Amanda
HaertlingCanons
Theininand
Richard
Thein and Beach | Critiquing
and Constructing
Middle
Grade Beach
English Language Arts Classrooms
page
10
Critiquing and Constructing Canons
in Middle Grade English Language
Arts Classrooms
W
hen preservice language arts
teachers begin courses on
teaching literature, the first
question they ask is often What pieces of
literature should we teach to our middle
grade students? Many preservice teachers
hope to be provided with a list of texts
that are high quality, engaging, sanctioned by schools and parents, and appropriate for meeting their many curricular
requirements.
However, teachers quickly recognize that
text selection is not as simple as drawing from
one universal list or a single “canon” of literary
texts. Instead, middle grade teachers can expect
to encounter an array of “canonizing” forces as
they navigate their instructional choices. In this
article, we outline some of those forces and offer an alternative framework for selecting texts—
one that challenges teachers to work with their
students to critique the narratives in the most
common canons and to construct their own classroom canons that recognize students’ particular
interests and identity needs.
How Are Canons Constructed
and Why Do They Matter to
Middle Grade Teachers?
The phrase literary canon often evokes notions of
one static, monolithic list of the best literature,
with works agreed on by everyone who’s anyone.
This notion of a fixed canon is typically associated with courses offered in high school and col-
lege, and it often calls to mind “classic” literary
texts such as Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Scarlet Letter,
The Great Gatsby, To Kill a Mockingbird, and Hamlet (Applebee, 1996). Although this “classic” literary canon certainly does exist, it is not the only
canon of literature teachers will encounter, nor
does it (or any other canon) endure simply because those books are somehow the best or most
valuable. Instead, this canon, like all others, has
been and continues to be constructed by certain
interest groups or critics who judge texts based
on their own agendas or critical perspectives.
For instance, one force that perpetuates the
classic literary canon is the College Board through
its AP (Advanced Placement) English Literature
and Composition exam prompts. Analysis of 17
prompts from this exam from 1999–2008 revealed that while there were 216 titles students
could choose to write about, ten appeared on the
list seven or more times, including The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Crime and Punishment,
Great Expectations, The Great Gatsby, Heart of
Darkness, Jane Eyre, King Lear, The Scarlet Letter, Their Eyes Were Watching God, and Wuthering
Heights—texts that for the most part were written by white, male authors from the 19th century
(Miller & Slifkin, 2010). The repetition of those
texts implies to teachers that those and similar
texts are the most valuable—and therefore the
best—choices for their AP students.
While the classic literary canon is a force
more often encountered by high school teachers,
middle grade teachers must frequently confront
numerous other canonizing forces. For instance.
literary-recognition programs such as the Newbery Medal and the Printz Award are particularly
Copyright © 2013 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved.
Voices from the Middle, Volume 21 Number 1, September 2013
d7-14-Sept2013_VM.indd 10
8/2/13 2:29 PM
Thein and Beach | Critiquing and Constructing Canons in Middle Grade English Language Arts Classrooms
page
influential in determining which children’s and
young adult texts come to be valued and taught in
the classroom. Although those awards certainly
recognize many high-quality books, those who
select the winners are not without particular biases or agendas. Research has demonstrated that
the Newbery awards, for example, favor historical
fiction and often include characters that are disproportionately white and typically abled (Leininger, Dyches, Prater, & Heath, 2010). Textbook
and testing companies are among other canonizing forces encountered by middle grade teachers.
Some of those companies, which hold significant
sway in shaping content and instruction, make
content choices for financial reasons and based
on teacher familiarity with certain texts.
In addition, and as with the AP English examination, the list of exemplar texts offered by
the Common Core State Standards has the potential to become a canonizing force in language
arts classrooms. A more detailed look at the exemplar list for grades six through eight provides
a useful illustration of how that canonizing force
might work. Of the novels listed in the “stories”
section of the exemplar list for those grades, two
could be considered “classics” in the sense that
they were written by well-known authors and
have been taught for generations (Alcott’s Little
Women and Twain’s The Adventures of Tom Sawyer). Four others are Newbery Award winners or
honor books (L’Engle’s A Wrinkle in Time, Yep’s
Dragonwings, Cooper’s The Dark Is Rising, and
Taylor’s Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry). None of
those six novels could be considered contemporary, given that all were written prior to 1976. It
is also notable that the two of those novels that
were written by authors of color and grapple with
issues of racial inequality (Dragonwings and Roll of
Thunder, Hear My Cry) are historical works rather than pieces that explore contemporary issues
of race. Although the writers of the CCSS insist
that the standards are neither content standards
nor mandates for the use of particular instructional methods, they do appear to value a particular canon of texts—those that are historical, win
high-profile awards, and include little emphasis
11
on contemporary issues or problems.
With all of those canonizing forces and agendas at play, whom should a middle grade teacher
listen to when selecting texts for the classroom?
As we have stated, we suggest that teachers first
recognize that canons are constructed by groups,
organizations, and critics with particular agendas—groups who generally make selections
based on the aesthetic,
literary quality of a We believe that student voices
text—rather than by
are typically not loud enough
adolescents who are
more likely to pre- in teachers’ considerations of
fer texts that engage
texts.
them with characters
and plot development (George, 2008). As a result, we believe that
student voices are typically not loud enough in
teachers’ considerations of texts. In the sections
that follow, we offer a model for including students’ voices by engaging students in the critique
of common canons and the construction of new
classroom canons.
Critiquing Canons with Students
If other groups can construct canons, there’s no
reason students can’t apply their own knowledge
and experiences to critique traditional canon
constructions and to develop their own “classroom canons.” In addition, we argue that the
process of critiquing and constructing canons is
one that aligns with a number of the Common
Core States Standards for reading literature in
the middle grades—particularly those that relate to “craft and structure” and “key ideas and
details.” For instance, the standards ask for students to “cite textual evidence to support analysis
of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text” and to “analyze the
impact of a specific word choice on meaning and
tone.” Here, we suggest a number of critique and
construction activities that meet those standards
while also helping students consider related questions, such as What kinds of texts do various groups
of people think adolescents ought to read? and How
do these texts position adolescents in terms of develop-
Voices from the Middle, Volume 21 Number 1, September 2013
d7-14-Sept2013_VM.indd 11
8/2/13 2:29 PM
Thein and Beach | Critiquing and Constructing Canons in Middle Grade English Language Arts Classrooms
page
12
ment, gender, race, and other factors?
One way to begin to answer those questions
and to critique canons with students is to question conceptions of “adolescence” itself, as well
as how those conceptions are reflected in young
adult literature. Young adult literature scholars
have expressed concern that adolescents are often assumed to have monolithic identity needs
(Petrone & Lewis, 2012; Sarigianides, 2012).
Sarigianides points out that many “realistic”
young adult novels treat adolescent characters as
being consistently and universally in the midst
of some social, psychoAs students develop skills logical, or biological
identity crisis. Teachers
in critiquing the construcmight ask students to
tion of adolescence in the survey the current canon of young adult literyoung adult literary canon,
ary texts in their school
teachers might then chal- library, critiquing those
that make stereotyped
lenge them to consider both
assumptions about adoclassic and contemporary lescence as a continual
state of crisis while also
canons for stereotypes.
highlighting texts that
break from the canon by
treating issues that matter to young adults with
nuance and authenticity.
As students develop skills in critiquing the
construction of adolescence in the young adult
literary canon, teachers might then challenge
them to consider both classic and contemporary
canons for stereotypes through the use of narra-
tive analysis to examine value assumptions inherent in storyline development.
Teachers can explain to students that narratives typically involve a protagonist who engages
in an action leading to some consequence and,
ultimately, resolution. The “crime drama” formula that appears in print and in TV and film
provides a useful example that is likely to be familiar to students. In a typical crime story, the
white detective hero solves a crime committed
by a person of color. Once students discover this
narrative, they can unpack the value assumptions
behind these actions: 1) that detectives are typically white, 2) that criminals are typically people
of color, and 3) that crime doesn’t pay (and criminals are always caught). These value assumptions
ignore the forces of institutional racism operating in America.
Once familiar with the basic tenets of narrative analysis, students can examine stereotypes
that are perpetuated through other canons.
Studying narratives in the traditional fairy tale
canon, for instance, will illuminate gender stereotypes that also run through contemporary
canons. With guidance, students will quickly notice that female protagonists in tales such as Cinderella, Snow White, Rapunzel, and Sleeping Beauty
are depicted as having a sense of agency derived
from male appreciation of their external beauty.
Examining narratives in the early American
literary canon taught in middle and high schools
can help students pinpoint stereotyped storylines
related to race—what Nasir and Shah (2011)
connections from readwritethink
Comic Character Makeover
In this lesson from ReadWriteThink.org, students explore representations of race, class, ethnicity, and gender by analyzing comics over a two-week period and then reenvisioning them with a “comic character makeover.” This activity leads
to greater awareness of stereotypes in the media and urges students to form more realistic visions of these images as
they perform their makeovers. These skills can carry over to a close examination of the canon.
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/comic-makeovers-examining-race-207.html
Lisa Fink
www.readwritethink.org
Voices from the Middle, Volume 21 Number 1, September 2013
d7-14-Sept2013_VM.indd 12
8/2/13 2:29 PM
Thein and Beach | Critiquing and Constructing Canons in Middle Grade English Language Arts Classrooms
page
refer to as “racialized narratives.” For instance,
controversies surrounding the use of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in the classroom often
center on its depiction of African American men
through deficit perspectives.
In the process of critiquing narratives forwarded by various canons, students may begin
to notice how some of those narratives influence
their own perceptions of themselves and others.
For example, Jeremiah, an African American male
student who participated in a study, contrasted
his actions on a basketball court and in a math
classroom (Nasir & Hand, 2008). When playing
basketball, Jeremiah assumed the role of a leader
who taught his peers by modeling certain actions
and who learned from his peers by listening and
collaborating with them. On his basketball team,
Jeremiah was providing and acquiring a range
of resources associated with narratives of young
black men as successful, highly active basketball
players. In contrast, Jeremiah demonstrated little
or no participation in his math class. In that context, he may have been influenced by narratives
that position African American adolescents as unintelligent or “in danger” (Nasir & Hand, 2008).
One way of disrupting these racialized narratives
is to begin to construct new canons of texts that
challenge these canonical storylines.
Constructing Alternative
Classroom Canons
Having unpacked the value assumptions constituting stereotypical narratives of gender, race,
and class, students can read alternative versions
of the common narratives they have located in
various canons. For example, in countering the
fairy tale canon’s narratives of gender, Peggy Rice
(2000) shared feminist fairy tales with sixth-grade
students, leading some—particularly females—to
adopt critical stances on gender representations.
Similarly, students may enjoy viewing texts such
as the Disney film Shrek (Adamson et al., 2006),
which deconstructs a number of typical fairy tale
narratives, including that of the passive princess.
Reading counter-canonical narratives can lead
students to write their own stories for inclusion
13
in their classroom canon—stories that challenge
and complicate underlying value assumptions
constituting prototypical character traits and actions. For example, they may create alternative
versions of the Cinderella story that portray Cinderella as a person of color (Asian Society, 2008)
or as a person embodying alternative gender Reading counter-canonical
roles (Newfields, 2004).
narratives can lead students
Students can also
create multimodal, trans- to write their own stories
media parodies or fanfor inclusion in their classfiction versions of what
have become popular room canon—stories that
fiction canonical texts.
challenge and complicate
As context for doing so,
they can study examples underlying value assumpof fan fiction at the fantions constituting protofiction.net (http://www
.fanfiction.net) site that typical character traits and
occasionally include paractions.
odies of canonical texts.
For some examples
based on Harry Potter and The Hunger Games,
which have become contemporary canonical
texts, see Henry, Tirotta-Esposito, & SmithCarlucci (2012) at http://tinyurl.com/ayv9g9y.
Conclusion
As middle grade teachers contemplate which texts
to teach in their language arts classrooms, there
is much to consider. We have argued not only
for teachers to become aware of forces of canonization but also for teachers and students alike
to become active participants in canon critique
and construction. This collaborative approach
to critique and construction has the potential to
empower rather than limit students as they select
and engage with literary texts.
References
Applebee, A. N. (1996). Curriculum as conversation:
Transforming traditions of teaching and learning.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Asian Society. (2008). Twice upon a time: Multi-cultural
Cinderella. Retrieved from http://asiasociety.org/
Voices from the Middle, Volume 21 Number 1, September 2013
d7-14-Sept2013_VM.indd 13
8/2/13 2:29 PM
Thein and Beach | Critiquing and Constructing Canons in Middle Grade English Language Arts Classrooms
page
14
education/resources-schools/elementary-lessonplans/twice-upon-time-multi-cultural-cinderella.
George, M. (2008). Comparing middle grade teachers’ and middle grade students’ reader responses to
Newbery Award winners: A true teacher’s lounge
story and the question it raised. The ALAN Review,
36(1), 55–65.
Henry, J., Tirotta-Esposito, R., & Smith-Carlucci, S.
(2012). Re-imagining Buffy, Harry, and Katniss:
Transmedia storytelling as response to literature.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
National Council of Teachers of English, Las
Vegas. Retrieved from http://rtirotta.wix.com/
hofstrancte#!home/mainPage.
Leininger, M., Dyches, T., Prater, M., & Heath, M.
(2010). Newbery Award winning books 1975–
2009: How do they portray disabilities? Education
and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45, 583–596.
Miller, S. J., & Slifkin, J. (2010). “Similar literary quality”: Demystifying the AP English literature and
composition open question. The ALAN Review,
37(2), 6–16.
Nasir, N. S., & Hand, V. (2008). From the court to
the classroom: Opportunities for engagement,
learning, and identity in basketball and classroom
mathematics. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 17,
143–180.
Nasir, N. S., & Shah, N. (2011). On defense: African
American males making sense of racialized narratives in mathematics education. Journal of African
American Males in Education, 2(1). Retrieved from
http://tinyurl.com/ayv9g9y.
Petrone, R., & Lewis, M. A. (2012). Deficits, therapists,
and a desire to distance: Secondary English preservice teachers’ reasoning about their future students.
English Education, 44, 254–287.
Rice, P. S. (2000). Gendered readings of a traditional
“feminist” folktale by sixth-grade boys and girls.
Journal of Literacy Research, 32, 211–236.
Sarigianides, S. T. (2012). Tensions in teaching adolescence/ts: Analyzing resistances in a young adult
literature course. Journal of Adolescent & Adult
Literacy, 56, 223–230.
Literary Texts Referenced
Adamson, A., Jenson, V., Warner, A., Williams, J. H.,
Katzenberg, J. . . . & DreamWorks Home Entertainment (Firm). (2006). Shrek. Glendale, CA:
DreamWorks Animation.
Collins, S. (2008). The hunger games. New York,
NY: Scholastic.
Cooper, S., & Jennings, A. (2005). The dark is rising.
New York, NY: Random House/ListeningLibrary.
Hurston, Z. N. (1990). Their eyes were watching God
(1st Perennial Library ed.). New York, NY: Perennial Library.
L’Engle, M. (2007). A wrinkle in time. New York, NY:
Square Fish.
Rowling, J. K. (1998). Harry Potter and the sorcerer’s
stone. New York, NY: A. A. Levine Books.
Taylor, M. (1976). Roll of thunder, hear my cry. New
York, NY: Dial Press.
Yep, L. (2000). Dragonwings (25th anniversary ed.).
New York, NY: HarperTrophy.
Newfields, T. (2004). Deconstructing Cinderella:
Helping students explore their personal myths.
Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/b5z98j7.
Amanda Haertling Thein is associate professor of Language, Literacy, and Culture at the
University of Iowa, where she teaches courses on reading and teaching young adult literature.
Richard Beach is professor emeritus at the University of Minnesota, where he has taught numerous
courses on English education methods and the teaching of literature, writing, and media.
Voices from the Middle, Volume 21 Number 1, September 2013
d7-14-Sept2013_VM.indd 14
8/2/13 2:29 PM