of government’s approach to large, complex
and cross-sectoral issues affecting the environment as per the MTSF of 2009–
2014) and;
Effectively implement its own sectoral mandates within the context of new and
evolving regulatory frameworks with additional responsibilities, striking a balance
between capacity constraints and opportunities (DEA, 2010).
72
1.10 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
South Africa faces many environmental challenges and is no exception to air
pollution problems which are endemic to developing countries. The direct and
indirect effects of air pollution have an impact throughout the country and a
growing concern is the level of air pollution, mainly from industrial emissions,
domestic use of wood, coal and paraffin, vehicle exhaust emissions, biomass
burning and energy production. This concern is further exacerbated by the fact
that it is proposed that compliance to the NAAQS be achieved by the year 2020.
Adding to the environmental challenges in South Africa is the problem of
transboundary air pollution which further exarcebates the air pollution and
environmental challenges due to its complexity and associated effects.
Air pollution and health impacts studies in South Africa reflect that air pollution
exposure results in numerous health problems in the general population with the
effects more pronounced among the elderly and young. The vulnerability to air
pollution other environmental problems is also more evident in people of low
income status. This vulnerability has also been increased by poor land use
planning which has resulted in the location of heavy industrial developments in
close proximity to the high density residential areas. The importance of density is
such areas is related to impact amplification due to the low level release of the
air pollutants associated with domestic fuel burning. Lack of access to electricity
in rural areas has also resulted in the use of biomass energy for cooking and
space heating. Exposure to this indoor air pollution and the associated health
effects are some of the reasons why the elevated PM10 levels, which exceed the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards in most residential household fuel burning
areas, are of major concern. The health effects associated with exposure to
indoor air pollution also have economic implications due to huge expenditures in
the health sector.
Although SO2 concentrations in some residential and industrial areas exceed the
thresholds, the exceedances are less frequent and dependant on the type of
fuels and type of industry. In general, a reduction in industrial SO2 emissions has
been noted in the country in areas such eThekwini and Cape Town Metros.
Exceedances of NO2 and O3 thresholds due to vehicles are recorded in some
metros in the country and this is an issue of concern, especially given the
increasing vehicle numbers in the country and the ageing national fleet. The
rapid growth in vehicle numbers has also been associated with an increase in fuel
consumption and a significant increase in emissions from the transport sector.
Other cross cutting issues related to air pollution from the transport sector
include health implications, smog especially in urban areas, greenhouse gases
and climate change.
73
Other sources of air pollution which are currently highly considered in the country
include airports, waste treatment facilities such as waste water treatment works
and landfill sites as they are also associated with greenhouse gas emissions, fuel
stations, mine residues, tyre burning, fishmeal production and small combustion
facilities such as boilers. Emerging pollutants of concern include PM2.5, VOCs,
PAHs, C6H6 and Hg.
Various responses have been targeted towards air quality management and the
environment in the country and government policy has played a vital role. These
responses have been driven by constitutional obligations, the achievement of
Outcome 10: Environmental assets and natural resources that are well protected
and continually enhanced, sustainable development and the achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals among other considerations. The change in
environmental legislation has been a major achievement for air quality in the
country. The shift from APPA to AQA represents a distinct shift from exclusively
source-based air pollution control to holistic and integrated effects based air
quality management. As required by AQA, the National Framework for Air Quality
Management is one of the significant air quality management tools in South
Africa. The framework serves as a blueprint for air quality management and aims
to achieve the air quality objectives as described in the AQA. Since the
introduction of AQA, various projects aimed at improving air quality and
protecting the environment and health have been undertaken in the country. The
declaration of Priority Areas such as the VTAPA and the HPA, setting of new
ambient air quality standards, AELs and AQMPs as stated in AQA and as part of
the environmental governance cycle, have been some of the tactical tools used in
the protecting the environment and human health. Responses to vehicle
emissions and domestic fuel burning include the National vehicles Emissions
Strategy and the Strategy for Addressing Air Pollution in Dense Low-Income
Settlements.
Government departments have also undertaken various strategies aimed at
addressing energy use and air pollution (integrated energy strategies and use of
renewable sources of energy), domestic fuel use through programmes such as
the Basa Njengo Magogo campaign. Industries have also played a major role in
emissions reduction through the adoption of cleaner production methods, the use
of appropriate control equipment, voluntary measures, process optimisation and
retrofitting of plants.
Due to global air pollution problems such as climate change, POPs and
stratospheric ozone depletion caused mainly by transboundary pollutants, air
quality management in South Africa has also been on an international level. The
country is a party to various global treaties such as the UNFCCC, the Kyoto
74
Protocol, Montreal Protocol and the Stockholm Convention in a bid to reduce the
impacts of air pollution on the atmosphere- a shared global resource.
The following are key recommendations for further improvements in air quality
management in South Africa and the successful implementation of the AQA;
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Compliance monitoring and enforcement to ensure effective
implementation of AQA.
Co-operation and co-ordination by various government departments;
Capacity development which is of particular importance in terms of AEL
issuing in most provinces and municipalities in the country.
Public participation
More research on the health effects of air pollution in South Africa and
updating of previous studies such as the Burden of Disease Health Study
SANAS accreditation of all the monitoring stations in the country to
ensure good quality data that can be fed into the SAAQIS.
Provision of real-time air quality data to the public to make air quality
monitoring more meaningful. However, this is expected to be fulfilled
when Phase III of SAAQIS is implemented. This phase will allow for
provision of real-time or near-real time data to SAWS.
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87
Appendix A
Table A: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at sites within
residential household fuel burning areas
Location
Year
Johannesburg –
Orange Farmprimarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
JohannesburgAlexandraprimarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
JohannesburgJabavuprimarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
JohannesburgIvory
Park
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Johannesburg
Diepsloot
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Johannesburg
Delta
Parkprimarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Vaal
TriangleDiepkloofprimarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Pollutant
% Data
Availabilty
Exceedances
per year
(hourly
limit)
Exceedances
per year
(daily limit)
2009
2010
2009
2010
2009
2010
PM10
95.0
75.6
NS
NS
7
9
PM2.5
NO2
NMD
NMD
NMD
NMD
SO2
92.6
56.4
92.6
56.4
0
0
O3
PM10
NMD
58.0
NMD
43.6
NS
NS
52
28
PM2.5
NO2
NMD
70.4
NMD
42.7
0
3
SO2
63.3
36.4
0
0
24
24
0
0
60
80
0
0
30
77
0
0
a
a
O3
8.5
11
0
0
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
92.3
NMD
NMD
82.2
99.2
NMD
NMD
70.7
NS
NS
O3
PM10
NMD
25.2
NMD
47.7
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
NMD
NMD
82.2
NMD
19.18
NMD
NMD
62.5
NMD
NMD
70.7
NMD
52
NMD
NMD
58.4
O3
NMD
NMD
PM10
97.8
67.1
NS
NS
0
1
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
NMD
60
NMD
1.1
0
0
NA
NA
94.0
99.2
69.6
78.6
0b
NS
0b
NS
NA
1
NA
15
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
93.7
93.4
95.9
91.0
42
14.3
61.9
59.5
NPS
0
ND
0
NPS
0
ND
0
39b
NA
0
NA
54b
NA
0
NA
88
NS
NS
NS
NS
Vaal
Triangle
Sharpeville
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Vaal
Triangle
Three Rivers
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Vaal
Triangle
Zamdela
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Vaal
Triangle
Sebokeng
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Vaal
Triangle
Klieprivier
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Cape
Town
Khayelitsha
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
2009 and
2010
Tshwane
Mamelodi
primarily
domestic
burning
2009 and
2010
fuel
Tshwane
Olivenhoutbosch
primarily
domestic
fuel
burning
Cape Town Khayelitsha
Cape Town
Wallacedene
(a)
2009 and
2010
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
85.2
94.3
97.3
93.42
87.7
74.5
75.9
2.7
75.1
77.0
94.3
72.3
39.2
63.29
77.5
80.3
85.5
37.5
87.1
78.4
NS
NPS
0
ND
5
NS
NPS
0
ND
5
NS
NPS
0
ND
0
NS
NPS
0
ND
0
34
45
NA
0
NA
0
0
60
47
NA
0
NA
7
9
0
NA
0
NA
PM10
PM2.5
76.7
98.4
0
99.7
NS
NPS
NS
NPS
97
10
0
19
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
36.7
97.5
98.4
84.9
52.88
84.7
27.4
93.1
54.8
92.9
93.15
92.6
0
0
0
NS
NPS
0
0
0
0
NS
NPS
0
NA
0
NA
1
33
NA
NA
0
NA
8
77
NA
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
83.6
84.9
86.9
96.2
79.2
86.0
92.9
92.1
85.2
91.8
54.0
83.3
69.9
95.3
NA
0
NS
NPS
0
ND
0
NA
8
NS
NPS
0
ND
0
0
NA
32
83
NA
0
NA
0
NA
11
41
NA
0
NA
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
50.1
ND
46.5
49.3
49.4
39.5
ND
41.4
31.5
41.3
35.3
ND
49.6
47.3
80
58.1
ND
49.5
47.7
61.3
NA
NA
48
13
1
0
0
NA
0
NA
NA
0
NA
41
NA
0
NA
59
96
0
0
ND
ND
0
0
Exceedances
per
year
(Hourly limit
NA
NA
NA
0
0
NA
NA
Exceedances
per year
(Daily limit)
100
PM10
97
NA
42
O3
97
4
NA
2008
2008
2008
PM10
Proposed daily standard for PM2.5
89
8 hourly running average for ozone (O3)
(b)
NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable
Table B: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at sites
impacted by industrial source types
Location
Year
Polluta
nt
% Data
Availabilty
2009
eThekwiniWentworth
2009 and
2010
eThekwiniSettlers
School
2009 and
2010
eThekwini
Southern
Works
2009 and
2010
eThekwiniAlverstone
TshwaneRosslyn
2009 and
2010
2009 and
2010
Tshwane
Pretoria
West
TshwaneBooysens
2009 and
2010
2009 and
2010
Richards
BayArboretum
Ext
2011
Richards
BayBrackenham
2009 and
2010
Richards
2009 and
Exceedances
per year (10
minute
average)
2010
2009
2010
NA
Exceedance
s per year
(hourly
limit)
201
2009
0
Exceedances
per year
(daily limit)
2009
2010
5
0
PM10
NO2
SO2
PM10
ND
96.2
95.9
ND
ND
96.2
95.9
ND
NA
10
4
0
0
SO2
94.7
94.7
6
22
0
4
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3a
61
96.9
91.2
70.3
61
96.9
91.2
70.3
NA
NA
0
NA
NA
16
44
NA
0
38
39
NA
0
38
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
NMD
NMD
36.0
30.7
4.5
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
34.0
67.8
32.9
0
0
0
0
NA
ND
NA
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
16.7
41.5
NDM
35.7
23.1
41.2
ND
ND
ND
98
ND
ND
ND
NO2
ND
SO2
97
O3
ND
PM10
ND
90
4
3
NA
2
NA
3
8
8
NA
ND
NA
0
0
0
0
0
0
NA
0
NA
43
NA
0
NA
29
NA
NA
ND
NA
NA
ND
1
18
0
0
NA
1
NA
0
0
28.0
NDM
35.6
28.2
32.4
NA
NA
NA
NA
18
NA
0
NA
NA
4
NA
4
NA
ND
NA
NA
ND
NA
0
0
0
0
NA
0
NA
NA
0
NA
97.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
97.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
Bay- Habour
West
Richards
Bay- Scorpio
HighveldErmelo
HighveldHendrina
2010
2009 and
2010
2009/2010
2009 and
2010
EskomMpumalanga
2009 and
2010
Cape TownBelville
South
2008
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
ND
ND
100
ND
ND
ND
ND
99
ND
99.2
99.2
86.0
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
SO2
100
17
3
5
2
1
1
97.3
2
3
0
0
0
1
95.6
95.6
75.6
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0
NA
NA
1
20
23
NA
8
18
NA
8.5
99.2
70.4
89.3
92.0
80.2
ND
NA
NA
ND
NA
NA
ND
0
NA
ND
0
NA
0
NA
0
0
NA
12
70.4
55.6
63.3
65.2
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
80.2
73.7
77.8
81.4
NA
NA
ND
NA
NA
ND
NA
0
NA
0
NA
0
NA
110
0
4
0
0
2008
Exceedances
per year (10
minute limit)
1
40
Exceedances
per year
(hourly limit)
NA
Exceedances
per year (daily
limit)
NA
(a) Proposed standard for PM2.5
8 hourly running average for ozone (O3)
(b)
NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable
Table C: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at road traffic
related monitoring sites
Location
Year
Pollutant
% Data
Availabilty
Exceedances
per year
(hourly limit)
Exceedances
per year (daily
limit)
2009
2010
2009
2010
2009
2010
eThekwiniCity Hall
2009 and
2010
PM
NO2
94
95.9
94
95.9
NA
1
NA
2
5
NA
1
NA
eThekwiniWarwick
JohannesburgBuccleuch
Interchange
2009 and
2010
2009 and
2010
NO2
86.2
86.2
18
23
NA
NA
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
93.7
91.0
93.2
63.0
48.0
47.7
45.5
44.7
NA
NA
0
NA
NA
NA
0
NA
17
51
0
14
0
0
91
O3
89.0
27.4
0
25
PM10
ND
PM2.5
ND
NO2
ND
SO2
ND
O3
ND
8
hourly
running
average
for
ozone
(O
(a)
3)
NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable
Cape
Town
City Hall
NA
NA
2009 and
2010
Table D: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at sites
impacted by multiple source types
Location
Witbank
2009
2010
Richards BayCBD
Cape TownSomerset
West
(a)
(b)
(c)
Year
2009
2010
Pollutant
and
and
2008
% Data
Availabilty
Exceedances
per year
(hourly limit)
2009
2010
Exceedances
per year (daily
limit)
2009 2010
21
29
NA
0
20
20
NA
0
0
0
2009
2010
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
99.5
99.5
90.4
95.9
97.3
97.3
99.2
93.4
NA
NA
0
ND
0
ND
O3
PM10
PM2.5
NO2
SO2
O3
99.5
ND
ND
ND
97
ND
99.2
0
0
0
0
0
PM10
% Data
Availabilty
Exceedances
per year
(hourly limit)
Exceedances
per year (daily
limit)
91
NA
1
Proposed PM2.5 daily standard
8 hourly running average for ozone (O3)
NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable
92