2012 SOUTH AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK Chapter 5: Air Quality Draft 2 version 2 April 2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 Air Quality ........................................................................................ 2 1.2.1 Indoor Air Quality........................................................................ 3 1.2.2 Ambient Air Quality ..................................................................... 5 1.3 Sources of Air Pollution ...................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Vehicle Emissions ........................................................................ 6 1.3.2 Electricity Generation and Consumption ........................................ 9 1.3.3 Domestic Fuel Burning ............................................................... 10 1.3.4 Industrial Emissions .................................................................. 13 1.3.5 Biomass Burning ....................................................................... 16 1.3.6 Landfill site gas emissions .......................................................... 19 1.3.7 Tyre Burning Emissions ............................................................. 20 1.3.8 Airport Emissions ...................................................................... 21 1.3.9 Agricultural Emissions ................................................................ 22 1.4 Common Air Pollutants in South Africa .............................................. 23 1.5 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in South Africa ................................... 23 1.5.1 Monitored Pollutant Concentrations ............................................ 27 1.5.2 National Air Quality Indicator ..................................................... 32 1.6 Ambient Air Quality and Associated Effects ........................................ 36 1.6.1 Health Risks ............................................................................. 36 1.6.2 Plants and Animals .................................................................... 44 1.7 Regional and Global Issues .............................................................. 46 1.7.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants ...................................................... 46 1.7.2 Transboundary Transportation of Pollutants ................................ 51 1.7.3 Acid Deposition ......................................................................... 52 1.7.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ................................................... 54 1.8 Emerging and Pressing Air Quality Issues .......................................... 63 1.8.1 Mercury Emissions .................................................................... 63 1.8.2 Black Carbon ............................................................................ 66 1.8.3 Fishmeal Production .................................................................. 66 1.9 Strategic Programme towards Improving Air Quality .......................... 67 1.9.1 Air Quality Governance .............................................................. 69 1.10 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 73 RefErences ................................................................................................. 75 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Major Industrial Operations by Province ........................................... 14 Table 2: Pollutants of concern in South Africa (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2007) ....................................................................................... 23 Table 3: Pollutants measured at various government ambient air quality monitoring stations (DEA, 2011) ............................................................ 26 Table 4: Metropolitan and District Municipalities Air Quality Ratings (DEA’s Indicative Assessment, 2007) and Revised Air Quality Ratings (Scott, G, 2010) .................................................................................................. 35 Table 5: National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Criteria Pollutants ............ 37 Table 6: Exposure to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels by population group, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ...................... 39 Table 7: Burden attributable to indoor pollution from household use of solid fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ................................................ 40 Table 8: Summary of mortality burden attributable to urban outdoor air pollution, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ................................................ 41 Table 9: POPs Monitoring Results from the GAP Study (DEA, 2011) ................. 48 Table 10: Consumption of ODS in South Africa (June 2004- June 2009) (DEA, 2009) .................................................................................................. 56 T able 11: National and Provincial Air Quality Management Plans (NAQO Report, 2010) .................................................................................................. 68 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Average residence times of pollutants in the atmosphere and maximum extents of impacts (UNEP, 2007). ............................................................ 3 Figure 2: Indoor pollution in domestic environment (Example –Fullerton et al, 2009). ................................................................................................... 4 Figure 3: Vehicles on the highway (www. carhire.southafrica.com, 2011) .......... 6 Figure 4: Number of vehicles in South Africa for the years 1990 to 2009 (South Africa Department of Transport, 2011) ..................................................... 7 Figure 5: Consumption of petrol and diesel in South Africa from 1988- 2009 (South African Petroleum Industry Association, 2011)................................ 7 Figure 6: Fuel consumption by province (South African Petroleum Industry Association, 2011) .................................................................................. 7 Figure 7:Modelled exceedances of ambient daily SO2 concentrations resulting from emissions from power generation in the Highveld Priority Area (DEA Highveld Air Quality Management Plan, 2011) ........................................... 9 Figure 8: Percentage of households living in informal dwellings per province (2002-2010) (Statistics SA, 2010). ......................................................... 10 Figure 9: Main source of energy used for cooking by year (2002-2010) and by province (Statistics SA, 2010) ................................................................ 11 Figure 10: Percentage of households connected to the mains electricity supply by province (2002-2010). .......................................................................... 12 Figure 11: Main source of heating for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010). 13 Figure 12: Main source of lighting for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010). 13 Figure 13: Biomass burning (Stuart Thompson, 2010) .................................... 17 Figure 14: Map of fire incidences in South Africa for January 2000 to December 2008 (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010). .......................................................... 18 Figure 15: Losses to fire in the forest sector (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010) .......... 18 Figure 16: Veld fire risk levels in South Africa for the environmental endpoint (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010).................................................................... 19 Figure 17: Tyre burning emissions (Source: eThekwini Municipality and Izwa, 2011) .................................................................................................. 20 Figure 18: Sugar cane burning (James Sparsphatt/Corbis.com, 2005).............. 23 Figure 19: Overview of the government-owned air quality monitoring networks (National Air Quality Monitoring Final Report, 2011) ................................ 24 Figure 20: Measured PM10 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the country................................................................................................ 28 Figure 21: Measured PM10 concentrations at the Highveld Priority Area monitoring stations (DEA, 2011) ............................................................ 29 Figure 22: PM10 trends for various monitoring stations in the country (DEA, 2011) .................................................................................................. 29 Figure 23: PM10 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011) ............... 29 Figure 24: Measured SO2 concentrations at Cape Town .................................. 30 Figure 25: Measured SO2 concentrations at Johannesburg (DEA, 2011) ........... 30 Figure 26: Measured SO2 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the country................................................................................................ 31 Figure 27: SO2 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011).................. 32 Figure 28: The initial NAQI superimposed on the framework for the use and application of the standards or objective-based approach to air quality management (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on Air Quality Management, 2010). ............................................................................ 33 Figure 29: Framework for the use and application of the standards or objective based approach to air quality management (DEA- The 2007 National Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa, 2007). ................ 34 Figure 30: Age-standardised indoor air pollution attributable mortality rates by population group and sex, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007).......... 40 Figure 31: Burden of disease attributable to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) ...................... 40 Figure 32: Years of life lost attributable to urban outdoor air pollution, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007). ......................................................... 42 Figure 33: Total cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) ..... 43 Figure 34: Total non-cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) .......................................................................................................... 43 Figure 35: Adjusted prevalences for respiratory outcomes by school (Prevalences adjusted for age, gender, race, education, annual household income, and school (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). ........................................... 44 Figure 36: Adjusted prevalences for adult health outcomes by community (Predicted prevalences have been adjusted by the following covariates: age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, current smoker, and community (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). ..................................................... 44 Figure 37: Air pollution emissions in South Durban Industrial Basin (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) ....................................................................... 49 Figure 38: Comparison of PCDD/PCDF (left) and PCB (right) concentrations expressed as TEQs at three sites in Durban (Batterman et al, 2007). ........ 50 Figure 39: Seasonal atmospheric transport from Zambia over the southern Africa subcontinent (North West Air Quality Management Plan, 2009) ................ 52 Figure 40: The passive diffusive sampling network distribution [with locations of wet chemistry deposition sites (green lettering) in relation to this study sites (black and green lettering) (Josipovic, 2009). ......................................... 53 Figure 41: Total (dry plus wet) acidic deposition rates (meq/m2 per year (Josipovic, 2009). ................................................................................. 54 Figure 42: Ozone depleting substances consumption trends in South Africa (June 2004- June 2009) (DEA, 2009) .............................................................. 57 Figure 43: UVI values and exposure categories with corresponding colour codes (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) ........................................................... 58 Figure 44: Average maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) ...... 59 Figure 45: Maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) ................... 59 Figure 46: Potential total daily child solar UV radiation exposure at Pretoria, Durban, Cape Town, Cape Point, De Aar and Port Elizabeth (SED= standard erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011)........................... 60 Figure 47: Ambient 1 hour solar UV radiation exposure for midday maximum between 12h00 and 13h00 at six monitoring stations across South Africa in 2006 (SED= standard erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011) .................................................................................................. 61 Figure 48: Total number of days per season that school children of varying skin types may be at risk of experiencing sunburn from excess solar UV radiation exposure depending on activity and sun protection, using an estimated personal exposure of 5% of the total daily ambient solar UV radiation levels (Coetzee et al, 2011) ............................................................................ 61 Figure 49: Extrapolated intra annual changes in biologically weighted UVB exposure over the period 1979-2003 and those modelled for 2051 (Musil et al, 2010).............................................................................................. 62 Figure 50: Average atmospheric Hg emissions (1 metric ton= 1 Mg) estimated for different source categories in South Africa during 2004 ........................... 64 Figure 51: The environmental governance cycle (DEA, 2007).......................... 70 LIST OF ACRONYMNS µg/m3 2.3.7.8 ALRIs AMD APCDs AQA AQMPs ARIs Microgrammes per cubic metre TCDD- 2.3.7.8 tetrachlordibenzodioxin Acute Lower Respiratory Infections Acid Mine Drainage Air Pollution Control Devices Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 Air Quality Management Plans Acute Respiratory Infections ASP Africa Stockpile Programme BCM Bromochloromethane BTEXBenzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, Xylene C6H6 Benzene CBD Central Business District CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons CO Carbon monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease CSIR Council for Research and Industrial Research DACERD North West department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and Rural Development DAEA&RD KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development DALYs Disability-adjusted life years DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DEA Department of Environmental Affairs DEA&DPWestern Cape Department of Environmental Affairs DEDET Mpumalanga Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism DMEDepartment of Minerals and Energy (now Department of Energy) DNADeoxyribonucleic acid DPSIR Driver–Pressure-State-Impact-Response ESPs Electrostatic precipitators FRIDGE Fund for Research into Industrial Development, Growth and Equity GAPS Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling GDARD Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development GWPs Global warming potentials HCHs Hexachlorocyclohexanes HCs Hydrocarbons HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons Hg Mercury HPAHighveld Priority Area LTO Landing and take off MDGs Millennium Development Goals MeBr Methyl bromide MOA Memorandum of Understanding MONET Africa Monitoring Network in the African Continent MRAs Mine Residue Areas N2O Nitrous oxide NAAQMN National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards NAQI NEMAQA NFAQM NGOs NH3 NO NO2 NOx NRL O3 ODS PAFs PAHs Pb PCBs PCDDs PCDFs PM10 PM2.5 POPs ppb ppm SAAQIS SANAS SAPIA SDIB SO2 Stats SA TCDD TCA TRS TSP UNEP US-EPA UVUVEry UVI VOCsVTAPA WHO YLLs- National Air Quality Indicator National Environmental Management: Air quality Act 39 of 2004 National Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa Non-governmental organisations Ammonia Nitrogen monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen oxides National Reference Laboratory Ozone Ozone depleting substances Population attributable Fractions Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Lead Polychlorinated biphenyls Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins Polychlorinated dibenzofurans Particulate matter measuring 10 micrometres or less Particulate matter measuring 2.5 micrometres or less Persistent Organic Pollutants Parts per billion parts per million South African Air Quality Information System South African National Accreditation System South African Industry Association South Durban Industrial Basin Sulphur dioxide Statistics South Africa Tetrachlordibenzodioxin Tichloroacetic acid Total Reduced Sulphur Total Suspended Particulates United Nations Environment Programme United States Environment Protection Agency Ultraviolet ‘Sunburning’ or erythemally weighted radiation Ultraviolet Index Volatile Organic Compounds Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area World Health Organisation Years of life lost 1.1 Introduction The atmosphere is the earth’s largest single shared resource which protects and supports life through the absorption of dangerous ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface and temperature reduction. However, these vital roles that the atmosphere plays are under serious threat due to anthropogenic (humandriven) activities that result in the introduction of pollutants into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is used as a repository for air pollutants generated as a result of drivers such as industrialization, urban growth, population growth and changing consumption patterns, transport, power generation, incineration activities, waste generation, biomass burning and changing consumption patterns. Major types of pollutants including criteria pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), benzene (C6H6), persistent organic pollutants (POPS) and particulate matter (PM). These air pollutants can be dispersed by winds to other areas posing another problem of environmental challenge- trans-boundary pollution. Some of these pollutants undergo mixing and chemical transformation in the atmosphere. In South Africa, air pollution poses challenges in the achievement of sustainable development, environmental sustainability, Millennium Development Goals, fulfillment of the environmental rights enshrined in the South African Constitution, the 12 Outcomes, especially Outcome 10 which promotes the protection and continual enhancement of environmental assets and natural resources. Other global environmental challenges with local significance in South Africa include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion and mercury deposition due to power generation and other sources such as cement production. Fossil fuels such as coal contain trace amounts of mercury and the burning of this coal during power generation releases mercury. General environmental degradation and the depletion of natural resources are also major challenges facing the country. Although South Africa is generally considered to be a country with abundant natural resources, some natural resources such as water, forests and soil are quite limited and hence the drive towards resource management and conservation. Given the fact that many human activities require the consumption of energy, for example, burning of coal to generate electricity, burning of oil or gas for factory operations, burning of petrol or diesel fuel to power mobile fleets or vehicles, the level of air pollution has been a growing concern in the country and other parts of the world. This is especially so given that the price that we have to pay for our 1 lifestyles is increased amounts of pollution, which in turn affects the ecosystems, human health and well-being. One of the reasons that air pollution is such a threat to human health is that we have no choice over the air we breathe (Koenig, 2000). Thus in our homes, outdoors and workplaces, we often breathe air which is not as clean as we would prefer. Inhalation is the major route of entry into the body for toxic chemicals, resulting in respiratory illnesses such as asthma and acute respiratory infections, cancer, heart and lung related diseases (cardio vascular) etc. Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects which include acid rain which can damage trees and causes soil and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for fish and wildlife. Other environmental effects include eutrophication, a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients such as nitrogen, stimulates blooms of algae leading to death of fish and loss of plant and animal life, crop and forest damage, effects on wildlife which include health problems due to inhalation of toxic air pollutants. It is clear that there is a cause-effect relationship where air pollution and other environmental problems are concerned. The purpose of this chapter is to report on the causes of air pollution, the pollutants, state of air quality in various parts of the country, impacts of air pollution and responses or mitigation measures to address air pollution problems and hence the use of the Driver–Pressure-StateImpact-Response (DPSIR) framework. The framework allows a structured, easy and gradual presentation of cause and effect relationships on a set of indicators that represent the different compartments of Drivers–Pressures-State-ImpactsResponses. Air pollution represents the pressures that result from human activities or drivers. These pressures cause the state of the environment to change, resulting in health, environment and economic impacts. Responses from policymakers and the public may address the driving forces themselves as well as seek to reduce their direct pressures or indirect effects on the state of the environment and human health. 1.2 Air Quality Air quality depends on both the amount of pollutants released into the atmosphere by the various human activities and the rate at which pollutants disperse. Dispersion is largely dependent on both wind direction and strength. Strong winds result in rapid dispersal of air pollution to other areas whereas little or no wind results in the accumulation, and in some cases, high concentration of air pollution. However, local factors such as topography (hills and mountains), proximity to the coast, building height and time of the year all affect local wind 2 conditions and can play a role in increasing air pollution levels (www.mfe.govt.nz, 2011). In addition, air quality is also determined by the residence times of air pollutants in the atmosphere. Air pollutants have varying residence times in the atmosphere with air pollutants with very short residence times affecting indoor and outdoor air quality, while those with very long residence times result in continental and global effects (Figure 1). Also, the amount of pollutants varies from one area to another, depending on the type and concentration of human activities and on the measures taken to reduce emissions (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2007). In South Africa, outdoor and indoor air pollution continues to be perceived as a serious problem, with emissions for SO2, PM, NO2, NOx, VOCs, O3, C6H6 and the corresponding concentrations a cause of concern. Air quality in various areas of the country is affected by pollutants emitted by numerous sources. These sources include power generation activities, industrial processes, waste disposal, transportation (private and public vehicles), biomass burning, domestic fuel burning, landfill sites, waste water treatment and agriculture. Figure 1: Average residence times of pollutants in the atmosphere and maximum extents of impacts (UNEP, 2007). 1.2.1 Indoor Air Quality Indoor pollution sources that release pollutants into the air are the primary cause of indoor air quality problems in homes. Poor ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels due to weak dilution of emissions from indoor sources and conditions that are not conducive for pollutant dispersal. There are numerous sources of indoor air pollution and these include domestic fuel sources such as 3 coal, wood, paraffin, oil, tobacco products, asbestos products, pesticides used in the home, household cleaning products, etc (US-EPA, 2010). Public exposure to air pollution has been largely associated with outdoor pollution. However, on the contrary, the largest exposures to health-damaging indoor pollution probably occur in the developing world among the poorest and most vulnerable populations, largely women and young children who are most exposed to the indoor pollution sources (Figure 2) (Smith, 2002). Indoor activities such as cooking and heating using coal, wood, paraffin and other traditional sources of fuel such as dung and agricultural residues produces high levels of smoke that contains a variety of pollutants that affect health. Exposure to indoor air pollution is dependant on type of fuel, indoor concentrations of pollutants in the indoor environment, type of equipment used, and location. According to studies undertaken in various parts of the world, including Africa, indoor pollution levels in households reliant on domestic fuel sources are extremely high. Average daily PM10 concentrations in households that use biomass fuels and coal are around 1000 µg/m³, exceeding the World Health Organisation (WHO) PM10 average daily guidelines and other international guidelines. In general, concentrations of indoor air pollutants exceed WHO guideline limits many times (WHO, 2002).The fact that domestic fuel burning occurs under unfavourable combustion conditions largely impacts on indoor air quality. This is because this incomplete combustion of the fuels results in the release of high concentrations of the air pollutants associated with combustion into the living environment. Figure 2: Indoor pollution in domestic environment (Example –Fullerton et al, 2009). 4 1.2.2 Ambient Air Quality Ambient air quality is defined as the physical and chemical measure of pollutant concentrations in the ambient atmosphere to which the general population will be exposed to. A growing concern in many parts of the world is the level of air pollution mainly from human- induced activities which are discussed in detail in the section below. In most developing countries, ambient air quality is reported to have deteriorated seriously, especially in urban centres, exposing people to pollutant levels above the limits recommended by the WHO (UNEP, 2002). Increasing levels of urbanisation caused by natural growth of the urban population and migration, especially rural-urban migration, have resulted in the deterioration of air quality and general environmental degradation in most developing countries. Urban poverty is reported to be among the major drivers of environmental degradation. In South Africa, this is more evident in deteriorating ambient air quality levels in domestic fuel burning areas, which also have the highest numbers of low income households. Outdoor air pollution is perceived a serious problem due to elevated concentrations of some pollutants which result in adverse health and environmental effects. However, the realization of the health effects associated with air pollution has led to various responses at international, national and local levels aimed at improving air quality. 1.3 Sources of Air Pollution Air pollution emanates from various drivers or sources which include natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural sources of air pollution include volcanoes, which produce sulphur, chlorine, ash and particulates. Wildfires result in the production of smoke, CO2 and CO. Other natural sources of air pollution include domestic animals such as cattle which release methane and pine trees which release VOCs. Most forms of air pollution are a result of human activities and include fossil fuel burning (coal, oil and natural gas in industrial processes), electricity generation, vehicle emissions, airport emissions, domestic fuel burning, the use of household materials that contain persistent organic pollutants, biomass burning, domestic fuel burning, waste disposal etc. 5 1.3.1 Vehicle Emissions Vehicle emissions contribute to the deterioration in air quality, especially in urban areas (Figure 3). Some of the pollutants associated with vehicle emissions include the greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, CO, NO2, NOx and C6H6), PM, O3, aldehydes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Lead (Pb) emissions have ceased to be a pressing issue in South Africa due to the phasing out of leaded petrol. Figure 3: Vehicles on the highway (www. carhire.southafrica.com, 2011) There is an increase in the number of vehicles in the country (Figure 4). Lack of public transport has been identified as a contributing factor to the increased dependence in the number of private vehicles. The increase in the number of vehicles has, as expected, resulted in an increase in fuel consumption (Figure 5). Gauteng province is the major consumer of fuel in the country and this could be attributed to the fact that the province is the country’s economic hub, contributing 33% to the national economy (Figure 6). Concerns on the contribution of vehicle emissions to air pollution and the associated effects have been raised in the country, especially in urban areas where vehicle traffic has significant implications for urban air quality. In urban areas, vehicle emissions may be responsible for 90-95% of CO and 60-70% of NOx (Schwela, 2004). Emissions from vehicles contribute to photochemical smog and this occurs especially in areas that experience high traffic density such as central business districts (CBDs). The effects of vehicle emissions in South Africa have been more evident in Cape Town where brown haze still remains an air quality problem. Motor vehicle pollution is rapidly worsening due to the increasing vehicle fleet growth, increasing distances travelled and high rates of emissions from the vehicle fleets. The causes of the high emission rates include road congestion, which increases emissions per kilometre travelled, poor maintenance and high average age of the vehicle fleet. 6 Figure 4: Number of vehicles in South Africa for the years 1990 to 2009 (South Africa Department of Transport, 2011) Figure 5: Consumption of petrol and diesel in South Africa from 1988- 2009 (South African Petroleum Industry Association, 2011) Figure 6: Fuel consumption by province (South African Petroleum Industry Association, 2011) 7 Box 1.1: Carbon Dioxide Vehicle Emissions Tax A carbon tax is an environmental tax levied on the carbon content of fuels and is a form of carbon pricing. Fuel combustion results in the release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas contributing to the threat of human-induced climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions are a result of fossil fuel combustion are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels they originate from. It is for this reason that a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel. In September 2010, South Africa implemented a carbon dioxide emissions tax on new passenger vehicles as part of a sustainable development initiative and climate change mitigation measure. This CO2 tax currently applies to new passenger vehicles at the time of sale but will in future include commercial vehicles once carbon dioxide standards have been set for these vehicles. Passenger vehicles which emit over 120 g/km are subject to a tax of R75 per g/km over this figure. The main objective of this CO2 tax is to influence the composition of South Africa’s vehicle fleet to become more energy efficient and environmentally friendly while generating revenue. There are however concerns that this carbon dioxide tax will increase the price of new vehicles and reduce sales, thereby negatively affecting the automobile industry. It has also been argued that the tax is discriminatory as it targets new vehicles and not the existing vehicles in the country. However, the new CO2 tax is expected to add around 2% to the cost of a new vehicle, and some doubt has been expressed as to whether this will have a significant affect on motivating new vehicle buyers to purchase environmentally friendly vehicles (http://www.bidorbuy.co.za, 2011). Another negative comment expressed by many is that the current standard of South African fuel makes it almost impossible to either import or manufacture a passenger vehicle in South Africa that can achieve the 120 g/km threshold. South Africa CO2 Emissions Tax (Image from http://www.sacarfan.co.za) A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content. For example, environmental taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions have been levied in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries on energy products and vehicles rather than CO2 emissions directly. 8 1.3.2 Electricity Generation and Consumption The generation of electricity in South Africa is largely dependant on the most abundant indigenous source of energy- coal. The majority of the coal rich deposits are concentrated in the north east of the country resulting in the location of the majority of the coal fired power stations in Mpumalanga Province. 81% of domestic coal is utilized for electricity production in the country and the state owned power utility- ESKOM provides about 95% of the country’s electrical power and more than 60% of Africa’s energy needs. A significant proportion of liquid fuels and other sources such as renewable energy are also used as energy sources. The country’s electricity capacity has generally increased over the last few years, with conventional sources of energy (coal, petroleum and gas), nuclear power and hydro pumped storage accounting for 99.35% of total electricity generated. Detail on the sources of electrical energy and energy consumption in South Africa is provided in the Energy Chapter. The generation of electricity through coal-fired power stations results in the emissions of pollutants such as particulates, SO2 and NOx and mercury (Hg). The air quality impacts of the pollutants that are produced by power generating activities are largely felt in the province of Mpumalanga. For example, exceedances of the ambient 1 hour and 24 hours SO2 standards due to power generation are modelled for certain areas in Mpumalanga which fall within the Highveld Priority Area (Figure 7). Figure 7:Modelled exceedances of ambient daily SO2 concentrations resulting from emissions from power generation in the Highveld Priority Area (DEA -Highveld Air Quality Management Plan, 2011) 9 1.3.3 Domestic Fuel Burning A growing concern in the country is the level of pollution from domestic fuel burning and the associated health effects. In dense, low income households and informal settlements, the use of domestic fuel sources such as coal, paraffin, and wood for cooking and heating is more common. Informal settlements are a common feature in most of the country (Figure 8) and this could partly be attributed to the increasing levels of urbanisation with natural growth of the population and migration being major contributing factors. Gauteng Province has the highest percentage of informal settlements and this is largely due to natural population growth and the fact that the province is the economic hub of the country and experiences a huge influx of migrants searching for better opportunities. This has also resulted in another challenge- infrastructural development cannot keep up with the ever increasing need for shelter and services for the growing population and hence the proliferation of informal settlements. Figure 8: Percentage of households living in informal dwellings per province (2002-2010) (Statistics SA, 2010). The main sources of energy used by households for cooking between 2002 and 2010 for each province are shown in Figure 9. During this period, the use of paraffin declined from 16.1% to 8.9%. The use of wood also declined during the same period. However, a significant percentage of households still used wood (14.3%) as compared to paraffin (8.9%) in 2010. There was also a noticeable decline in the percentage of households using coal and gas during this period (Statistics SA, 2010). Nationally, the use of electricity for cooking has increased 10 by 13%, since 2002, to 71.1% in 2010 (Figure 10). Provincially, the use of electricity as the main source of energy for cooking was highest in the Western Cape Province (85.4%), Free State (85%) and Gauteng (83.8%). The use of electricity for cooking was lowest in provinces such as Mpumalanga (61.9%), Eastern Cape (53.7%) and Limpopo (47.1%). Eastern Cape contained the highest proportion of households using paraffin (21.1%), followed by North West (12%) and Gauteng (10.3%). Less than 3% of households in the Western Cape used paraffin for cooking (Figure 10). In Limpopo, almost half of the households still used wood for cooking, followed by the Eastern Cape (20.9%), Mpumalanga (20.2%) and KwaZulu Natal (20.4%). The lowest use of wood for household cooking was in Gauteng and Western Cape (approximately 1% of households for each of these provinces). The increase in the number of households using electricity for cooking can be attributed to the National Electrification Programme (NEP). This programme has had a strong focus on household electrification, increasing access to electricity for the poor in the country. Nationally, the percentage of households that were connected to the electricity mains supply increased form 76.6% to 82% in 2010 (Figure 10). Figure 9: Main source of energy used for cooking by year (2002-2010) and by province (Statistics SA, 2010) 11 Figure 10: Percentage of households connected to the mains electricity supply by province (2002-2010). The main energy source for heating and lighting in the country for 2010 was electricity, 56.8% for heating (Figure 11) and 83.5% for lighting (Figure 12). Most households do not use electricity for heating as this has proven to be more expensive, but would rather use electricity for lighting as this is affordable. Despite electrification, most poor households still rely on the use of multiple fuels for their domestic energy needs. Paraffin remains a major concern in poor urban environments, not only from an indoor air quality perspective, but also because of association with child poisoning and damage of property (Barnes et al, 2009). Coal continues to be used for space heating and cooking in high density areas. This is especially the case in the informal settlements of Sasolburg, Vereeniging and Vanderbijlpark in the VTAPA. The intensive domestic use of coal is also evident in some areas in Mpumalanga due to availability and affordability. Domestic fuel burning results in pollutants such as SO2, NO2, NOx, CO, O3, VOCs, toxic hydrocarbons and particulates which all have health impacts. The release of nitrogen and sulphur oxides is dependent on combustion and fuel characteristics. Complicating issues further is the fact that most of the household activities are undertaken using simple, small scale devices such as household cook stoves. A large fraction of these stoves are not vented (do not have flue or hoods for the exit of pollutants from the living environment). In addition, unprocessed solid fuels have large emissions rates of health damaging pollutants which in turn significantly affect local ‘neighbourhood’ air quality. In most cases, the pollution levels have implications for total exposure. 12 Figure 11: Main source of heating for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010). Figure 12: Main source of lighting for households in 2010 (Statistics SA, 2010). 1.3.4 Industrial Emissions South Africa is no exception to air pollution problems caused by industrialisation. These direct and indirect effects of air pollution are particularly a major concern in areas of heavy industrial development such as the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area (VTAPA), South Durban Industrial Basin (SDIB) and the Highveld Priority Area (HPA). The majority of the industries in the country fall within the metallurgical industry (28.38%), with the least dominant industries being the pharmaceutical and hazardous waste disposal and general waste industries. The industrial processes are located in various areas of the country, with the major industrial processes in each province shown in Table 1. Industry is a major consumer of energy and depends mainly on fossil fuels, especially coal for most 13 of its needs. The industrial sector is also a major consumer of electricity nationally. The largest industrial consumer of electricity is the mining industry followed by the iron and steel and non-ferrous metals industries. Table 1: Major Industrial Operations by Province Province Eastern Cape Free State Gauteng Major Industrial operations • Brickworks • Animal Reduction (Tanneries and Rendering Plants) • Waste incineration • Waste incineration • Organic/inorganic industries • Asphalt plants • Metallurgical • Ceramic/ Brickworks • Organic/inorganic industries Associated Main Pollutants • PM, SO2, CO2, CO • CO2, PM, CH4, NH3, VOCs • • • • • • • PM, SO2, VOCs, CO2, CO PM, CO2, VOCs, CO2, CO PM, VOCs, SO2, NH3, CO2,NOX PM, SO2, NOx, CO, Hg, Pb, VOCs HF, PM, CO, CO2, VOCs, SO2, NO2 PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs PM, VOCs, SO2, NH3, CO2,NOX KwaZulu Natal • • • • Pulp and Paper/ Wood Products Ceramic/ Brickworks Organic/inorganic industries Asphalt plants • • • • PM, PM, PM, PM, Limpopo • • • • • • PM, SO2, VOCs, CO2, CO PM, SO2, CO2, CO , NO2, VOCs and PM Mpumalanga • • • • Incineration Ceramic/ Brickworks Wood Products (Sawmills and Charcoal) Power Generation Ceramic/ Brickworks Wood Products Metallurgical Industries • North West • • • Mining Operations Ceramic/Brickworks Incineration (Medical Waste) • • • • • • PM, NO2, SO2, CO and Mercury (Hg) PM, NO2, VOCs and PM PM, CO2, SO2, H2S, VOC, Cl2 HF, PM, CO, CO2, VOCs, SO2, NOx PM and vehicle emissions PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs PM, SO2, VOCs, CO2, CO Northern Cape • • • • • Mining Operations Ceramic/Brickworks Ceramic/Brickworks Metallurgical Animal Reduction matter • • • • • PM and vehicle emissions PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs PM, SO2, CO2, CO, VOCs HF, PM, CO, CO2, VOCs, SO2, NOx CO2, PM, CH4, NH3, VOCs Western Cape CO2, SO2, H2S, VOC, Cl2 SO2, CO2, CO VOCs, SO2, NH3, CO2,NOX SO2, NOx, CO, Hg, Pb, VOCs Air pollution assumes priority due to the proximity of human settlements and in South Africa poor land use planning has culminated in the positioning of heavy industrial development and other operations in close proximity to heavily populated residential areas. The negative environmental effects of air pollution as a result of industrial activities are mostly experienced during operations. However, in some cases, these negative effects- whether foreseen and unforeseen- can be experienced long after industrial operations have ceased. This is evident in Gauteng where mine residue areas (MRAs) due to intensive mining activities which were undertaken in the Witwatersrand have become an 14 important emerging issue. Compounding the problem is the close proximity of human settlements to these MRAs as this could have serious health implications. Box 1.2: Mine Residue Areas in Gauteng Province Mine residue areas (MRAs) in Gauteng include tailings disposal facilities, waste rock dumps, open cast excavations and quarries. The majority of these MRAs are sources of air pollutants: particulates, dust and release radioactive substances. A major cause for concern is the fact that some residential areas are located in close proximity or downwind of these sources of dust and/or radioactive dust. Gauteng Province currently has 380 MRAs of which the majority are gold-mining residues and are radioactive due to the presence of uranium (GDARD, 2009). The normal dust and radioactive dust associated with MRAs have health implications, especially given the fact that residential areas are located relatively close to most of the MRAs. In addition, gold tailings contain compounds such as cyanide and heavy metals which pose additional health risks. Air quality (dust pollution and radioactive substances) is one of the main issues relating to MRAs in Gauteng (GDARD, 2009). Main types of MRA in Gauteng (GDARD, 2009) 15 Box 1.2: Mine Residue Areas in Gauteng Province Radioactive (red), non-radioactive (green) and undetermined (blue-very few) MRAs in Gauteng 1.3.5 Biomass Burning Biomass burning is a significant source of gaseous and particulate matter emissions to the atmosphere (Figure 13). Pollutants associated with biomass burning include greenhouse gases (CO2, NH4 and NO), CO, and VOCs especially in the tropical and subtropical regions. The emission of CO, CH4 and VOC affect the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere, by reacting with hydroxyl (OH) radicals and emissions of NO and VOCs lead to the formation of O3 and other photochemical oxidants. Almost 90% of all biomass burning emissions are thought to be anthropogenic (Koppman et al, 2005). Human induced fires are used for a variety of purposes which include agricultural expansion, bush control, weed and residue burning and harvesting practices. Biomass burning affects the biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and carbon. 16 Figure 13: Biomass burning (Stuart Thompson, 2010) Veld fires are a persistent problem in South Africa as they pose a risk to life, cause damage to property and the environment. Fire activity is strongly influenced by four factors: fuels, climate and weather, ignition agents and people. The fuel type, continuity, structure, moisture, and amount are critical elements of fire occurrence and spread (Forsyth et al, 2010). According to a study undertaken by Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) (National Veldfire Risk Assessment), there was a marked trend in fire incidence from the eastern to western parts of the country and, to a lesser extent from north to south (Figure 14). The north-western quarter of the country where the dominant biomes are the Succulent Karoo, Desert and Nama Karoo had few if any fires. The highest fire incidence was found in the mountain areas, particularly the eastern Langeberg, and the incidence increased from west to east across the biome (Forsyth et al, 2010). The very low fire incidence on the western and southern coastal lowlands was due the exclusion of most of these areas from the analysis because of the high proportion of cultivated lands. Data indicated that these extensively cultivated areas actually burnt quite frequently because the farmers burn the stubble remaining after harvesting the wheat crops, particularly on the West Coast (Forsyth et al, 2010). 17 Figure 14: Map of fire incidences in South Africa for January 2000 to December 2008 (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010). Although information on veld fires is limited, the best documented losses are in the forest sector. Data indicates that the incidence of fires in the forest plantations has increased significantly over the years and the likely causes are less effective fire protection and additional sources of ignition (Figure 15). It is stated that the continuation of these trends is likely to constitute a serious threat to the viability of the forestry industry. Figure 15: Losses to fire in the forest sector (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010) Veld fires cause economic, social and environmental losses. Economic losses include industrial losses of infrastructure and the related financial implications, destroyal of power lines and other infrastructure such as farm and country resorts. The social impacts of veld fires include loss of homes and resources for 18 rural livelihoods and stock losses for grazing. The environmental damaging effects of veld fires include the loss of biodiversity, damage to vegetation and the release of pollutants to the atmosphere. The veld fire risk levels for an environmental end point for various areas in the country are shown in Figure 16. The risk levels are low within most fire-ecology types. This is because much of South Africa’s vegetation is fire-adapted and recovers rapidly from veld fires provided there are no complicating factors such as the invasion of the veld by woody alien plants or the presence of commercial timber plantations as these factors increase the fuel load markedly (Forsyth et al, 2010). Figure 16: Veld fire risk levels in South Africa for the environmental endpoint (CSIR- Forsyth et al, 2010). 1.3.6 Landfill site gas emissions Land fill sites are major sources of gases such as CH4 and CO2 which are primarily of concern as they are greenhouse gases and pose a threat to climate change mitigation efforts if not addressed. A range of odiferous gases and toxic gases such as hydrogen sulphide and VOCs are also emitted from landfills. Carcinogens such as benzene and methylene chloride are also released from landfills. The gases generated from landfills result from the process of waste decomposition and are related to the landfilled waste and landfill technologies used. Landfill gas constituents are of further concern due to their potential impacts on human health, especially carcinogens and several non-carcinogenic toxins such as phenols and chlorobenzene. 19 1.3.7 Tyre Burning Emissions Air emissions from tyre burning or combustion include uncontrolled and controlled emissions. Uncontrolled sources are open tyre fires, which produce many products of incomplete combustion and release them directly into the atmosphere (Figure 17). Controlled combustion sources include boilers and kilns specifically designed for efficient combustion of solid fuel (Reisman, 1997). Emissions from controlled combustion sources are much lower and more often than not, these sources also have appropriate air pollution control equipment for the control of particulate emissions (Reisman, 1997). Open tyre burning emissions include criteria pollutants such as PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2 and NO2. Other emitted pollutants include NOx, sulphur oxides (SOX), VOCs, PAHs, dioxins, furans, hydrogen chloride, C6H6, PCBs and metals such as arsenic, cadmium, nickel, zinc, mercury, chromium and vanadium. Emissions from open tyre burning can represent significant acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) health effects such as respiratory effects, cancer and nervous system depression, and cancer (US-EPA, 1997). However, significant amounts of liquids and solids containing dangerous chemicals can also be generated by burning tyres. These can lead to the pollution of soil, surface water, and ground water and an integrated approach must be applied to manage these impacts. The indiscriminate burning of tyres to recover the scrap metal has been a major concern in many parts of the country. For example in Cape Town, it has been reported that at Cape Town International Airport, the black smoke impairs the vision to such an extent that the pilots are forced to use their instruments to assist with the landing of aircraft. Figure 17: Tyre burning emissions (Source: eThekwini Municipality and Izwa, 2011) 20 In South Africa, a draft Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) has been discussed between the Department of Environmental Affairs and the waste tyre industry (DEAT, 2006). Within the MOA, “waste tyre users” are defined as “any tyre derived fuel user or waste tyre recycler”, which are respectively defined as “a person or institution engaged in energy recovery from waste tyres” and “any person or institution, using any process by which waste tyres are converted or transformed into new products, or raw materials for any purposes, excluding energy recovery and/or any other process by which a used tyre is retreaded or repaired for return to its original intended use” (GroundWork, 2006). About 1.2 million tonnes of coal is currently used by the South African cement industry, and about 25% of this could be replaced by tyres. The currently available volume of spent tyres equates to about 154 tonnes of coal per day (1kg of rubber = 33 mega-Joules (mJ) of energy while 1kg of coal offers about 27 mJ [ibid]), while 25% of 1.2 million tonnes of coal is 672 tonnes per day (GroundWork, 2006). Part of the solution to reducing heavy dependence on fossil fuels for energy is their use as sources of fuel in cement kilns and other combustion equipment. This is becoming the most popular way of disposing of tyres. However, this has raised increasing concern from environmentalists and scientists due to the pollutants emitted from tyre burning and their associated health effects. 1.3.8 Airport Emissions There are various sources of emissions associated with airport activities. These include road traffic at and around airports, aircraft exhaust fumes, emissions from ground service equipment and auxillary power units and airport buildings. Aircrafts often travel for great distances at varying altitude, generating emissions that can potentially impact local, regional and global air quality (ICAO, 2011). Emissions associated with aircraft activities include CO2, PM, NOx, CO, VOCs, SO2, HCs, NH4 and non -methane VOCs. Aircraft emissions are a function of the fuel specifications, number of aircraft operations which include landing and take off (LTO) cycles, aircraft fleet mix, length of time aircrafts spend in each of the modes of operation: takeoff, climb-out, approach and idle (ICAO, 2011). South Africa has a number of domestic and international airports. Although comprehensive emissions inventories were undertaken for the international airports in Cape Town (Cape Town International Airport) and in Johannesburg (O.R Tambo International) and the results reported in the 2005 State of Air Report, a lot of research in this field is still required. 21 Airport emissions are of concern, especially in areas and regions adjacent to airports. High levels of NO2 cause breathlessness and coughing while long-term exposure results in chronic coughing and infections such as bronchitis. High PM levels have mortality and morbidity effects (WHO, 2003, 2004). 1.3.9 Agricultural Emissions Agricultural activities are part of economic activity in provinces such as the Free State, Limpopo, KwaZulu- Natal, North West, Western Cape and Mpumalanga in the country. Agricultural activities can be considered a significant contributor to particulate emissions, although tilling, harvesting and other activities associated with field preparation are seasonally based. Agricultural activities associated with the release of particulates and gases to the atmosphere include; • Particulate emissions generated due to mechanical action of equipment used for tilling and harvesting operations; • Particulate emissions generated due to wind erosion from exposed areas; • Vehicle entrained dust on paved and unpaved road surfaces; • Gaseous and particulate emissions due to fertilizer and chemical treatment. • Gaseous and particulate emissions due to agricultural land resource management practices such as burning of residue crops and vegetation. This has been particularly a huge issue in South Africa with regards to sugar cane burning (Figure 18). The sugar cane industry burns 90% of its crop at harvest, while 10% is harvested green. In 2008, the KwaZulu-Natal province identified sugar cane burning as a significant source of air pollution. It has been established that during sugar cane burning, incomplete combustion occurs, with the formation of compounds that are not completely oxidized. Fine particulates, typically acidic, containing secondary nitrates, sulphates and organic species are released into the atmosphere. It has been established that children are more susceptible to health effects caused by sugar cane burning. However, measures being taken to reduce emissions from sugar cane burning include sugar cane burning policies, green harvesting and sustainable sugarcane farm management system (SuSFarMS) (KwaZulu-Natal DAEA&RD, 2011). Internationally, the main focus with respect to emissions generated due to animal husbandry as an agricultural activity, is the malodours generated as a result of feeding and cleaning the animals such as pigs, sheep, goats and chickens. Emissions assessed include ammonia (a greenhouse gas) and hydrogen sulphide. 22 Figure 18: Sugar cane burning (James Sparsphatt/Corbis.com, 2005) 1.4 Common Air Pollutants in South Africa It is clear that most human-induced activities result in the release of air pollutants to the atmosphere. The most common air pollutants (pressures) in the country are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Pollutants of concern in South Africa (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2007) Current Criteria Pollutants Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Ozone (O3) Carbon monoxide (CO) Lead (Pb) Particulate Matter (PM10) Benzene (C6H6) 1.5 Possible Future Pollutants National Pollutants Local Pollutants Mercury (Hg) Particulate matter (PM2.5) Dioxins; Furans; POPs Other VOCs Pollutants controlled by international conventions ratified by South Africa Chrome (Cr6+) Fluoride (particulate and gas); Manganese (Mn) Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in South Africa One of the most important aspects of air quality management and methods of determining ambient air quality or state is monitoring of air quality related data. Monitoring fulfills a central role by providing the necessary sound scientific basis for policy and strategy development, objective setting, compliance measurements against targets and enforcement action. In South Africa, a 23 substantial amount of ambient air quality monitoring is conducted by a wide range of monitoring agencies, using a range of monitoring methodologies and approaches. Currently, the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network (NAAQMN) has 94 government air quality monitoring stations operated by all three spheres of government (Figure 19). The DEA currently operates a total of 11 stations with 6 located in the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area (VTAPA) and the other five in the Highveld Priority area (HPA). Only four provincial departments currently operate a total of 21 stations, with the Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA&DP) operating four stations, KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development (DAEA&RD) operates 6 stations, North West Department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment and Rural Development (DACERD) run 7 stations, Mpumalanga Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (DEDET) operates 4 stations. The DEA has also recently commissioned three continuous air quality monitoring stations in the Waterberg District in Limpopo as a proactive approach to air quality management. The Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development’s (GDARD) four monitoring stations are in the process of re-commissioning. Figure 19: Overview of the government-owned air quality monitoring networks (National Air Quality Monitoring Final Report, 2011) 24 The remaining significant portion of the 73 stations is currently owned by municipalities. For the most part, air quality monitoring activities are conducted by metropolitan councils and by industry. As a result they are mostly located in close proximity to the major urban areas and industrial development nodes (DEA, 2007). The most commonly monitored pollutants are SO2, NOX (NO2 and NO), O3, and particulate matter (ambient PM10 and PM2.5) (Table 3). The other pollutants measured include Pb, CO, TSP, VOCs, BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene components or just benzene), H2S, and total reduced sulphur (TRS). Ambient air quality monitoring also occurs in background and rural sites in the country. Monitoring campaigns have also been driven by the implementation of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (NEMAQA) No. 39 of 2004. This legislation saw a shift from individual source-based controls to an ambient air quality objectives approach and more focus on the receiving environment including human communities. A baseline study was undertaken to assess the operational status of air quality monitoring stations operated by the various spheres of government for the supply of air quality data to the South African Air Quality Information System (SAAQIS) and to assess a number of air quality monitoring stations that are currently being operated in terms of the requirements of the South African National Accreditation System (SANAS) (DEA, 2011). This study culminated in the NAAQMN Audit report which states that most of the stations complied with the technical requirements of the SANAS TR07 document, “Supplementary requirements for the accreditation of continuous ambient air pollution monitoring station’’. In addition, the monitoring equipment utilised in most of the sites complied with the US-EPA and other internationally recognised standards. However, lack of capacity and sufficient training in the field of air quality monitoring were identified during the study. Proposed recommendations from the study include; • • • • • The establishment of an intensive training programme for the training of all air quality monitoring officials in all spheres of government. Extension of current air quality monitoring initiatives in South Africa. Putting in place a programme towards SANAS accreditation of all government monitoring networks to ensure that credible and validated data can be supplied to the SAAQIS. An air quality monitoring strategy to identify key focus areas for air quality monitoring in the country. This is even more crucial issue given that air quality monitoring has been identified as a deliverable for Outcome 10. The development of the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) which will be crucial in the generation of air quality information that can support 25 decision making and compliance monitoring in South Africa. The NRL will also be used for ensuring traceability and standardisation of measurements in the air quality monitoring field and capacity development and guidance to all air quality monitoring networks in the country (DEA, 2011). Table 3: Pollutants measured at various government ambient air quality monitoring stations (DEA, 2011) Network Number of Stations Measured Pollutants Vaal Triangle Priority Area (VTAPA) 6 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, Pb and BTEX Highveld Priority Area 5 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, Pb, Hg and BTEX Western Cape Province 3 PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, BTEX, Pb and VOCs KwaZulu-Natal 6 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and H2S Mpumalanga Province 4 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, CO, Pb, Hg and BTEX Limpopo 2 PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and CO2 (in Sekhukhune DM) and SO2 in Capricorn DM North West Province 7 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO, O3 and VOCs Rustenburg Local Municipality 3 PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, BTEX (at some of the stations) City of Johannesburg 7 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX Ekurhuleni 9 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX (at most of the stations) City of Cape Town 12 PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, H2S and BTEX Nelson Mandela Bay 3 PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX City of Tshwane 5 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO and BTEX eThekwini 12 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, O3, CO, TRS, BTEX Msunduzi Local municipality 2 PM10, SO2, NOx, O3, H2S and BTEX Mangaung Local Municipality 3 PM10, PM2.5, NOx and CO Buffalo City 3 PM10, SO2, NOx, O3 and CO Notes: BTEX- Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylene TRS- Total Reduced Sulphur 26 1.5.1 Monitored Pollutant Concentrations 1.5.1.1 Particulates Annual ambient air PM10 concentrations recorded from the various monitoring stations in the country are presented in Figure 20, Figure 21, Figure 22 and in Tables A –D in Appendix A. Elevated PM10 levels still occur in various parts of the country, exceeding the annual PM10 ambient air quality standard, especially in residential household fuel burning areas where multiple sources of fuel such as paraffin, coal and wood are used for cooking and heating instead of electricity and gas. The use of these multiple sources of fuels varies in the country depending largely on availability and affordability. For example, in Gauteng, paraffin and coal are the most common sources of fuel, while in Mpumalanga, coal is the most common household source of energy due to its abundance and hence affordability. In the coastal provinces such as Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, wood and paraffin are the most common sources of fuel. In Limpopo province, wood is the most common source of fuel. Elevated PM10 concentrations in excess of air quality limits are also recorded in some industry monitoring sites. However, with proper control equipment and abatement measures, it is expected that particulates from industrial activities can be further reduced. It is also evident that most of the exceedances of the PM10 annual standard occur in the priority areas, hence re-affirming the declaration of these areas. Particulates are therefore a cause of great national concern due to exceedances of the NAAQS which are designed for the protection of the environment and human health. This is especially a concern given that it is proposed that by 2020, air quality in all low income settlements should be in full compliance with ambient air quality standards. 27 Measured PM10 concentrations at Johannesburg stations (DEA, 2011) Measured concentrations of PM10 in Cape Town (DEA, 2011) Measured PM10 concentrations at eThekwini stations (DEA, 2011) Measured PM10 concentrations at the VTAPA stations (DEA, 2011) Figure 20: Measured PM10 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the country 28 Figure 21: Measured PM10 concentrations at the Highveld Priority Area monitoring stations (DEA, 2011) Figure 22: PM10 trends for various monitoring stations in the country (DEA, 2011) In summary, PM10 annual data from the various stations in the country indicates that a small percentage of stations fall in the green zone (below 25 µg/m³) (Figure 23). The implications are that continued and increased efforts are required for the reduction of particulate concentrations to acceptable levels. Figure 23: PM10 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011) 29 1.5.1.2 Sulphur dioxide The annual ambient SO2 concentrations for various monitoring sites in the country are presented in Figure 24, Figure 25, Figure 26 and in Tables A –D in Appendix A. In the domestic fuel burning areas, the annual air quality standard for SO2 are rarely exceeded except in Alexandra in Johannesburg. Although concentrations of SO2 in some industrial sites at the Highveld Priority Area exceed the SO2 annual air quality standard, significant improvements in the reduction of SO2 emissions have been reported at Cape Town Metro (Figure 24), eThekwini Metro and Richards Bay (Figure 26). However, contributions to SO2 emissions in the country vary according to industry types, raw materials and location. Petrochemical, metallurgy, power generation, pulp and paper, ceramic processes are some of the industrial processes that contribute to SO2 emissions. Figure 24: Measured SO2 concentrations at Cape Town Figure 25: Measured SO2 concentrations at Johannesburg (DEA, 2011) 30 Measured SO2 concentrations at the Vaal Triangle (DEA, 2011) Measured SO2 concentrations at eThekwini (DEA, 2011) Measured SO2 concentrations at the Highveld Priority Area (DEA, 2011) Inter-annual comparison of RBCAA annual average SO2 (Annual Ambient Air Quality Report, 2009) Figure 26: Measured SO2 concentrations at various monitoring stations in the country 31 The assessment of all the SO2 data monitored from various stations indicates that more stations are recording annual concentrations below 8.5ppb (Figure 27) (DEA, 2011). This is an indication that there are significant improvements towards SO2 reduction. Figure 27: SO2 annual average data rated per station (DEA, 2011) 1.5.1.3 Nitrogen dioxide and Ozone Air quality limits for NO2 and O3 are exceeded at road traffic-related sites, some domestic fuel burning areas and industrial areas (Table B and Table C respectively- Appendix A). NO2 and O3 concentrations are particularly high in the busy traffic routes (highways and other busy roads) within metropolitan areas. The increasing number of vehicles in the country is also expected to have an impact on future traffic-related NO2 emissions. 1.5.2 National Air Quality Indicator A National Air Quality Indicator (NAQI) has been proposed for South Africa. The purposes of the NAQI are to; • Monitor national progress in implementing AQA policy targets including national compliance to air quality standards by 2020. • Assess the condition and reflect nationally air quality trends • Inform the objectives of the AQA (enhancement, protection, governance) • Measurable indicators that are informed by goals • Support tool for policy makers • Raise public awareness and support • Assist in the determination of the efficacy of interventions. 32 The proposed NAQI will be based on national monitoring of PM10 and SO2, which are the most prevalent pollutants associated with bad air quality in the country. Use of annual averages of PM10 and SO2 from all monitoring stations will be made to determine the NAQI. Equal weightings for PM10 and SO2 that are linked to the NAAQS will used to derive the NAQI (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on Air Quality Management, 2010). Using this proposed methodology for the NAQI and data from 41 monitoring stations across the country, indications are that the NAQI is in the vicinity of the minimum quality level and is also above this level in the red zone (Figure 28). This has been a cause of concern as the NAQI, (when superimposed on the framework for the use and application of the standards or objective-based approach shown in Figure 29), indicates a deterioration trend in air quality since 2000. However, this trend is largely (but not entirely) due to the addition of data from identified pollution ‘hotspots’. There is however a possibility that after the deterioration trend since 2000, the index may be reaching a plateau over the last years (Figure 28). It is apparent that continued and increased efforts by various stakeholders are required in order to meet the Presidential Outcome 10 target for full air quality compliance by 2020 (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on Air Quality Management, 2010). Figure 28: The initial NAQI superimposed on the framework for the use and application of the standards or objective-based approach to air quality management (DEA- National Air Quality’s Officers Report on Air Quality Management, 2010). 33 Figure 29: Framework for the use and application of the standards or objective based approach to air quality management (DEA- The 2007 National Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa, 2007). While a national air quality indicator can be extremely useful in communicating environmental information in a form that is easily understood to the public, health and air pollution authorities, private sector, government officials, regulators, academics etc, criticisms have been directed at the use of such an indicator. The most common ones include; • The national air quality indicator can be misleading as there is a possibility of masking significant changes in pollutant trends; especially if long term averaged data is used to determine the indicator (Hunt, 2006). • The danger of information loss when multiple pollutants are combined into a single index and hence suggestions that multiple air quality indicators and indices should be developed for each criteria pollutant (Hunt, 2006). • In South Africa, concerns about the determination of the NAQI include the exclusion of other criteria pollutants such as C6H6, CO, Pb, O3 and NO2 which raises issues of representativeness and comprehensiveness. The exclusion of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) is also a major concern. The addition of a component addressing HAPs can be considered in the determination of the NAQI. Benzene, for example, is a suitable pollutant to report on HAPs as it commonly occurs in ambient air and is currently monitored in some ambient monitoring stations. • Good quality data from a well-maintained and representative national monitoring network is required for use in calculating the air quality 34 indicator. In South Africa, this could be a potential problem as air quality data is not available for all areas, especially in air quality management areas that currently have no ambient air quality monitoring activities taking place. The Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) conducted an initial assessment of the current air quality status of various areas in the country which include the metropolitan and district municipalities in South Africa based on available information. The areas were rated as follows; • Acceptable: generally good air quality • Potentially Poor: air quality may be poor at times or deteriorating • Poor: ambient air quality standards regularly exceeded However, a robust and transparent methodology for identification of air quality management areas in the country was developed taking into account national circumstances. This methodology resulted in the development of an Air Quality Impact Rating which takes into account the population density, industrial and domestic emissions, topography and administrative boundaries (DEA, 2010). The methodology acknowledges the scarcity of data and information required in the identification of air quality management areas. The preliminary findings of the DEA assessment and the developed methodology are shown in Table 4. Table 4: Metropolitan and District Municipalities Air Quality Ratings (DEA’s Indicative Assessment, 2007) and Revised Air Quality Ratings (Scott, G, 2010) Province Gauteng Metro District/Municipality Initial Air Quality Rating Revised Air Quality Rating Westonaria Potentially poor Potentially poor Mandeni Potentially poor Potentially poor KwaDukuza Potentially poor Potentially poor Uthungulu DM uMhlathuze Poor Potentially poor Ugu Umdoni Potentially poor Potentially poor Capricorn DM Polokwane Potentially poor Potentially poor Vhembe Thulamela Acceptable Potentially poor West Rand iLembe DM KwaZulu-Natal Local Municipality Limpopo Madibeng Potentially poor Potentially poor Rustenburg Poor Potentially poor Dr Kenneth Kaunda City of Matlosana Potentially poor Potentially poor Frances Baard Sol Plaatjie Potentially poor Potentially poor Bojanala Platinum DM North West Northern Cape 35 However, despite the availability of continuous monitored data from the various stations which make up the NAAQMN, there is limited air quality monitoring capability in South Africa. In some areas in the country, no air quality monitoring activities exist. As a consequence, it has become increasingly difficult to monitor, verify and validate the air quality ratings of areas that are anticipated to have air quality problems. These areas are identified in Table 24 of the 2007 National Framework for Air Quality Management (NFAQM). However, with the development of the NAQI and the finalisation of the Government –owned Air Quality Monitoring Network Audit, the DEA has identified the need to develop an air quality rating system based on robust data and information. The audit confirmed the need to expand the current air quality monitoring network in the country. Given the expensive nature of operating continuous air quality monitors, a national passive sampling campaign targeting especially areas identified in Table 24 of the NFAQM, has been identified as a cost effective means of identifying of developing sound data and information. 1.6 Ambient Air Quality and Associated Effects 1.6.1 Health Risks Humans can be adversely affected by exposure to air pollutants in ambient air and these effects represent the impacts of air pollution. In response to this issue, human health based standards and objectives for a number of air pollutants were developed in South Africa. Air quality standards are pivotal tools in air quality management. Associated with air quality standards are values which indicate safe exposure levels for the majority of the population. Specific averaging periods (generally 1 hour, 24 hour, 1 month, annual and instantaneous) are given for the air quality standards and guidelines for various pollutants. The DEA developed National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for various criteria pollutants such as PM10, SO2, NO2, Pb, O3 and CO (Table 5). The NAAQS apply over differing periods of time because the observed health impacts associated with each pollutant occur over different exposure times and the severity of health outcomes associated with air pollution exposure is not uniform within populations. In South Africa, the problem is exacerbated by the fact that vulnerable communities reside on land in close proximity to pollution sources and the relationship between air pollution, poverty and health is more evident. 36 Table 5: National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Criteria Pollutants Pollutant Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Exceedance Compliance Date 10-min average 500 µg/m (191ppb) 3 526 Immediate 1-hr average 350 µg/m (134 ppb) 3 88 Immediate 3 125 µg/m (48 ppb) 4 Immediate 3 50 µg/m (19 ppb) 0 Immediate 200 µg/m3 (106 ppb) 88 Immediate 24-hr average Annual average Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 1-hr average Annual average 40 µg/m3 (21 ppb) 0 Immediate Carbon monoxide (CO) 1-hr average 30 mg/m3 (26 ppm) 88 Immediate 8-hr running average 10 mg/m (8.7 ppm) 11 Immediate 8-hr running average 120 µg/m (61 ppb) 3 11 Immediate 4 Immediate- 31 December 2014 Ozone (O3) 3 120 µg/m 3 24-hr average Particulate Matter (PM10) 75 µg/m 3 4 1 January 2015 50 µg/m 3 0 Immediate- 31 December 2014 40 µg/m 3 0 1 January 2015 3 0 Immediate Annual average Lead (Pb) Annual average 0.5 µg/m Benzene (C6H6) Annual average 10 µg/m (3.2 ppb) Annual average 5µg/m (1.6 ppb) 3 3 37 Immediate- 31 December 2014 1 January 2015 Box 1.3: Links between Indoor Pollution, Poverty and Health In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the close inter-relationship of domestic energy use, health and poverty, with the later being a barrier in the transition to ‘cleaner’ sources of fuel such as electricity and liquefied petroleum gas. Summary of health and development issues associated with the use of domestic energy in developing countries (WHO, 2002). The reliance on biomass and coal as sources of domestic energy hinders development due to the burdens on the health system, loss of time and opportunities for economic development. The lack of access to more modern fuels also limits the quality of life. In some sub Saharan African countries, 80-90% of the population still relies on biomass fuel and coal, with the use of domestic sources of fuel on the increase, especially among the poor. In South Africa, a combination of fuels is used in many households, for example coal and wood for heating and cooking, paraffin for cooking, electricity for lighting. Although with development, it is expected that energy use will follow a general transition pattern of energy use or ‘energy ladder’ towards fuels which are progressively more efficient, this is not the case in most developing countries. For example, most areas (poor, high density, informal settlements and rural areas) in South Africa, where domestic fuels are commonly used, there is little prospect of completely switching the use of these fuels to modern, ‘cleaner’ fuels such as electricity and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This is mainly due to economic reasons such as lack of finance for these sources of fuel and hence for many households, the prospects of completely switching the use of these fuels to modern fuels are limited or nonexistent. Pollutants such as particulates (PM10 and PM2.5), CO, NO2, SO2, (mainly from coal), formaldehyde, carcinogens such as benzene and benzo (a) pyrene are responsible for most of the health effects of air pollution. A number of epidemiological studies from developing countries have reported on the association between indoor air pollution exposure and acute respiratory diseases such as chronic lung disease, asthma, bronchitis, chronic pulmonary disease, lung cancer, acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI). ALRI is reported to be amongst the top four killers of South African children less than five years old. The health effects of air pollution, especially chronic respiratory diseases, are reported to be high among the poor who in most cases cannot afford the cost of medical attention. 38 Air pollution from the domestic sources of air pollution (coal, wood, paraffin etc) has been described as the single largest contributor to the negative health impacts of air pollution. This was confirmed by the Fund for Research into Industrial Development, Growth and Equity (FRIDGE) Study, a study undertaken to assess the social and economic impacts of phasing out ‘dirty’ fuels in South Africa (FRIDGE, 2004). A study was also undertaken in the country to estimate the burden of respiratory ill health among children and adults in 2000 from exposure to indoor air pollution associated with household use of solid fuels. The results of the study indicated that exposure to solid fuels was estimated at 24% in the black African, followed by 9% in the coloured and about 1% in both the Indian and white population groups (Table 6). Table 6: Exposure to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels by population group, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) The results of the study also indicated that in the year 2000 in South Africa, about 24% of the burden from Acute Lower Respiratory Infections (ALRIs) in children under 5 years was attributable to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels (Norman et al, 2007). For chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), female population attributable fractions (PAFs), were more than double those in males. Indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels was estimated to cause 2489 deaths of all deaths in South Africa in 2000. Since most indoor smoke-related respiratory diseases events occurred in very young children or in middle or old age, the loss of healthy life years comprised a slightly smaller proportion of the total: 60934 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). The age standardised indoor air pollution attributable mortality rates by population group are presented in Table 7. Large population group differences were observed, with the highest rates seen in black African males and females, followed by coloured males and females (Figure 30). The Indian and white population groups showed very low rates. Adult women were observed to have increased risk compared to adult men (Figure 30). Nationally, the burden of disease attributed to the use of household solid fuels is dominated by the burden caused by ALRIs 39 in children under 5 years of age, which accounts for almost 80% of the total attributable burden (Figure 31). COPD accounts for almost all of the remainder, with lung cancer burden a relatively minor contributor (Norman et al, 2007). Table 7: Burden attributable to indoor pollution from household use of solid fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) Figure 30: Age-standardised indoor air pollution attributable mortality rates by population group and sex, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) Figure 31: Burden of disease attributable to indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) 40 A similar study was also undertaken to estimate the burden of disease attributable to urban outdoor air pollution in South Africa for the year 2000. Outdoor air pollution in urban areas was estimated to cause 3.7% of the total mortality from cardiopulmonary (heart and lung) disease in adults aged 30 years and older, 5.1% of mortality attributable to cancers of the tranchea (windpipe), bronchus and lung in adults, and 1.1% of mortality from acute respiratory infections (ARIs) in children under 5 years of age. This amounts to an estimated 4637 deaths or 0.9% of all deaths and 42 219 or 0.4% years of life lost (YLLs) of all YLLs in persons in South Africa in 2000 (Table 8). The results of the study also showed that most of the YLLs (86.3%) attributable to exposure to urban outdoor pollution are due to cardiopulmonary mortality in adults aged 30 years and older (Figure 32) (Norman et al, 2007). Lung cancer mortality in adults (8.5%) and ARIs in children under 5 years of age (5.2%) accounted for much smaller proportions of the total attributable burden (Figure 32). Table 8: Summary of mortality burden attributable to urban outdoor air pollution, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007) 41 Figure 32: Years of life lost attributable to urban outdoor air pollution, South Africa, 2000 (Norman et al, 2007). One of the health studies undertaken in the country is the South Durban Health Study. The study included South Durban (Bluff (Dirkie Uys), Merebank (Nizam), Wentworth/Austerville (Assegai), Lamontville (Entuthekwini) North Durban: KwaMashu (Ngazana), Newlands East (Ferndale) and Newlands West (Briardale). The research estimated lifetime cancer risks (Figure 33) from inhalation and this was above guideline levels at Wentworth and the largest risks were posed by; • VOCs especially benzene - Major sources included point and fugitive releases from petroleum refining, storage & distribution facilities, and vehicle emissions. • Semi-volatile compounds - dioxins, furans, PAHs and naphthalene. Major sources included biomass/waste burning, diesel, large “point” sources (incinerators). • Metals - chromium, nickel, lead, and manganese. According to the study, the non-cancer risks were below significance level for most of the measured toxic compounds (Figure 34). The most important air toxics included manganese, benzene, p,m-xylene, phenanthrene, and naphthalene. Lead remains a concern since a higher than desirable fraction of children have blood lead levels above guidelines. Other main findings of the study indicated that attending primary school in South Durban, as compared to the north, was significantly associated with increased risk for persistent asthma and for marked airway hyperactivity (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). Higher outdoor concentrations of NO2, NO, PM10, and SO2 were strongly and significantly associated with poorer lung function on following days among 42 children with persistent asthma and children with certain genes (Figure 35). For adults, living in communities in the south, as compared to the north was significantly associated with hayfever, and somewhat associated with chronic bronchitis, wheezing with shortness of breath, and hypertension (Figure 36). Figure 33: Total cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) Figure 34: Total non-cancer risks for VOCs (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) 43 Figure 35: Adjusted prevalences for respiratory outcomes by school (Prevalences adjusted for age, gender, race, education, annual household income, and school (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). Figure 36: Adjusted prevalences for adult health outcomes by community (Predicted prevalences have been adjusted by the following covariates: age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, current smoker, and community (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005). 1.6.2 Plants and Animals Air pollution also has effects on plants and animals although limited research on these effects has been undertaken in South Africa. The most common pollutants 44 which have got adverse effects on plants include SO2, fluoride, chlorine, ozone and ethylene. The effects of pollution in plants include “burning” at leaf tips or margins, stunted growth, premature leaf growth, delayed maturity, early drop of blossoms and reduced yield or quality. In general, the three most common visible injuries to plants include collapse of the leaf tissue with the development of necrotic patterns, yellowing or other colour changes and premature loss of foliage and alterations in growth (Enviropedia, 2011). However, complicating issues is the fact that injuries or damages to plants from air pollution can be confused with the symptoms caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, insects, nutritional deficiencies and toxicities, environmental factors such as temperature, wind and water. Other pollutants such as SO2, NO2 and CO2 can dissolve in water to form acid rain. Depending on the pH level, effects of acid rain can range from plant damage to plant death, depending on concentration and period of exposure to toxins. Entire ecosystems are also in danger because of changes in soil chemistry (Enviropedia, 2011). Damage to plants caused by air pollution is most common close to large urban areas and industrial areas such as power generation plants, smelters, incinerators, landfill sites, pulp and paper mills, fossil fuel burning etc. The extent of damage of vegetation by plants depends on the type and concentration of pollutants, distance from the source, length of exposure and meteorological conditions. Air pollution has also been identified as a major contributor to degradation of vegetation and desertification, in addition to climatic changes and overexploitation of natural resources in Africa. In South Africa, a study was undertaken which indicated that the organic compound tichloroacetic acid (TCA), which originates in an enhanced presence of several C2-chlorohydrocarbons (C2CHCs) in the atmosphere (Weissflog et al, 2004). During the study, the burden on vegetation resulting from C2-CHCs pollutants was assessed by sampling the concentration of TCA in pine needles along a 600 km air pollution gradient ranging from highly industrialized areas in Gauteng to rural areas in the Eastern part of South Africa. Parallel measurement of the TCA content of pine needles and their vitality over an air pollution gradient ranging from Potschefstroom eastwards towards Sasolburg and further south in the direction of Heilbron, revealed a decline in the TCA content of the needles with increasing distance from Sasolburg in the Vaal Triangle, a ‘hot spot’ of anthropogenic air pollution in South Africa. Studies in South Africa and Russia have shown that large vegetation fires lead to a substantial increase in the C2-chlorohydrocarbon content of needles of pine trees growing on the side of the fire zone (Weissflog et al, 2004). 45 Animals are exposed to air pollutants through three pathways which are the inhalation of gases or small particles, ingestion of particles suspended in food or water and absorption of gases through the skin. Pollutants such as O3, SO2 and NO2 primarily affect the respiratory system. Heavy metals (e.g. lead, arsenic, and cadmium) are emitted from various operations such as smelters. Metals may affect the circulatory, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems of animals. The most affected organs are the kidney, liver, and brain. Entire populations can be affected as metal contamination can cause changes in birth, growth, and death rates (www.air-quality.org.uk, 2011). Acid rain has effects on animals, can lead to a decline in, and loss of, fish populations and amphibians. Although birds and mammals are not directly affected by water acidification, they are indirectly affected by change in the quantity and quality of their food resources (www.air-quality.org.uk, 2011). 1.7 Regional and Global Issues 1.7.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds of anthropogenic origin that resist degradation and accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans, and are found at higher concentrations at higher levels in the food chain (WHO, 2003). These pollutants can be transported over long distances in the atmosphere and this trans-boundary transportation results in the widespread global distribution to regions where these substances have never been used. The toxicity of POPs and the threat they pose to human health, other living organisms and the environment, has resulted in a global response to these chemicals in recent years (WHO, 2003). The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is one such global response to POPs. It is essentially a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from POPs. Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as the causal agents of adverse effects on humans and the environment. These were placed in three categories which include: • Pesticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane( DDT) and chlordane • Industrials chemicals • Chemical by- products such as dioxins and furans which are produced from combustion processes such as waste incineration and industrial processes. However, nine additional chemicals have been listed as POPs and other chemicals are under review for classification as POPs by the POPs Review Committee. 46 Box 1.4: Africa Stockpile Programme: Achievements in South Africa In response to the problems of pesticides in Africa, The African Stockpiles Programme (ASP) was initiated for the clean up and safe disposal of over 50,000 tonnes of obsolete pesticide waste stockpiled across Africa (http://www.africastockpiles.net, 2011). In South Africa, a decision was made to implement a pilot collection and inventory exercise in the Limpopo province as the province has a strong agricultural sector. As part of this exercise in the province, a strategy was developed in co-operation with farmers’ cooperatives and pesticide distributors for the delivery of obsolete pesticides from farms to the network of existing pesticide distribution centres in the province. A total of 24 centres were established and adequate safety and containment for stocks upon delivery was provided. Information was also provided to farmers on how to safely package and transport the stocks and a comprehensive communication and awareness campaign was initiated (http://www.fao.org, 2011). The collection phase of this project took place for a period of 60 days and at the end of this period, stocks were in the main storage location. A total number of between 60-80 tonnes of stocks have been collected from various farms and provincial sectors in Limpopo. Current project activities in the province include the completion of an inventory of these stocks and thereafter the repackaging of the pesticides for safe interim storage before suitable disposal (http://www.fao.org, 2011). The collection phase of the project has been considered a huge success and an indication of multi-stakeholder cooperation among national and provincial government departments, pesticide industry, NGO groups and farmers. Stocks of obsolete pesticide stocks in Limpopo (http://www.fao.org, 2011) Stocks of betadine in Limpopo (http://www.fao.org, 2011) On the basis, of the obsolete pesticide collection campaign undertaken in Limpopo Province, it is estimated that there is sufficient funding from the World Bank grant to collect obsolete stocks from two additional provinces, after which the pesticide industry will collect pesticides from the remaining provinces. In consultation with the pesticide industry, a decision has been taken to collect stocks from the Free State and Western Cape Provinces and pre-identified stocks already held in storage by the pesticide industry. The Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Association of South Africa (AVCASA), has committed to providing a long term sustainable solution to unwanted pesticide and empty container management. The DEA has embarked on a process to collect and dispose of these obsolete stocks from the two provinces. Challenges The main challenges for the project so far include financial constraints in some areas and the large scale of the project. This effectively means that obsolete pesticides will not be cleared in all countries simultaneously, but in various phases. 47 Concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been rarely measured in urban Africa communities. Combustion processes can generate many POPs, e.g., polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and atmospheric transport is often the primary route transporting these contaminants into the environment (Batterman et al, 2007). For airborne PCDDs, recent inventories show that the largest single category contributor of emissions is uncontrolled combustion processes, e.g., biomass burning (forest, grassland, crop residue), waste burning, and accidental domestic/industrial fires (Batterman et al, 2007). There is currently no comprehensive monitoring program to monitor POPs in South Africa. However, in line with the requirements of the Stockholm Convention for establishing baseline trends at global background sites, two programmes monitoring POPS in the environment were set up for the African region. These programmes are the Global Passive Sampling Programme and MONET Africa. South Africa was a participant in both monitoring programmes and three sampling sites were selected in the country. These include Molopo Nature Reserve- a background site with no industrial sources, Barberspan another non-industrial rural background area and Vanderbijlpark- an industrial site affected by the iron and steel manufacturing, petrochemical plant, power plant and coal mining within a 20 km radius (DEA, 2011). The Molopo Nature Reserve was sampled for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Mirex, Chlordane, DDT and Heptachlor while the Vanderbijlpark and Barberspan sites were sampled for DDT and PCBs. Molopo Nature Reserve and Barberspan showed very little air pollution (not detectable- ND) (Table 9). Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Mirex, Chlordane, and Heptachlor emissions were below the Limit of Quantification (LOQ). The levels of DDT were quantifiable, but the levels were very low (DEA, 2011). Table 9: POPs Monitoring Results from the GAP Study (DEA, 2011) Determinants Molopo site Aldrin Dieldrin Endrin Mirex Chlordane DDT Min ng/filter <LOQ <LOQ <LOQ <LOQ <LOQ 1.1 Max ng/filter <LOQ <LOQ <LOQ <LOQ <LOQ 3.1 Heptachlor <LOQ <LOQ Barberspan site Vanderbijlpark site Min ng/filter ND ND ND ND ND 1.0 Max ng/filter ND ND ND ND ND 5.5 Min ng/filter ND ND ND ND ND 1.5 Max ng/filter ND ND ND ND ND 6.5 ND ND ND ND 48 In South Africa, an extensive ambient air monitoring programme was also undertaken in Durban (eThekwini Municipality). The monitoring programme focused on the South Durban Industrial Basin, an area with one of the highest industrial concentrations in South Africa and Africa (Figure 37) (Batterman et al, 2007). Industrial activities in the SDIB include petroleum refineries, a paper mill, international airport, landfill sites, incinerators, processing and manufacturing industries, harbour and rail facilities, major tracking and other industries. In most cases, residential areas (low income households) are generally located close to these industrial activities (Batterman et al, 2007). Figure 37: Air pollution emissions in South Durban Industrial Basin (Batterman and BatterRobins, 2005) Monitoring was conducted for PCCDs, PCDF and PCBs at three sites: Nizam in the southern part of SDIB, Wentworth in the central portion of the SDIB and Ferndale in an urban community located approximately 20 km north with Durban’s central business district lying between these areas. The results of the monitoring campaign indicated that the average levels of PCDFs at the sites were fairly uniform, within about 50%, and the Wentworth site tended to have the highest concentrations of 5 most congeners (Figure 38). PCDDs showed somewhat greater site-to-site variation, and Nizam had the highest levels of most congeners. PCDFs Hx234678 and Pe23478 contributed the most toxicity in the collected samples. All of the PCDDs and PCDFs were found predominantly in the particulate phase. In contrast, PCBs were found predominantly in the vapour phase, and the highest levels were found at the central Wentworth site (Batterman et al, 2007). 49 Figure 38: Comparison of PCDD/PCDF (left) and PCB (right) concentrations expressed as TEQs at three sites in Durban (Batterman et al, 2007). Humans can be exposed to POPs through diet, occupation, accidents and the environment, including the indoor environment. Exposure to POPs, either acute or chronic, can be associated with a wide range of adverse health effects, including illness and death. Human acute exposure to dioxins and furans can occur, for example, in the occupational setting - herbicide production, industrial accidents or chemical fires -, and through burning of garbage in dump areas. According to recent data from poisons centres from different parts of the world, cases of organochlorine pesticide poisoning are still occurring, and are mainly due to aldrin, dieldrin, HCB and chlordane. The greatest part of human exposure to the specified POPs is attributed to the food chain (Stober, 1998). Contamination of food may occur through environmental pollution of the air, water and soil, or through the previous use or unauthorized use of organochlorine pesticides on food crops. Episodes of massive food contamination have been reported. Some chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides have been known to be the cause of many serious, acute poisonings. This particularly refers to endrin, aldrin and dieldrin (Stober, 1998). The contamination of food, including breast milk, by POPs is a worldwide phenomenon. A number of incidents of acute toxic effects in humans, including death, have occurred as a result of contaminated food. Edible oils and foods of animal origin are most often involved. Short-term exposure to high concentrations of certain POPs has been shown to result in illness and death. Studies of carcinogenesis associated with occupational exposure to 2.3.7.82.3.7.8 tetrachlordibenzodioxin (TCDD) also seem to indicate that extremely high-level exposures of human populations do elevate overall cancer incidence (Ritter et al, 1996). Laboratory studies provide convincing supporting evidence 50 that selected organochlorine chemicals (dioxins and furans) may have carcinogenic effects and act as strong tumour promoters. More recently, literature has been accumulating in which some researchers have suggested a possible relationship between exposure to some POPs and human disease and reproductive dysfunction (Ritter et al, 1996). 1.7.2 Transboundary Transportation of Pollutants Pollutants emitted from natural or anthropogenic sources to the atmosphere may be transported over short or long distances, with global dispersion resulting in ultra-long range transport. The air pollutants cross geographical boundaries or migrate across several geographic zones and the pollution is hence referred to as transboundary. Since the atmosphere is a shared resource, concerns have arisen from the effects of this trans-boundary pollution which is capable of affecting systems at a regional scale. A broad range of pollutants have been described to share the common phenomena of transboundary transport. Research shows that transboundary transport occurs either because the pollutants have very low deposition velocities (for example pollutants associated with haze and fine particulate matter), or an extended period of time is required for the pollutant to develop from the precursor compounds (smog, acid rain) or are chemically inert (mercury) or go through a multi pathways as in the case of POPs. There are two major challenges with transboundary pollutants and these include the international cooperation required to address them and the provision of appropriate data upon which reduction decisions can be made. In South Africa, air pollution from the Mpumalanga Highveld is still a major concern, especially given the large proportion of the industrial infrastructure that is concentrated on the Highveld Plateau. The Highveld region accounts for the majority of air pollutants (industrial particulates, SO2 and NOX) (Freiman and Piketh, 2002). Due to the presence of mercury in coal, the Mpumalanga Highveld is a potential significant source of this pollutant due to the majority of coal fired electricity generation plants located in this region. Emissions from the Zambian copper belt are still a significant source of aerosols over southern Africa (Meter et al. 1999). Southern African transport reaching the Highveld frequently carries previously injected industrial aerosols and trace gases (D’Abreton and Tyson 1996; Piketh et al. 1998). The role of biomass burning emissions in contributing to the air pollution loads cannot be underestimated. Biomass burning is an important source in long-range 51 transport of air pollution. Biomass burning is dependent on seasons and is therefore a highly seasonal source. The biomass burning season starts near the equator around June and moves southward where it reaches maximum intensity in Southern Africa around September (Figure 39). Associated with biomass burning is the long-range transport of both aerosols and trace gases across the subcontinent. Figure 39: Seasonal atmospheric transport from Zambia over the southern Africa subcontinent (North West Air Quality Management Plan, 2009) 1.7.3 Acid Deposition Acidic deposition occurs when emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and other industrial processes undergo complex chemical reactions in the atmosphere and are deposited as wet deposition and dry deposition. The main chemical precursors leading to acidic conditions are atmospheric concentrations of SO2 and NOx (Ecological Society of America, 2000). In South Africa, the industrial Highveld plateau is still considered as a significant source of pollutants associated with acid deposition and accounts for approximately 90% of South Africa’s scheduled emissions of industrial dust, SO2 and NOx (Wells et al., 1996 as cited in Josipovic, 2009). In addition to primary pollutants, a major secondary pollutant, O3, is formed from naturally occurring 52 and anthropogenic chemical precursors, including NOx and VOCs that can be emitted from by industry (Josipovic, 2009). Research on acid deposition has been limited in the country. However, a widely referenced research study on acid deposition was undertaken in the country and is referenced in the 2005 State of Air Report. As part of this study, a passive monitoring network was devised to measure monthly mean atmospheric concentrations of three trace gas species, SO2, NO2 and O3 in the Highveld region. Total dry and wet deposition estimates for sulphur and nitrogen compounds were based on the concentrations of these pollutants. The network comprised of 37 monitoring sites at remote locations over the northern and eastern portions of South Africa, at 1° grid intervals (0.5° for several sites) (Figure 40). Figure 40: The passive diffusive sampling network distribution [with locations of wet chemistry deposition sites (green lettering) in relation to this study sites (black and green lettering) (Josipovic, 2009). The results of the research study indicated that concentration distributions for acidic gases SO2 and NO2 show prevailing high concentrations over the industrial Highveld. Acidic deposition distributions showed a direct relationship to high atmospheric concentration distributions (Figure 41). 53 Figure 41: Total (dry plus wet) acidic deposition rates (meq/m2 per year (Josipovic, 2009). Acid rain affects plants, animals and produces complex changes in normal soil chemistry and causes staining and chemical corrosion of buildings and monuments resulting in high economic costs. 1.7.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion The ozone layer is a belt of naturally occurring ozone gas that is located approximately 15 to 30 kilometres above the earth and serves as a shield from the harmful ultraviolet B radiation emitted by the sun. There is widespread concern that the ozone layer is deteriorating due to the release of pollution containing the chemicals chlorine and bromine. Such deterioration allows large amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth, which can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans and harm animals as well. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray aerosols heavily used by industrialised nations for much of the past 50 years, are the primary culprits in the breakdown of the ozone layer. Halons and other chemicals that are used in refrigerators, spray cans, air conditioners are also sources of ozone depleting substances (ODS). The presence of CFCs in the atmosphere results in the breakdown of the ozone layer. This is because in the upper atmosphere, CFCs are exposed to ultraviolet rays, which causes them to break down into substances that include chlorine. The chlorine reacts with the oxygen atoms in ozone and destroys the ozone molecule. According to the United States 54 Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA), one atom of chlorine can destroy more than a hundred thousand ozone molecules. The ozone layer above the Antarctic has been particularly impacted by pollution since the mid-1980s (National Geographic, 2011). This region’s low temperatures speed up the conversion of CFCs to chlorine. In summer, when the sun shines for long periods of the day, chlorine reacts with ultraviolet rays, destroying ozone on a massive scale, by up to 65 percent (National Geographic, 2011). Stratospheric ozone destruction is an essentially separate process from GHG accumulation in the lower atmosphere although there are several important and interesting connections. Several of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases (for example CFCs and N2O) are also ozone depleting gases. Tropospheric warming apparently induces stratospheric cooling that exacerbates ozone destruction (Shindell et al, 1998 and Kirk- Davidoff et al, 1999). As more of Earth’s radiant heat is trapped in the lower atmosphere, the stratosphere cools further, enhancing the catalytic destruction of ozone. Further, that loss of ozone itself augments the cooling of the stratosphere. Interactions between climate change and stratospheric ozone may delay recovery of the ozone layer by 15–20 years (Kelfkens et al, 2002). The depletion of stratospheric ozone and global warming due to the build-up of greenhouse gases interact to alter UVR related effects on health (Kelfkens et al, 2002). 1.7.4.1 Consumption of Ozone- Depleting Substances The consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) is a major global environmental concern. Although the consumption of several ozone- depleting substances in South Africa decreased from 1998 to 2002, the analysis for the period June 2004 to June 2009, highlights the fact that hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) dominate consumption at approximately 25,759 tons (81.4%) of total ODS consumed during the period 2004 to 2009 (Table 10 and Figure 42) (DEA, 2009). This is followed by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) at 3,439 tons (10.9%). Hydrofluorocarbon blends (HFC blends) are in third place with 1,089 tons (3.4%). Methyl bromide (MeBr) follows with 747 tons (2.4%) and bromochloromethane (BCM) at 624 tons (2%). Since the previous DEA report on this issue, HFC blends have overtaken MeBr consumption as a result of consumers exploring alternatives to HCFCs (DEA, 2009). It is anticipated that the consumption of both HFC and HFC blends will continue to rise due to the above mentioned reason. From the climate change point of view, this has serious environmental implications as these substances have high global warming potentials (GWPs). Figure 51 shows that HCFC-22 is the most consumed ODS in South Africa. 55 Table 10: Consumption of ODS in South Africa (June 2004- June 2009) (DEA, 2009) 56 Figure 42: Ozone depleting substances consumption trends in South Africa (June 2004- June 2009) (DEA, 2009) 1.7.4.2 Effects of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion There is a range of certain or possible health impacts of stratospheric ozone depletion. Many epidemiological studies have implicated solar radiation as a cause of skin cancer (melanoma and other types). Assessments by the United Nations Environment Program (1998) projected significant increases in skin cancer incidence due to stratospheric ozone depletion (UNEP, 1998). The assessment anticipates that for at least the first half of the twenty first century (and subject to changes in individual behaviours) additional ultraviolet radiation exposure will augment the severity of sunburn and incidence of skin cancer. High intensity UVR also damages the eye’s outer tissues causing “snow blindness”, the ocular equivalent of sunburn (UNEP, 1998). Research also shows that the incidence of skin cancer, has been increasing steadily in some populations over the past few decades (Armstrong and Kricker, 1994).This is particularly evident in areas of high ultraviolet radiation, particularly ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure such as South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Research studies also indicate that ultraviolet radiation suppresses components 57 of both local and systemic immune functioning. An increase in ultraviolet radiation exposure therefore may increase the occurrence and severity of infectious diseases and, in contrast, reduce the incidence and severity of various autoimmune disorders. There has been concern that increased exposure to ultra violet radiation due to stratospheric ozone depletion could hamper the effectiveness of vaccines, particularly, measles and hepatitis. Eye disorders are also expected to increase due to exposure particularly to UVB (UNEP, 1998). South Africa has very high levels of solar radiation) over twice that of Europe and 1.5 times higher than in the United States making it one of the highest in the world (Eumas et al, 2006). Proximity to the equator and with much of the country lying at a high altitude, the natural level of ultraviolet intensity is high, particularly in summer. As in any part of the world, UVB in our region is affected by many factors that are of temporal, geographical and meteorological in nature. Currently, there are six stations for monitoring UVB radiation. The stations are located in Pretoria, Cape Town, Durban, MEDUNSA north of Pretoria, Cape Point, De Aar and Port Elizabeth. The main purpose of the UVB network is to create and enhance public awareness and provide real time information of the hazard of exposure to biologically active UVB radiation reported using the ‘sunburning’ or erythemally weighted radiation (UVEry) (McKenzie et al, 2004). The UVI is the maximum amount of UV radiation to reach the earth’s surface at solar noon that is when the sun is at its highest angle in the sky (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010). The UVI values and exposure categories with the corresponding colour codes are shown in Figure 43. Figure 43: UVI values and exposure categories with corresponding colour codes (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) The monthly maximum UVB levels occur in January and the minimum levels in June. A comparison of the stations indicates that UVB levels in De Aar are the highest while Port Elizabeth is the lowest. UVB levels in Pretoria are second highest, followed by Durban, Cape Town International and Cape Point (Figure 44). 58 The use of the UV Index indicates that maximum UVB levels for all stations except Port Elizabeth lie within the extreme exposure category. 66% of the UVB levels recorded annually in this station lie in the high exposure category. Maximum UVB levels in Port Elizabeth lie within the high exposure category, and are comparably very low when compared to the other five stations. Extreme UVB levels are observed in De Aar with UVI reaching values of 11 very frequently (Figure 45). There is similar correlation in the seasonal and annual variation in UVB radiation levels among all the stations. The strong contrast of annual variation (high summer – low winters) have important implications on health and other aspects. Figure 44: Average maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) Figure 45: Maximum UV indices (Ncongwane and Coetzee, 2010) Given the detrimental health effects of excess personal solar UV radiation exposure which include sunburn and skin cancer, a research study was undertaken in South Africa on the effects of UV radiation on school going children (Coetzee et al, 2011). The study involved the estimation of national potential child sunburn risk patterns, monitored ambient solar. UV radiation levels 59 at six sites in South Africa were converted into possible schoolchild solar UV radiation exposures by calculating the theoretical child exposure to 5% of the total daily ambient solar UV radiation as derived from personal child exposure studies. The results indicated that school-going children with skin types I, II and III had the greatest risk of sunburn (Coetzee et al, 2011) (Figure 46 and Figure 47). There were 44 and 99 days in a year when schoolchildren with skin type III (moderately sensitive) living in Durban and De Aar, respectively, would be likely to experience sunburn. Schoolchildren with skin type I (extremely sensitive) were at risk of experiencing sunburn on 166 days in De Aar, and those with skin types I and II were at risk on at least 1 day per year at all six locations. Seasonal patterns show that schoolchildren with sensitive skin types may experience sunburn in spring, summer and autumn months. Differences in child sunburn risk were evident, mainly due to latitude and atmospheric aerosols (Coetzee et al, 2011) (Figure 48). Figure 46: Potential total daily child solar UV radiation exposure at Pretoria, Durban, Cape Town, Cape Point, De Aar and Port Elizabeth (SED= standard erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011) 60 Figure 47: Ambient 1 hour solar UV radiation exposure for midday maximum between 12h00 and 13h00 at six monitoring stations across South Africa in 2006 (SED= standard erythemal dose, I SED= 100Jm-2) (Coetzee et al, 2011) Figure 48: Total number of days per season that school children of varying skin types may be at risk of experiencing sunburn from excess solar UV radiation exposure depending on activity and sun protection, using an estimated personal exposure of 5% of the total daily ambient solar UV radiation levels (Coetzee et al, 2011) Ozone depletion is also expected to have an effect on plants and other forms of biodiversity although research studies in this field are limited. However, in one of the research studies undertaken in the country, spatial and temporal changes in South African solar UVB exposure were modelled using ozone, relative humidity, cloud amount and elevation data. Computations indicated large natural gradients 61 in UV-B exposure ranging from a 34.2% change over 14° of latitude to a 44.2% change over 16° of longitude (Musil et al, 2010). Modelling of future scenarios in annual UVB exposure indicated small increases ranging from 2.5% in the year 2003 (best-case ozone depletion scenario) to 8.1% in the year 2051 (worst-case ozone-depletion scenario) (Figure 49). Notable were substantial increases in intra-annual variability in UVB radiation with ozone depletion. Exposure exhibited a 12% increase during late autumn (May) in the year 2003 and a 35% increase during this season in the year 2051. Taxonomic, life form and functional attributes were analyzed in 2146 threatened (rare, endangered, vulnerable) species and their distributions compared with modeled spatial and temporal UV-B distribution patterns (Musil et al, 2010). The high fractions of evergreen and succulent life forms and geophytes, present among threatened taxa, indicated a high degree of physiological resilience to increased solar UVB stress, though some vegetation such as trees, appear relatively less resistant. Reductions in per capita reproductive output and overall plant fitness were indicated in some plant functional types, e.g. herbaceous annuals, which may lead to altered patterns of species coexistence, floristic composition and diversity (Musil et al, 2010). Figure 49: Extrapolated intra annual changes in biologically weighted UVB exposure over the period 1979-2003 and those modelled for 2051 (Musil et al, 2010). 62 1.7.4.3 Responses to stratospheric ozone depletion About 90 percent of CFCs currently in the atmosphere were emitted by industrialised countries in the Northern Hemisphere. The international response to CFCS was initiated in the mid-1980s, with various governments, responding to the emerging problem of ozone destruction. International responses include the Montreal Protocol of 1987, followed by the London (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), another Montreal (1997), and Beijing (1999) amendments. The effect of these agreements was that by 2003, the total annual global fluorocarbon production came down to below the production levels of 1969. These countries banned CFCs by 1996, and the amount of chlorine in the atmosphere is believed to be decreasing. The latest synthesis report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that the ozone layer will slowly recover over the next 50 years, and the Antarctic hole will slowly recover. South Africa acceded both to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1990, and to the London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol in 1992. South Africa has also developed an Ozone Layer Protection Strategy as a response measure necessary to mitigate ozone layer depletion. The DEA has started the process of developing a national strategy for phasing out ozonedepleting substances and is formulating a full phase-out plan for methyl bromide. 1.8 Emerging and Pressing Air Quality Issues South Africa already faces various air pollution challenges which include persistent issues such as domestic fuel burning and industrial emissions. In addition to these problems, the country faces other pressing emerging air quality issues. These emerging issues include waste disposal emissions, tyre burning emissions, emissions from filling stations, small boilers, asphalt plants and emerging priority pollutants such as dioxins and furans, formaldehyde and poly aromatic hydrocarbons. 1.8.1 Mercury Emissions Mercury (Hg) is a transboundary pollutant which has both natural and anthrpogenic sources. Important human activities that result in mercury release include Hg coal combustion, waste incineration, cement production and ferrous metals production. However, despite the identification of the important sources of mercury in South Africa and other Southern African countries, information on specific Hg sources and concentrations in the region is poorly understood. 63 (Leaner et al, 2009). For example, South Africa is a major producer of a variety of metals such as gold, platinum, lead and zinc. Although the production of these minerals and materials is known to contribute to Hg Pollution, detailed Hg emissions inventories for these sources is not available (Leaner et al, 2009). Attempts have however been made by various stakeholders in South Africa to quantify emissions of Hg from various sources. For example, limited Hg inventory and development and monitoring have been undertaken through the South African Mercury Assessment Programme (SAMA). Based on calculations and analysis of different Hg source categories, coal consumption by coal-fired power plants was identified as the largest potential source of Hg emissions, especially given the fact that the country is a major producer and consumer of coal (Figure 50) (DME, 2003). Most of the coal fired power plants and the coal mines that supply coal to these power plants are located in the Highveld. However, coal-fired power plants have air pollution control devices (APCDs) such as fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) for particulate control. Some of these devices have some impact on mercury speciation and emissions (Senior, 2000). Removal of mercury in the APCD depends on chlorine content, temperature and type of particulate control device. In some cases, the composition of the gas and of the ash may also have an effect on mercury speciation and removal. If there is mercury in the particulate phase at the inlet to an ESP or fabric filter, these devices will remove it efficiently (Senior, 2001). Figure 50: Average atmospheric Hg emissions (1 metric ton= 1 Mg) estimated for different source categories in South Africa during 2004 64 Cement production, coal gasification, non-ferrous metals production and fuel production, crude oil refining, coal combustion in residential heating, non-ferrous metals production and medical waste incineration are some of the significant Hg source categories identified in South Africa. The total atmospheric Hg emissions from all potential sources in South Africa in 2004 were estimated to be about 40Mg (Figure 50) (Leaner et al, 2009). Once mercury has reached surface waters or soils, micro organisms can convert it to methyl mercury, which is absorbed faster by most organisms and is known to cause nerve damage. Fish absorb great amounts of methyl mercury from surface waters leading to bioaccumulation in fish and in the food chains that they are part of. Mercury has effects on animals and causes kidneys damage, stomach disruption, intestinal damage, reproductive failure and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) alteration. Mercury also has a number of effects on humans and the main effects include the disruption of the nervous system, damage to brain functions, damage to DNA and chromosomal damage. Allergic reactions include skin rashes, tiredness and headaches. Negative reproductive effects, birth defects and miscarriages are also some of the main effects of mercury in humans (Oosthuizen et al, 2010). The extent of mercury exposure in communities in South Africa is largely unknown (Oosthuizen et al, 2010). However a study was undertaken on the effect of mercury inhalation in a community in Cape Town by Dalvie and Ehrlich (Dalvie and Ehrlich, 2006). The mercury concentrations in urine samples from residents in the vicinity of waste sites and fossil fuel burning operations were compared with those from a control area. The mercury concentrations found in both groups were below the WHO guideline. However, a statistically significant difference was noted between the two groups, the exposed group having higher concentrations than the control group (Dalvie and Ehrlich, 2006). International responses to mercury, as it is a transboundary pollutant, include the mercury guidelines under the Basel Convention, international trade in mercury under the Rotterdam Convention, methylmercury under Stockholm Persistent Organic Pollutants Convention. However, the year 2013 will be of particular public importance as this will be the year of the launch of the United Nations Environment Programme Global Legally Binding Treaty on Mercury. The DEA is a participant in the development of this global legally binding instrument on mercury and has already identified mercury as a national pollutant of concern. In addition, the DEA is working in partnership with UNEP to populate and gain a better understanding of the country’s mercury emissions. UNEP has also provided funding to undertake mercury emission measurements at two Eskom power stations and is in discussions regarding a possible demonstration project that will 65 seek to reduce mercury emissions from coal-fired power generation (Leaner et al, 2009). 1.8.2 Black Carbon Black carbon (BC) is an air pollutant formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels and biomass and is a component of PM2.5. This pollutant is associated with significant adverse health effects such as lung cancer, respiratory and cardiovascular (heart and blood veins) conditions (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2011). In South Africa (and in general), anthropogenic sources of black carbon include domestic fuel burning, road transport, especially diesel-fuelled transportation and biomass burning. These sources have also been identified to be the most important with regards to BC mitigation potential. For example, domestic fuel burning mitigation measures include the use of modern combustion stoves and substitution of biomass fuels with ‘cleaner fuels’ such as electricity in residential areas. Vehicle emissions can be reduced through elimination of high-emitting vehicles and accelerated (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2011). Black carbon is also known as a ‘short lived climate forcer’ (SLCF). This effectively means that it is a warming agent with a relatively short lifetime in the atmosphere, ranging between days and weeks and contributes to global warming through the absorption of sunlight as it penetrates from space. This leads to direct heating of the atmosphere. The reduction of BC and other SCLFs such as tropospheric ozone and methane will provide significant benefits through improved air quality and mitigation of climate change (UNEP, 2011). 1.8.3 Fishmeal Production Fish meal production in South Africa has over the years been transformed into a multi-million rand industry. Fish unsuitable for human consumption, together with cannery waste (heads, tails and guts) are converted into valuable fish meal at various factories along the west and southeast coasts of South Africa (de Koning, 2005). The process of making fish meal from fish processing plants generates various pollutants and one of the major pollutants from fish processing is odour released from the decomposing, cooking and drying of fish and by products. Fish meal driers are the largest source of odour pollution within food processing plants (de Koning, 2005). Concerns have been raised in some communities located close to the fish processing plants about adverse health effects associated with emissions from 66 fish processing plants. One such community in South Africa is that of St Helena Bay in the Western Cape Province. In response, the DEA, initiated a human health risk assessment which included measurements of gases in four fish processing plants. The assessment included those compounds known to be emitted by the fish industry that are also known to be toxic at certain concentration levels, namely hydrogen sulphide, trimethlyamine and formaldehyde. The initial draft findings of the human health risk assessment were submitted to the DEA in January 2011. The report findings will be discussed with the Fish-Meal Intergovernmental Task Team (FMIGTT, the affected industries and affected community with a view to formulating an appropriate response to the issue (National Air Quality Officer’s Report, 2010). 1.9 Strategic Programme towards Improving Air Quality The aim of air quality management (as a response) is to protect public health and the environment from the damaging effects of air pollution and to eliminate or reduce to a minimum human exposure to hazardous air pollutants. South Africa has a constitutional obligation to ensure that everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health and well being. Some of the obligations include meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Presidential Outcome 10 (environmental assets and natural resources that are valued, protected and continually enhanced) and the key role of environmental sustainability in meeting these goals cannot be underestimated. The key role of the environment in achieving all the MDGs calls for the need for South Africa to integrate the principles of sustainable development into its national policies and programmes (UNDP, 2010). In addition, South Africa also has obligations under multi-lateral environmental agreements. To achieve sustainable development, it is necessary to develop air quality policies and strategies and government policy is the foundation for air quality management. Various air quality management instruments have been developed over the years and include environmental legislation, emissions inventories, dispersion modelling and concentration inventories. South Africa has responded to its air pollution challenges in various ways which include legislative reform, revision of ambient air quality limits, proactive planning by local authorities and sector specific controls. • • The promulgation of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) (No. 39 of 2004). Key elements of this the establishment of clear institutional and planning framework for air quality management. The development of a South African Air Quality Information System (SAAQIS) to ensure the availability of credible and readily available air quality data. This data is in turn used to ensure that appropriate measures to improve air quality are taken. 67 • • • The development and maintenance of an effective governance framework for air quality management, National Framework for Air Quality Management in South Africa, as provided for in AQA, so as to ensure that current and future impacts of atmospheric emissions are avoided, minimised, mitigated or managed. Declaration of priority areas, as provided for in AQA and ensuring that there are significant improvements in air quality in the declared priority areas and compliance with the ambient standards. Development of national, provincial, municipal and priority area Air Quality Management Plans (AQMPs) in fulfilment of the requirements of AQA) in areas with poor or potentially poor air quality (Table 11). T able 11: National and Provincial Air Quality Management Plans (NAQO Report, 2010) NATIONAL AND PROVINCIAL AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANS IN PLACE Department/ Municipality Current Status NATIONAL Department of Environmental Affairs The 2007 National Framework serves as the DEA’s AQMP PROVINCIAL Gauteng AQMP completed and under implementation Free State AQMP development complete and under implementation North West AQMP was completed, gazetted and officially launched in 2009. Province is currently developing an emissions inventory. Western Cape Mpumalanga Limpopo KwaZulu-Natal Eastern Cape Northern Cape • Completed and planning to start implementation Priority area AQMP developed. About 80% of the hotspot areas are included in this AQMP. Currently planning to develop AQMP. Development will feed from information from district AQMPs. Province has finalized the emissions inventory project, with plans to develop an AQMP. Province has the intention to develop AQMP despite financial challenges ‘In-house’ development of AQMP despite financial and capacity problems Improvement of indoor and ambient air quality in dense, low income urban settlements through ambient monitoring, Basa njengo Magogo (BnM), a topdown fire making method which has been demonstrated to reduce particulate emissions by 90% and fuel consumption by 20% (Pemberton-Pigott et al, 2010), housing guidelines, energy carrier options and the Strategy for Addressing Air Pollution in Dense- Low-income Settlements, especially given the fact that it is proposed that by 2020, air quality in all low income settlements should be in compliance with National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). 68 • • • • • • Atmospheric Emissions Licence (AEL)- AQA provides for the control of air pollution through an AEL which must be held by anyone undertaking any listed activity. The AEL should be issued by the relevant metropolitan or district municipality, except when the provincial department has been requested to do so or except when the metro or municipality itself is the applicant. Vehicle emissions control in the country include the introduction of Euro vehicle emissions regulations for petrol-driven vehicles, the on-going National Vehicle Emissions Strategy and a reduction in the maximum sulphur content of diesel and benzene content of petrol. Due to the dependence of coal and other fossil fuels for energy, an Integrated Energy Plan has been developed by the Department of Energy for South Africa with a national final energy demand reduction of 12% by 2015 The targets for the various sectors for 2015 are industry and mining sector15%, power generation- 15%, commercial and public building sectors- 15%, residential sector- 10% and transport sector- 9%. The recognition of source-based (command-and-control) measures in addition to alternative measures, included market post-compliance programmes and education and awareness of the major polluters. Programmes aimed at creating sufficient capacity in the public sector to effectively implement air quality planning, management and enforcement. Addressing climate change through the development of a National Climate Change Response Strategy and Implementation Plan and a National Greenhouse Emissions Inventory. 1.9.1 Air Quality Governance Air quality governance is best described in terms of a simplified environmental governance cycle (Figure 61). The governance cycle provides a useful framework for achieving continuous improvements over time and is promoted by AQA (DEA, 2007). Informed decision-making is important for good governance and access to accurate, relevant and up to date information is crucial for decision makers. The information management component of the governance cycle is therefore critical and is often described as the engine that drives the cycle towards continuous improvements in environmental quality. Other important aspects of the governance cycle include problem identification and prioritisation which entails the analysis of information for the identification of air quality problems being experienced and also to establish whether air quality interventions are effective. Strategy development is the next step after problem identification and prioritisation, followed by standard setting for the achievement of environmental improvements and policy and regulation development. The safety, health and environmental impacts of developments and activities are scrutinised through the Environmental Impact Management process. This 69 process encourages participation by all stakeholders and assists decision makers with detailed information on whether an activity may proceed or not. An authorisation is a key component of ‘traditional command and control’ regulatory practice. The principle authorisation in the AQA is the AEL. Compliance monitoring is crucial in the governance cycle as laws and regulations can be ineffective if they are not properly enforced. However, compliance with norms and standards is an important element of the environmental governance cycle and follows authorisation. Enforcement under AQA can be through penalties to offenders and can be undertaken by the ‘Green Scorpions’. Figure 51: The environmental governance cycle (DEA, 2007) 70 Box 1.5 Declaration of Priority Areas in South Africa Several pollution ‘hotspots’ or priority areas exist in South Africa and in line with the requirements of the AQA of 2004, two areas have been declared as priority areas- the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area (first priority area to be declared) and the Highveld Priority Area (second priority area to be declared), with intentions to declare the expanded Waterberg as the third National Priority Area. Location of Vaal Triangle Priority Area in South Africa (Leaner et al, 2009) Location of the Highveld Priority Area in South Africa (Leaner et al, 2009) 71 Box 1.5 Declaration of Priority Areas in South Africa Priority areas are generally areas where ambient air quality standards are being or may be exceeded. The declaration of these priority areas is as a result of the high pollution levels associated with heavy industrial activities in these areas and the associated health and negative environmental effects. Several activities such as heavy industries, transportation, landfill and waste incineration and domestic fuel burning are characteristic of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area (Leaner et al, 2009). A range of activities such as industrial, mining and agricultural activities which include coal fired power stations, timber and related industries, metal smelters, petrochemical plants and heavy and small industrial operations exist in the Highveld Priority Area. Following the declaration of these priority areas, AQMPs have been developed with the goal of improving air quality. In addition, the DEA has been investigating means of optimising the implementation of the Vaal Triangle AQMP and this has resulted in the initiation of a medium term review of the plan’s implementation status. Box 1.6 Human Capital Development Strategy for South Africa The Human Capital Development Strategy (HCDS) has been developed in South Africa to fulfill the environmental rights enshrined in the South African constitution and to strengthen opportunities associated with a green economy for the country. The time frame for the strategy is 2009-2014 and this timeframe is aligned with the Medium Term Strategic Framework (MTSF of 2009–2014). The MTSF is a statement of intent identifying the development challenges facing South Africa and outlining the medium-term strategy for improvements in the conditions of life of South Africans and for enhanced contribution to the cause of building a better world (RSA public document, 2009). The HCDS identifies the importance of implementing skills development initiatives that respond to South Africa’s social and economic needs, and development skills that improve service delivery (DEA, 2010). The human resource demands of achieving the Delivery Agreement for the Presidential Outcome 10 are prioritised by the HCDS. The HCDS particularly addresses human capacity development to ensure the availability of a sustainable supply of human resources fro achieving certain outputs of the Delivery Agreement. The Delivery Agreement also emphasises the need for specific development initiatives to ensure a sustainable supply of the necessary skills required for implementing the targets of the agreement (DEA, 2010). The HCDS is directly aligned with, and addresses the need for human capacity development based on the Strategic Plan for the Environmental Sector (2009-2014) that emphasises the need for capacity building particularly for vertical and horizontal environmental governance. The key areas of the Strategic Plan for the Environmental sector (2009-2014) are to o o Provide leadership and coordination of government’s approach to large, complex and cross-sectoral issues affecting the environment as per the MTSF of 2009– 2014) and; Effectively implement its own sectoral mandates within the context of new and evolving regulatory frameworks with additional responsibilities, striking a balance between capacity constraints and opportunities (DEA, 2010). 72 1.10 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS South Africa faces many environmental challenges and is no exception to air pollution problems which are endemic to developing countries. The direct and indirect effects of air pollution have an impact throughout the country and a growing concern is the level of air pollution, mainly from industrial emissions, domestic use of wood, coal and paraffin, vehicle exhaust emissions, biomass burning and energy production. This concern is further exacerbated by the fact that it is proposed that compliance to the NAAQS be achieved by the year 2020. Adding to the environmental challenges in South Africa is the problem of transboundary air pollution which further exarcebates the air pollution and environmental challenges due to its complexity and associated effects. Air pollution and health impacts studies in South Africa reflect that air pollution exposure results in numerous health problems in the general population with the effects more pronounced among the elderly and young. The vulnerability to air pollution other environmental problems is also more evident in people of low income status. This vulnerability has also been increased by poor land use planning which has resulted in the location of heavy industrial developments in close proximity to the high density residential areas. The importance of density is such areas is related to impact amplification due to the low level release of the air pollutants associated with domestic fuel burning. Lack of access to electricity in rural areas has also resulted in the use of biomass energy for cooking and space heating. Exposure to this indoor air pollution and the associated health effects are some of the reasons why the elevated PM10 levels, which exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards in most residential household fuel burning areas, are of major concern. The health effects associated with exposure to indoor air pollution also have economic implications due to huge expenditures in the health sector. Although SO2 concentrations in some residential and industrial areas exceed the thresholds, the exceedances are less frequent and dependant on the type of fuels and type of industry. In general, a reduction in industrial SO2 emissions has been noted in the country in areas such eThekwini and Cape Town Metros. Exceedances of NO2 and O3 thresholds due to vehicles are recorded in some metros in the country and this is an issue of concern, especially given the increasing vehicle numbers in the country and the ageing national fleet. The rapid growth in vehicle numbers has also been associated with an increase in fuel consumption and a significant increase in emissions from the transport sector. Other cross cutting issues related to air pollution from the transport sector include health implications, smog especially in urban areas, greenhouse gases and climate change. 73 Other sources of air pollution which are currently highly considered in the country include airports, waste treatment facilities such as waste water treatment works and landfill sites as they are also associated with greenhouse gas emissions, fuel stations, mine residues, tyre burning, fishmeal production and small combustion facilities such as boilers. Emerging pollutants of concern include PM2.5, VOCs, PAHs, C6H6 and Hg. Various responses have been targeted towards air quality management and the environment in the country and government policy has played a vital role. These responses have been driven by constitutional obligations, the achievement of Outcome 10: Environmental assets and natural resources that are well protected and continually enhanced, sustainable development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals among other considerations. The change in environmental legislation has been a major achievement for air quality in the country. The shift from APPA to AQA represents a distinct shift from exclusively source-based air pollution control to holistic and integrated effects based air quality management. As required by AQA, the National Framework for Air Quality Management is one of the significant air quality management tools in South Africa. The framework serves as a blueprint for air quality management and aims to achieve the air quality objectives as described in the AQA. Since the introduction of AQA, various projects aimed at improving air quality and protecting the environment and health have been undertaken in the country. The declaration of Priority Areas such as the VTAPA and the HPA, setting of new ambient air quality standards, AELs and AQMPs as stated in AQA and as part of the environmental governance cycle, have been some of the tactical tools used in the protecting the environment and human health. Responses to vehicle emissions and domestic fuel burning include the National vehicles Emissions Strategy and the Strategy for Addressing Air Pollution in Dense Low-Income Settlements. Government departments have also undertaken various strategies aimed at addressing energy use and air pollution (integrated energy strategies and use of renewable sources of energy), domestic fuel use through programmes such as the Basa Njengo Magogo campaign. Industries have also played a major role in emissions reduction through the adoption of cleaner production methods, the use of appropriate control equipment, voluntary measures, process optimisation and retrofitting of plants. Due to global air pollution problems such as climate change, POPs and stratospheric ozone depletion caused mainly by transboundary pollutants, air quality management in South Africa has also been on an international level. The country is a party to various global treaties such as the UNFCCC, the Kyoto 74 Protocol, Montreal Protocol and the Stockholm Convention in a bid to reduce the impacts of air pollution on the atmosphere- a shared global resource. The following are key recommendations for further improvements in air quality management in South Africa and the successful implementation of the AQA; • • • • • • • Compliance monitoring and enforcement to ensure effective implementation of AQA. Co-operation and co-ordination by various government departments; Capacity development which is of particular importance in terms of AEL issuing in most provinces and municipalities in the country. Public participation More research on the health effects of air pollution in South Africa and updating of previous studies such as the Burden of Disease Health Study SANAS accreditation of all the monitoring stations in the country to ensure good quality data that can be fed into the SAAQIS. Provision of real-time air quality data to the public to make air quality monitoring more meaningful. However, this is expected to be fulfilled when Phase III of SAAQIS is implemented. This phase will allow for provision of real-time or near-real time data to SAWS. REFERENCES Abushammala, M.F.M., Basri, N, E, A., Kadhum, A, A, H. (2009). Review on Landfill Gas Emission to the Atmosphere. 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NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable Table B: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at sites impacted by industrial source types Location Year Polluta nt % Data Availabilty 2009 eThekwiniWentworth 2009 and 2010 eThekwiniSettlers School 2009 and 2010 eThekwini Southern Works 2009 and 2010 eThekwiniAlverstone TshwaneRosslyn 2009 and 2010 2009 and 2010 Tshwane Pretoria West TshwaneBooysens 2009 and 2010 2009 and 2010 Richards BayArboretum Ext 2011 Richards BayBrackenham 2009 and 2010 Richards 2009 and Exceedances per year (10 minute average) 2010 2009 2010 NA Exceedance s per year (hourly limit) 201 2009 0 Exceedances per year (daily limit) 2009 2010 5 0 PM10 NO2 SO2 PM10 ND 96.2 95.9 ND ND 96.2 95.9 ND NA 10 4 0 0 SO2 94.7 94.7 6 22 0 4 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3a 61 96.9 91.2 70.3 61 96.9 91.2 70.3 NA NA 0 NA NA 16 44 NA 0 38 39 NA 0 38 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 NMD NMD 36.0 30.7 4.5 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 34.0 67.8 32.9 0 0 0 0 NA ND NA O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 16.7 41.5 NDM 35.7 23.1 41.2 ND ND ND 98 ND ND ND NO2 ND SO2 97 O3 ND PM10 ND 90 4 3 NA 2 NA 3 8 8 NA ND NA 0 0 0 0 0 0 NA 0 NA 43 NA 0 NA 29 NA NA ND NA NA ND 1 18 0 0 NA 1 NA 0 0 28.0 NDM 35.6 28.2 32.4 NA NA NA NA 18 NA 0 NA NA 4 NA 4 NA ND NA NA ND NA 0 0 0 0 NA 0 NA NA 0 NA 97.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 97.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bay- Habour West Richards Bay- Scorpio HighveldErmelo HighveldHendrina 2010 2009 and 2010 2009/2010 2009 and 2010 EskomMpumalanga 2009 and 2010 Cape TownBelville South 2008 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 ND ND 100 ND ND ND ND 99 ND 99.2 99.2 86.0 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 SO2 100 17 3 5 2 1 1 97.3 2 3 0 0 0 1 95.6 95.6 75.6 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 0 NA NA 1 20 23 NA 8 18 NA 8.5 99.2 70.4 89.3 92.0 80.2 ND NA NA ND NA NA ND 0 NA ND 0 NA 0 NA 0 0 NA 12 70.4 55.6 63.3 65.2 ND ND ND ND ND 80.2 73.7 77.8 81.4 NA NA ND NA NA ND NA 0 NA 0 NA 0 NA 110 0 4 0 0 2008 Exceedances per year (10 minute limit) 1 40 Exceedances per year (hourly limit) NA Exceedances per year (daily limit) NA (a) Proposed standard for PM2.5 8 hourly running average for ozone (O3) (b) NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable Table C: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at road traffic related monitoring sites Location Year Pollutant % Data Availabilty Exceedances per year (hourly limit) Exceedances per year (daily limit) 2009 2010 2009 2010 2009 2010 eThekwiniCity Hall 2009 and 2010 PM NO2 94 95.9 94 95.9 NA 1 NA 2 5 NA 1 NA eThekwiniWarwick JohannesburgBuccleuch Interchange 2009 and 2010 2009 and 2010 NO2 86.2 86.2 18 23 NA NA PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 93.7 91.0 93.2 63.0 48.0 47.7 45.5 44.7 NA NA 0 NA NA NA 0 NA 17 51 0 14 0 0 91 O3 89.0 27.4 0 25 PM10 ND PM2.5 ND NO2 ND SO2 ND O3 ND 8 hourly running average for ozone (O (a) 3) NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable Cape Town City Hall NA NA 2009 and 2010 Table D: Ambient air pollutant concentrations recorded at sites impacted by multiple source types Location Witbank 2009 2010 Richards BayCBD Cape TownSomerset West (a) (b) (c) Year 2009 2010 Pollutant and and 2008 % Data Availabilty Exceedances per year (hourly limit) 2009 2010 Exceedances per year (daily limit) 2009 2010 21 29 NA 0 20 20 NA 0 0 0 2009 2010 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 99.5 99.5 90.4 95.9 97.3 97.3 99.2 93.4 NA NA 0 ND 0 ND O3 PM10 PM2.5 NO2 SO2 O3 99.5 ND ND ND 97 ND 99.2 0 0 0 0 0 PM10 % Data Availabilty Exceedances per year (hourly limit) Exceedances per year (daily limit) 91 NA 1 Proposed PM2.5 daily standard 8 hourly running average for ozone (O3) NS- No standard; NMD- No measured data; ND-no data; NA- Not applicable 92
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